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The Mayas have many gods, and since the Mayas are advanced in astronomy, many of them are represeted from planets, moons and stars. Click below to find out more!
Citations:
Mark, Joshua J. “The Mayan Pantheon: The Many Gods of the Maya.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia, 3 Feb. 2020, www.ancient.eu/article/415/the-mayan-pantheon-the-many-gods-of-the-maya/.

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The pantheon of the Maya is a vast collection of deities who were worshipped throughout the region which, today, comprises Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras. Not all of the gods were venerated in all of the city-states of the Maya (at least, not by the same name) but the type of god, and what that god symbolized to the people, seems to have been universally recognized.

An example of this can be seen in the different names given to the underworld by the Yucatec Maya of the north and the Quiche Maya of the south. The Quiche called their underworld `Metnal' while the Yucatec referred to the same place as ` Xibalba'. Though the names were different, the characteristics of the dark `land of fright', through which a soul had to travel after death, were the same.

Another instance of this can be seen in the creation myths where, for the Quiche, thirteen gods were involved in creating human beings from maize while, to the Yucatec, it was only two. Still, the message of the myths is the same: the gods struggled to create human beings just as humans struggle with their own attempts at creation and survival and, also, that life comes from the earth (here, in the form of corn, the staple of the Mayan diet) and so the earth must be honored and respected.

The gods were involved in every aspect of the life of the Maya. They controlled the weather, the harvest, they dictated one's mate, presided over every birth, and were present at one's death. As the gods were depicted as cross-eyed, mothers would dangle a bead from the forehead of their children so that their eyes would become crossed. Similarly, children's heads were bound, especially males, in order to elongate the forehead in emulation of the gods, especially the very popular Maize God figure. The clothing worn by the nobility, and especially the ruler of a city, mimicked the dress of the gods. The way in which a city was planned and the precision with which the central temples were constructed all followed from an understanding of the way of the gods.

The great Temple of Kukulcan at Chichen Itza is an embodiment of the secular calendar (the Haab) of 365 days but is also very specifically designed to make the god known as the Plumed Serpent back to earth twice a year. At the two equinoxes, each year, people still gather for this event. The steps of the Temple of Kukulcan (also known as El Castillo) run steeply down from the temple at the summit of the pyramid to stone serpent heads at the base of the stairs. On the twin equinoxes each year, the sun casts the shadow of a serpent which moves slowly down the stairs from the temple to the stone heads and creates the image of a serpent descending to the earth. Kukulcan (also known as Gucamatz and, more famously, Quetzalcoatl) was the most popular god among the Maya and it is not surprising that, even today, many of the Maya, and non-Mayan people, congregate at the temple twice a year to receive the blessings of his visit to the earth.

There were over 250 deities in the pantheon of the Maya.

There were over 250 deities in the pantheon of the Maya and, owing to the mass burning of their books by Bishop Diego de Landa in 1562, much information about the gods (and Maya culture) was irretrievably lost. The Quiche Mayan religious text, the , gives one set of names for the gods which the Yucatec Maya knew by other names.

Some gods remain unidentified while others' provenance is unclear or has become conflated with still other deities or with Christian concepts. Scholars are hardly in agreement over the age and prestige of the `king' of the gods, Hunab Ku, for example, whom some claim an ancient lineage for while others maintain a post- conquest status. Some scholars adamantly defend their definition of a certain god while other scholars maintain an opposing one and there is strong evidence for the truth of both sides. The following list, then, is by no means comprehensive as far as defining every god the ancient Maya worshipped in every region, village, or city but attempts to be comprehensive in detailing as much as is presently known about the gods and hopes to do so concisely.

`A'
A Maya god of death whose name is not yet known. He is depicted ruling a part of the underworld surrounded by the bones of his subjects. His symbols are a skull and obsidian knife, both related to the practice of human sacrifice.

Acan
The god of intoxication, wine, and the art of brewing Balche (a kind of strong mead). His name means either `belch' or `groan' and he is associated with the Lacandon Maya god of drunkenness Bohr (also known as Bol).

Acat
The god of the art of tattooing and patron of tattoo artists, Acat is also associated with the growth and development of fetuses. He is further designated by the names Acat-Cib and Ah - Kat.

Ah-Cancum
A god of hunting.

Ah-Chun-Caan
A tutelary deity, he provided protection at sunrise and sunset.

Ah-Ciliz
The god of solar eclipses.

Ah-Cun-Can
A war god known as the Serpent Charmer.

Ah-Cuxtal
The god of birth. His name means `Come to Life' and he was responsible for the safe delivery of babies into the earthly realm, both physically and spiritually. After a birth he would wash his hands and then move on to the next one.

Ahluic
The god of merchants and material wealth often depicted as a member of a triad, with the deities Chac and Hobnil.

Ahmucen-Cab
A creator god who, according to the Chilam Balam creation story, covered the faces of the thirteen gods of the day and let them be captured by the nine gods of the night. During this captivity, he spread seeds and set boulders across the land which grew out of the darkness. This act of creation was later un-done and re-worked by the Becabs.

Ah-Hulneb
A minor god of water.

Ah-Kin
A deity who is an aspect of the sun god (Kinich Ahau) and controls drought and disease (also known as Ah-Kinchil).

Ah-Kumix-Unicob
These were minor water gods who attended to Cenotes and pools.

Ah-Mun
A god of fertility and protection who was also a personification of Maize.

Ah-Muzencab
The deities who presided over and cared for bees. They are also associated with air elemental spirits.

Ah-Patnar-Unicob
These deities were elemental gods of water. They were the lords of the Eight Day Rain Ceremony during which they were celebrated.

Ah-Pekku
A god of thunder.

Ah-Puch
A god of death, darkness, and disaster but also of regeneration, child birth, and beginnings. According to the Quiche Maya, he ruled over Metnal (Xibalba) while according to the Yucatec Maya he was one of many of the Lords of Xibalba. He is associated with Cizen, Yom Cimil/Yum Cimil (though Cizen seems to consistently be imagined more darkly).

Ah-Tabai
The god of the hunt and protector of animals.

Ah-Uaynih
The goddess of sleep. She was especially helpful in putting men to sleep.

Ah-Uncir-Dz'acab
The god of natural healing.

Ah-Uuc-Ticab
A Chthonic deity.

Ah-Wink-Ir-Masa
A nature goddess who protected wild animals, she is associated with deer.

Ahau-Chamahez
A god of medicine and healing.

Ahau-Kin
An aspect of the sun god also known as Jaguar Lord and Lord of the Underworld.

Ahmakiq
A god of agriculture and cultivated crops.

Ahulane
A war god associated with archery and known as The Archer.

Ajbit
One of the thirteen gods who assisted in the creation of human beings from Maize following two previous failed attempts.

Ajtzak
One of the thirteen gods involved in the attempts to create human beings.

Akhushtal
The goddess of childbirth.

Akna
A title applied to Akhushtal, among other goddesses, which means `Our Mother', and was closely associated with those deities concerned with fertility and childbirth.

Alaghom-Naom-Tzentel
The goddess of thought and intellect. She was also known as Ixtat-Ix.

Alom
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he became known as Hunahpu-Guch.

Bacabs
The four gods of the winds and the directions who hold up the four corners of the world. In Yucatec Maya they are known as Muluc (of the east) Kan (of the south) Ix (of the north) and Cauac (of the west). Muluc and Kan generated positive energies while Ix and Cauac brought negative forces. This confluence of negative and positive energy enabled the early gods to create human beings and the physical and non-physical worlds. They are associated with the deities Acat, Akna, Backlum Chamm, and Chin.

Backlum Chaam
One of the Bacabs or an aspect of the Bacabs, he is the god of male sexuality.

B'alam
The Jaguar deities who protect individual communities against external threat. They also guard and protect people in daily life.

The B'alams
In the Quiche Maya tradition the Balams were the four gods who made possible the creation of man after two previous failed attempts. They were known as B'alam Agab (Night Jaguar) B'alam Quitze (Smiling Jaguar) Iqi B'alam (Dark Jaguar) and Mahucatah (Not Right Now). According to one myth, their fellow gods grew jealous of their abilities and so clouded their sight, rendering them mortal.

Bitol
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he became known as Ixmacane (he is the early version of Ixmacane, a later god).

Bolon-D'zacab
The lightning god and patron of the harvest.

Bolontiku
A group of nine chthonic beings of the underworld, they were associated with regeneration.

Buluc-Chabtan
Also known as `God F', this deity is the god of war, violence and death to whom human beings were sacrificed regularly. In the Dresden Codices he is depicted as being eaten by maggots. He is further depicted setting homes on fire, killing people, and roasting them on skewers over a fire.

Cabaguil
One of the thirteen gods who assisted in the creation of human beings. His name means `Heart of the Sky'.

Cabrakan
Also known as Caprakan, he was the god of earthquakes and mountains. He was the son of the gods Vucub Caquix and Chimalmat and plays a significant role early in the Popol Vuh where he is defeated by the Hero Twins as is his brother Zipacna.

Cacoch
A creator god who presides over creativity and communication (especially relating to divine communications).

Cakulha
A lesser god of lightning bolts who, with his brother Coyopa, assist the supreme god of lightning, Yaluk, in creating the storms sent by the rain god Chac.

Camalotz
The servant of Alom who, after the second attempt at creation, beheaded most of the people in the world in order that the gods could begin again. His name means `Sudden Blood-letter'.

Cauac
One of the four Bacabs, Cauac controls the westerly direction and the west wind. Also known as Zac-Cimi.

Chac
The supreme god of storms and rain and associated with agriculture and fertility. He was known as the Lord of the Rains and Winds and maintained important water sources such as cenotes, wells, streams, and springs. He was widely popular and prayers and sacrifices were frequently offered to court his favor and that of the four, lesser, chacs. A lord of the sky, he was the sworn enemy of Camazotz of Xibalba and was thought of as a caring, if unpredictable, deity.

Chacs
These were four weather spirits, located at each of the corners of the world, who were under the command of the great god Chac and did his bidding.

Chac-Uayab-Xoc
The protector of fish and patron of fisherman.

Chamer
One of the gods of death and regeneration of Xibalba.

Chen
Also known as Chin, she was the goddess of maize, magic, and a councilor to the kings. She was also closely associated with homo-erotic relationships and homosexuality. According to the priest Las Cassas, she introduced homosexuality to the Maya nobles who encouraged their children to enter into homosexual marriages. She is associated with the moon and, sometimes, is depicted as a male deity.

Chicchan
These were four rain gods, from the four corners of the world, who were associated with the Bacabs.

Chin
Widely known as the Maya goddess of homosexuality. See Chen.

Chirakan-Ixmucane
A creator goddess who was formed out of four earlier creators and listed among the thirteen divinities who first engaged in the creation of human beings.

Cit-Bolon-Tum
One of two great healer gods (with Ahau-Chamahez).

Cizin
Also known as, or associated with, the names Kisen, Yom Cimil, Yum Cimil, and Ah Puch, he was a god of death who lived in Xibalba (Metnal to the Quiche Maya) and is often pictured as a dancing human skeleton smoking a cigarette. He is further identified by his `death collar' of human eyes dangling from nerve endings. Cizin came upon one suddenly and without warning but was accompanied by a foul smell and so was called `The Stinking One'. Unlike the other death god aspects with whom he is associated, Cizin is not associated with regeneration or re-birth. He keeps the souls of evil people in the underworld where they are subjected to his torments and trickery. Post-conquest, he became closely identified with the Christian devil.

Colel Cab
An earth goddess who cares especially for the bees. She is still invoked by modern-day Maya Daykeepers in chants to ward off attacks on nests, remedy nest problems, and aid hive keepers with their bees.

Colop-U-Uichikin
God of the sky and particularly of eclipses.

Cotzbalam
A servant of Alom who followed after Camalotz after the failed second attempt at creation and devoured the bodies of the people who were beheaded. His name means`Crunching Jaguar'.

Coyopa
A lesser god of sound and of thunder who works with his brother Cakulha under the guidance of the supreme god lightning, Yaluk, to create the storms sent by the rain god Chac.

Cuchumaquic
A lord of Xibalba whose name means `Blood Gatherer'. He is the father of the goddess Xquic and grandfather of the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque.

Cum Hau
A god of death and regeneration who lived in Xibalba.

`E'
An agricultural god whose name is not yet known.

Ekchuah
A god also known as Ek Ahau and, earlier, as only `God M'. He presides over and protects travelers, merchants, and warriors and is depicted as a dark-skinned male carrying a bag over his shoulder. He is also recognized as the patron and protector of cacao and cacao products.

El Gran Dios
`The Great God' who was the god of the Christians and dwelled in the seventh level above the earth. In some stories he is associated with Hunab Ku. This figure is a late, post-conquest, addition to the Maya pantheon

`F'
A god of war associated with human sacrifice and repeated victories over Ekchuah. He is also known as Buluc-Chabtan. See Buluc-Chabtan.

Gucumatz
This god is one of the most important, if not the most important, in the pantheon of the Maya. The name Gucumatz (also Gukumatz) is the Quiche Maya designation for the god known to the Yucatec Maya as Kukulcan and most famously, in the Nahuatl language, as Quetzalcoatl (`the plumed serpent' or `the quetzal-featherd serpent') who was worshipped as early as the first century BCE at the great city of Teotihuacan. Gucumatz is identified as one of thirteen deities who shaped the world and created human beings. From Gucumatz, humans learned the rules of law, agriculture, literacy, the arts, medicine, architecture, construction, hunting, fishing, and all other aspects of civilization. He is said to have come from the sea, conveyed to the people his gifts and ruled wisely over them, and then returned to the sea, promising to come back one day. The god of all four elements, he was also the representation of the co-mingling of good and evil, light and darkness, and so became a central figure in many of the myths of the Maya and popularly depicted, in various forms, in virtually every city-state. As Kukulcan, he is the great plumed serpent who glides down the steps of El Castillo at Chichen Itza on the spring and autumn equinoxes and is thought to bring positive energy to the earth and to those present at his descent.

Gucup Cakix
This deity, also known as Vucub-Caquix (which means `Seven Macaw') is depicted in the Popol Vuh as an arrogant bird demon who pretended to be both the sun and the moon and thus threw life out of balance until he was defeated by Hunahpu and Xbalanque, the Hero Twins. He was the father of Cabrakan and Zipacna who were also overthrown by the famous twins.

Hacha'kyum
An astral god who created the stars by scattering sand into the sky. He was the patron deity of the Lacandon Maya.

Hero Twins
Hunahpu and Xbalanque (also given as Ixbalanque) are the two great mythical heroes of the Maya whose story is preserved in the Quiche Maya work `The Popol Vuh'. They were born of the virgin goddess Xquic after the severed head of their father, Hun Hunahpu, spit into her hand from a calabash tree in the underworld of Xibalba. Raised by their mother and grandmother the twins became great ball players, excelling at `the game of the gods', Poc-a-Toc. Once attaining manhood, they avenged themselves on the Lords of Xibalba, who had murdered their father and uncle, by accepting their invitation to the underworld where a series of traps and tests awaited them. They escaped the traps and snares set for them and defeated the forces of chaos and darkness. They then attempted to bring Hun Hunahpu back to life and, though they succeeded in putting his body back together and reanimating him, he could not return to the earth above. The twins promised him, however, that humans would pray to him for hope and comfort and he would be remembered and honored. The promise was kept as Hun Hunahpu became the Maize god, a dying-and-reviving god figure, who appears on earth as corn. Ascending from Xibalba, they meant to stop in the middle world of the earth but continued climbing up the World Tree and into paradise where, even then, they desired to climb higher and so became the sun and the moon (in another version the gods reward them for their victory by turning them into the sun and the moon). The Hero Twins have been thought to represent the legitimacy of the Maya ruling class, though this theory has been disputed. There is no doubt that their story was very popular among the Maya as the twins are depicted in art work throughout the region, often playing their famous game. Based upon these paintings, it seems clear there were many tales concerning the hero twins which have been lost and the Popol Vuh is the only surviving text of their story.

Hobnil
A god of agriculture and prosperity and a member of a triad with the deities Ahluic and Chac.

Hozanek
A god of the south, associated with the Bacab Cauac and the color yellow. He is a son of the
great couple Itzamna and Ixchel.

Hun-Batz
One of the two stepbrothers of the Hero Twins (the other being Hun-Chowen) also known as `One Howler Monkey' and depicted as a howler monkey. Along with his brother, he is the patron god of artists and writers.

Hun-Came
Also known as Hun-Cane, he is a lord of the underworld who, along with Gucup Cakix, kill Hun Hunahpu, the father of the Hero Twins. He is later killed by them.

Hun-Chowen
One of the two stepbrothers of the Hero Twins (the other being Hun-Batz) he is depicted as a howler monkey. Along with his brother, he is the patron god of artists and writers.

Hunab-Ku
While Gucumatz was the most popular god, Hunab-Ku is considered the supreme deity of the pantheon of the Maya, known as `Sole God'. While some scholars have asserted his antiquity, he seems most likely a concept which arose following the Christianization of the Maya during the Spanish Conquest and closely resembles the Christian god. He is invisible and without form but can be apprehended through his aspect in the god Itzamna, referred to as his son. Hunab-Ku is the husband of Ixazalvoh, the divine mother, associated with water, life, and weaving. Some inscriptions refer to him as `The Eyes and Ears of the Sun' in substantiating the claim that, like the Christian god, he is ubiquitous and knows all.

Hun-Hunahpu
Also known as The Maize God, Huh Hunahpu died but was regenerated by his sons, and returns to life as maize (corn) and so is identified as a dying-and-reviving god figure. The father of the great Hero Twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque. Hun-Hunahpu and his twin brother, Vucub Hunahpu, were demi-gods who, after the creation of the world, became proficient in the `ball game of the gods', Poc-a-Toc. The lords of Xibalba, beneath the earth, became enraged by the noise of the twins and so devised a plan to get rid of them. They invited the young men to the underworld to play a game of Poc-a Toc. Before the game could begin, however, the twins were tricked by the Xibalbans and killed. Hun-Hunahpu's head was placed in the axis of a calabash tree which grew heavy with strange fruit. The young virgin Xquiq came upon the tree and, reaching for the fruit, was asked by the head to open her palm. Hun Hunahpu's head spat into the maiden's hand and she became pregnant with Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The head then sent the girl to live with his mother, Xumucane.

Hunahpu
One of the great Hero Twins who feature prominently in the myths of the Maya and in the text of the Quiche work, the Popol Vuh. Son of Hun Hunahpu amd Xquiq, Hunahpu is the god of the evening who restores the stars to the sky and, with his brother, Xbalanque, defeated the lords of Xibalba and created order on the earth. He is associated with the sun and, in some myths, is the sun himself.

Hunahpu-Gutch
The name which the god Alom took after the successful third attempt at creating human beings.

Hunahpu-Utiu
A deity among the original thirteen who assisted in the creation of human beings.

Hun-Nal-Ye
A god of salt water and the sea who was the patron of sharks.

Huracan
Also known as `Heart of the Sky' and `One-Leg', Huracan is a storm god. In the Popol Vuh he is the supreme creator of earth who thinks existence into being, participates in the creation of human beings, and sends the great flood to destroy his inferior creations. He is further referred to as Lord of the Whirlwind and credited as one of the gods (sometimes the sole god) to give fire to humans.

`I'
An early goddess of water presiding over the sea, springs, and wells whose name is unknown but is thought possibly to be `Ixik'.

Itzamna
Considered the founder of the Maya culture, patron and protector of priests and scribes, Itzamna is an extremely important and popular god. Like Gucumatz, he taught the people the arts of literacy, medicine, science, art, sculpture, and agriculture. He created and ordered the calendar and instructed humans in the proper cultivation of maize and cacao. He is a creator and healer who can resurrect the dead. In later, post-Colombian writings, he is referred to as the son of Hunab-Ku and takes on many of the characteristics associated with the Christ figure. He is associated with the prophet Zamna, who brought the sacred writings to the city of Izamal on the command of the great goddess and also with Kinich Ahau, the sun god. In one myth he is the father of the Bacabs.

Itzam-Ye
Also known as Itzam-Yeh, The Serpent Bird, The Celestial Bird, and The Way of Itzamna, Itzam-Ye was a deity in bird form which nested in the axis of the great Ceiba tree, the World Tree, which connected the underworld with the middle world (earth) and upper world. From its perch, Itzam-Ye could see all of creation and knew all the secrets of all three planes of existence. Images of the bird god in the sacred tree have been found throughout many Maya sites and, usually, engraved on temples and shrines where the Daykeepers would chant and cast the spells which protected the world from chaos and maintained order. Itzam-Ye was considered a master of the spiritual world and well versed in what, today, would be considered sorcery and magical arts.

Ixazaluoh
A goddess associated with water and weaving.

Ixazalvoh
The Divine mother and consort of Hunab-Ku, Ixazalvoh is the goddess of water, life, and weaving. She also presides over female sexuality and childbirth and is known for her powers in healing. Her oracles were considered important conduits for divine messages for the people.

Ixbalanque
One of the great Hero Twins whose adventures are told in the Popol Vuh. See Xbalanque.

Ixcuiname
The goddess of the four ages of womankind (though whether this means four time periods in which women have existed or the four stages in a woman's life of child, maiden, mother, crone is unclear). Her name is interpreted as `Four Sisters' or `Four Faces'. She has been associated with the four creator gods Alom, Bitol, Qaholom, and Tzacol and, through this relationship, became known as Chirakan-Ixmucane, one of the thirteen deities who created human beings.

Ixmacane
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings, his name is the final form of the deity originally called Bitol (although the same name has been applied to other gods in their `final form' following creation).

Ixmucane
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings according to one version of the myth. Also a version of the name Xumucane, the grandmother of the famous hero twins, who, with her husband, Xpiayoc, created humans from maize and are considered the oldest and wisest deities in the Maya pantheon.

Ixpiyacoc
The name of the creator god Tzacol who, after the successful third attempt at creating human beings split into two separate entities and became both Tzacol and Ixpiyacoc. Also a variant spelling of Xpiayoc, the husband of Xumucane, who helped in creating humans from maize.

Ixtab
Also known as `Rope Woman', Ixtab was the goddess of suicides and, particularly, those who died by hanging. She is depicted as the rotting corpse of a woman hanging from a noose in the heavens which appears in the Dresden Codex. As suicide was considered an honorable alternative to living among the Maya, self-inflicted death guaranteed one an instant passage to paradise, by-passing the dark and dangerous underworld of Xibalba. Ixtab would escort the souls of suicides to paradise where they would enjoy eternal pleasure surrounded by other blessed souls such as those who died in battle, in childbirth, as sacrificial victims, or on the ball court playing Poc-a-Toc.

Ix-Tub-Tun
A serpent deity who spits precious stones and is associated with rain.

`K'
The name by which the god K'awi (or K'awiil) was formerly known. K'awai is the patron god of royalty, kingship, and the nobility.

Kan
One of the principal Becabs, Kan known as the Upholder of the South.

Kan-Xib-Yui
One of the creator gods who is sometimes mentioned as one of the original thirteen who created human beings. Probably originally a local fertility deity who was included as a creator-god, he does not appear on all lists of the thirteen.

Kianto
Also known as Kiant, he is the god of unwelcome influences which were designated primarily as disease and foreigners.

Kichigonai
In the Quiche Maya tradition, Kichigonai is the creator of day and the god of light.

Kinich Ahau
The sun god known as `Face of the Sun' and sometimes referred to as Kinich Ajaw. He was a god of healing and medicine. The later god, Hunab Ku is thought to be a conflation of Kinich Ahau and the Christian God. In some early myths, Kinich Ahau is the consort of the goddess Ixazalvoh whereas post-conquest stories place the divine mother with Hunab Ku.

Kinich Kakmo
The patron god of the city of Izamal, a solar deity who was represented by a macaw.

`L'
A god of the evening, of darkness and night whose name is not yet known.

Mam
A title of respect meaning `Grandfather' and applied to a number of different Maya deities including earth spirits, mountain spirits, and the four Bacabs. The god known as Mam Maximon is a post-conquest god of travelers, merchants, witchcraft, and bad luck that was conflated with the Christian figure of Judas and in modern times is part of the celebrations surrounding Holy Week.

Manik
The god of sacrifice, of sacrificial victims, and of purifying suffering.

Mitnal
Also known as `Metnal' , this is the Quiche Maya word for the Underworld and corresponds with the Yucatec Maya vision known as Xibalba. According to the Popl Vuh, Mitnal was a dark land flowing with rivers of blood and pus and populated by deities with names such as Bloody Teeth, Bloody Claws, and Flying Scab, among others.

Mulac
One of the four Bacabs and known as `Upholder of the East'.

Naum
The god who created the human mind and consciousness.

Nohochacyum
A creator-destroyer deity, the brother of the death god Kisin (or possibly another earthquake god also known as Kisin). He is the sworn enemy of the world serpent Hapikern and it is said that, in the end of days, he will destroy Hapikern by wrapping him around himself to smother him. In some versions of this story, life on earth is destroyed in the process. He is related, in some stories, to Usukan, Uyitzin, Yantho and Hapikern, all of whom wish human beings ill. Also the brother of Xamaniqinqu, the patron god of travelers and merchants.

Och-Kan
Also known as Ochan and Ahacan, he is the great Vision Serpent of the Maya. A Daykeeper (shaman) would have to experience the Vision Serpent first hand in order to understand the realm in which he was dealing and finalize his initiation into the mysteries. Och-Kan's presence was announced by a herald god named Uc-Zip in the underworld of Xibalba.

Paddler Gods
Two deities who paddle the divine canoe through the underworld and up into the sky. They row on opposite sides of the vessel with Old Jaguar Paddler in the front and Old Stingray Paddler in the back. They participated in the building of the Cosmic Hearth for the gods at the beginning of creation and are thought to symbolize night and day, light and darkness, and the eternal dance of opposites. They are also seen as representations of the Milky Way.

Pawahtuun
A calendar deity associated with the four Bacabs and the end of the year. He positions himself at the four corners of the sky and thus holds up the world.

Poxlom
The god of diseases.

Qaholom
One of the gods who participated in the creation of human beings along with Alom, Bitol, and Tzacol.

Q'uq'umatz
See Gucamatz

Tecumbalam
The great bird sent to break the bones and rend the muscles of the human beings who displeased the gods and were destroyed in the great flood sent by Hurakan.

Tepeu
One of the creator gods who participated, sometimes with Gucumatz and Huracan, in creating human beings.

Tlacolotl
The god of evil, of those who practice evil, and of the dark places where evil plans are made. The Maya also attributed earthquakes to him.

Tohil
The god of fire who was the patron deity of the Quiche Maya city of Q'umarka.

Tzacol
One of the thirteen gods who participated in the creation of human beings. After the successful third attempt, he split into two separate deities, Tzacol and Ixpiyacoc.

Tzultacaj
Also known as Tzuultaq'ah, he was the god of mountains and valleys.

Uc-Zip
A herald god to the Lords of Xibalba who announced the coming of the great Vision Serpent Och-Kan.

Usukan
A fearsome god who hates human beings and has the earthquake as his servant in his attempt to destroy human life. His brother is Hapikern, the world-girdling serpent, who is also hostile to humanity. He is almost always listed along with Uyitzin and Yantho in what is known as the `Yantho Triad' of supernatural `villains'. Xamaniqinqu, the god of travelers and merchants, is another brother.

Uyitzin
One of the fraternal triad with Usukan and Yantho, three brothers who hate humanity and are the enemies of the god Nohochacyum, who is also sometimes depicted as their brother as is Xamaniqinqu.

Vision Serpent
A mystical snake-god who was of great importance to the Maya as he knew the secrets of the universe and could impart these secrets to a Daykeeper (shaman). See Och-Kan.

Voltan
A chthonic deity who was lord of drums. He is not to be confused with Votan which is a god often invoked in the modern day `New Age' movement but has no basis in fact in the ancient Maya pantheon. Voltan seems to have been a mortal who was deified for his great deeds and was married to the goddess Ixchel.

Vukub-Cakix
A giant bird god with emerald teeth who did battle with, and was ultimately defeated by, Hun Hunahpu and Vukub Hunahpu, the father and uncle of the Hero Twins. Also known as Vucub-Caquix.

Vukubcane
A Lord of the underworld Metnal (Xibalba) in the Quiche Maya work The Popol Vuh.

Ways
In the Maya belief, every day has its own energy and this energy will either aid or hinder one in one's path on a given day. The Ways (Wayobs) are any one of a class of protector spirits whose energy aids and directs one through the course of a day and, so, in life. Every person has a Way who tends to that individual spiritually. A Way may manifest itself physically as an animal to help guide someone and, in this aspect, they would be recognized as Totems or Totemic Guides. The Ways may also communicate through dreams in which a dreamer is brought to the Wayib (the Dreaming Place) where the individual soul may commune directly with their Way. Even the gods of the Maya have a Way attached to them which guides and directs the energy of the deity if that god is open to such guidance.

World Tree
The great Ceiba Tree of Life (also known as Yaxche) which has its roots in the underworld, grows up through the middle world (earth) and has its branches in paradise. The World tree grows up through the nine levels of Xibalba, passes through the earth, and continues on up through the thirteen levels to Tamoanchan (paradise). The base of the world tree grows from the cracked shell of the Cosmic Turtle and the limbs can be seen as the Milky Way in a north-south orientation. In the axis of the World Tree sits the bird-god Itzam-Ye who knows all the secrets of the three planes of existence.

Witzob
The Maya believed the gods lived on mountains and Witzob means `mountain' and signifies the holy mountain of the gods in Tamoanchan. The mountain was not considered simply as a mass of inert rock, however, but as a living thing imbued with the same spiritual energy that coursed through a human being and through all living things. Mountains, owing to their height, became manifestations of spiritual power and influence. The famous temples of the Maya, all throughout the region from Chichen Itza down to Altun Ha, are artificial mountains built specifically to make the patron god of that particular city, and his or her friends and attendants, feel at home.

Xamaniqinqu
The patron god of merchants and travelers, god of the north and the northern energies, and brother to Nohochacyum, Yantho, Usukun, and Uyitzin. He is also known as Xaman Ek.

Xbalanque
One of the great Hero Twins who feature prominently in the myths of the Maya and in the text of the Quiche Maya work, the Popol Vuh. The son of Hun Hunahpu and Xquiq, Xbalanque is considered the warrior twin who leads the way through the underworld and, with his brother Hunahpu, defeats the lords of Xibalba to create order on the earth. He is associated with the moon and, in some stories, is the moon.

Xecotcovach
A bird servant of the god Alom. His name means `Face Gouger' and he participated in the destruction of the inferior human beings of the second creation attempt by tearing out their eyes.

Xibalba
The Yucatec Maya term for the underworld which corresponds to the Quiche Maya word `Metnal'. The name means `Place of Fright' and was thought to be populated by the Xibalbans who were dark, secretive, dangerous and hostile to human beings. At death, the soul of the individual had to pass through Xibalba before reaching paradise and, if that soul were particularly unfit, would remain in Xibalba at the mercy of various deities like Cizen for an eternity. At the same time, however, it should be noted that a number of the Lords of Xibalba are associated with regeneration and re-birth and in no way should Xibalba be equated with the Christian concept of hell.

Xumucane and Xpiayoc
The parents of Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu, grandparents of the Hero Twins, most ancient of the gods of the Maya pantheon, and the divine couple and first Daykeepers who helped to create human beings. According to the Quiche Maya, after the thirteen creator gods failed in their attempt to make human beings, they consulted with the much older gods, Xumucane and Xpiayoc to find out what they were doing wrong. They asked the ancient couple if wood could be a proper medium for the fashioning of humans. The two Daykeepers consulted the sacred calendar and said that wood seemed a workable material but, when the wooden humans were made, they were unacceptable. They could walk and talk but had no respect for the gods and could not consult the calendar; so the gods destroyed them in a great flood. Xumucane then ground white and yellow corn (maize) and washed her hands, saving the water to brew a sacred broth which gave life to the humans who were created from the maize, thus beginning human life on the earth. Xumucane is the great grandmother and Xpiayoc the great grandfather of all human beings. She is known as the divine mid-wife responsible for all births and he is the divine matchmaker in charge of arranging all marriages. As the first two Daykeepers they are closely associated with the sacred calendar.

Yaluk
The supreme lightning god who creates the storms sent by the rain god Chac. He is assisted by the two fraternal deities, Coyopa and Cakulha.

Yantho
A deity hostile to humanity and linked to his brothers, Usukun and Uyitzin, in a triad, usually mentioned together, who despise human beings and take joy in human distress. They are associated with earthquakes and destruction and are brothers to the benevolent Nohochacyum, the god of merchants and travelers, Xamaniqinqu, and the world-girdling serpent, Hapikern.

Yaxche
The World Tree also known as The Tree of Life. See World Tree.

Yumbalamob
Protecting spirits who inhabit the first level just above the earth and are the guardians and protectors of Christians. In the daylight they are invisible but, at night, they position themselves by the crosses which the faithful have erected outside of their homes and stand guard. Wielding obsidian knives, they cut through the winds which would harm a Christian village and, also with these knives, fend off the dangers of the surrounding jungle and send messages to each other.

Yum Caax
The god of the woods, of nature, of cacao, plants, and of the hunt. Also known as Yom Caax, Yum Kaax, Yum Ka'ax, he was regularly invoked by farmers before clearing the land for cultivation. He is regarded as a benevolent god who protects the plants and animals for human use and sustenance. He is able to either guide a hunter's arrow to a great kill or turn the arrow back on the hunter if proper obeisance and respect has not been given.

Yum Cimil
One of the Lords of Xibalba and closely associated with Ah Puch and Cizin. Like Cizin, he wears a collar of dangling eyes and is depicted as skeletal with bones adorning his meager clothing.

Yumchakob
Also known as Nukuchyumchakob, these are white-haired, elderly deities in charge of dispensing rain. The Yumchakob are kindly disposed toward human beings and love to smoke cigars. They are associated with Kukulkan and, according to some scholars, the great god was once one of their number before descending to earth. In post-conquest Yucatan they were depicted as dwelling in the sixth level above the earth just below El Gran Dios, the Christian god.

Zac-Cimi
One of the four Bacabs. See Cauac.

Zipacna
An arrogant giant whose story is told in the Popol Vuh. He was the son of Vucub Caquix and Chimalmat and the brother of Cabrakan and, like the rest of his family, was known for his arrogance. He is famous for two events: the tale of the Four Hundred Boys and his death at the hands of the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, which they accomplished by dropping a mountain on him. See Four Hundred Boys.

Zotz
The god of bats, caves, and patron of the Tzotzil tribe. Also known as Zotzilaha and Sotz.

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The Mayan Pantheon: The Many Gods of the Maya

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The pantheon of the Maya is a vast collection of deities who were worshipped throughout the region which, today, comprises Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, and Chiapas in Mexico and southward through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras.

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Caves where extremely important for the Mayans, the people would find caves as places where the gods would dwell. So the people would do sacred rituals in them. Watch the video below to find out more!
Citations:
Herrero, Hannah, director. Mayan Cave: Places of Sacred Rituals . National Geographic Society, 9 Nov. 2012, www.nationalgeographic.org/media/mayan-caves-places-sacred-rituals/#mayan-caves.

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Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Last Updated

April 12, 2012

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This segment explores the significance of caves for the ancient Mayan people. Archeologist Fatima Tec Poole investigates a newly -discovered cave in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, and discovers evidence that it was once an important site of Mayan pilgrimage and ritual.

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Every government has a social structure, but the Mayans had a very distinct one, the king was viewed as a god, or representative of a god.
Citations: Maximastrini. “Maya Social Structure.” In __ Slide Share, 2012, image.slidesharecdn.com/mayasocialstructure-121021185836-phpapp02/95/maya-social-structure-1-638.jpg?cb=1364296351.

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Mayans made astounding achievements during their ancient years. Some of which include agriculture, architecture and astronomy.
Citations:
Mayans and, Tikal. "Mayan Science". Mayansandtikal.Com, 2020, https://mayansandtikal.com/mayan-civilisation/mayan-technology/mayan-science/.

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Although an ancient civilization, Mayans were able to make remarkable scientific progress in different fields. This was necessitated by the adverse circumstances in which Mayans lived which ultimately led them to craft innovative solutions by use of indigenous scientific and technological solutions.

Among the most notable scientific accomplishments of the Mayans were those made in the fields of astronomy, architecture and agriculture. Mayans were unique among the ancient civilisations to be able to trace the movements of celestial bodies with exceptional accuracy, using their own mathematics and writing system.

Mayan Science and Agriculture

The Mayans were highly dependent on agriculture for their annual produce. Since the populations of many Mayan cities exceeded 100,000, providing food for all inhabitants was a serious and cumbersome problem. Mayans resolved this by adopting different innovative agricultural techniques. A popular method used by the Mayans was to use slash-and-burn farming methods in order to enrich the top layer of a field and then cultivate that field.

Mayans also built terraces along hillsides in order to have access to more land for cultivation. This helped them make more effective use of the rainwater which was often little during periods of low rainfall.

Mayan Astronomy

Astronomy was among the earliest sciences that emerged in the Mayan society. Initially, astronomy in the Mayan society was directly linked with agriculture. Priests with knowledge of celestial bodies would predict the movements of Sun, Moon, Venus and other astral bodies. This helped them predict the expected rainfall in a given year and other climactic conditions.

Astronomy was also an integral part of Maya mythology. In time, Mayans were able to trace the heavenly movements with exceptional accuracy using rudimentary tools. They even built elaborate observatories to monitor these movements. It was thanks to this brilliance in astronomy that Mayans eventually created one of the most accurate calendars in the entire human history.

Mayan Mathematics

Next to astronomy, mathematics also played a very significant role in the agrarian Mayan society. It is believed that mathematics in the Mayan civilisation probably grew out of astronomy. When priests accurately traced the movement of celestial bodies, they needed a written system to pen down these calculations. Accordingly, mathematics was developed and Mayans also had a concept of zero which allowed them to undertake elaborate computations. Zero was denoted by shell symbols while dots and lines were the basic Mayan mathematical representations. Longer figures were penned down using a unique base-20 numerical system.

Mayan Architecture

Mayans were excellent builders and it was because of their scientific understanding of the building process and its constituent materials which enabled them to erect structures that stand to this day. Typically, Mayans used huge stones for monumental buildings. A large number of craftsmen would carve the stones to make them suitable before they were used.

The stones were then joined with the help of a sort of cement which Mayans created and developed on their own. This cement, together with other mortar material that Mayans used, proved exceptionally strong. And it was precisely because of this material that most Mayan monumental architecture is extant to this day, having suffered little damage over the course of millennia. It was using such architectural engineering that Mayans built lofty pyramid-temples, elaborate royal palaces, astronomical observatories and other structures.

Mayan Writing System

Mayans also excelled in lingual sciences and were able to develop an advanced language of their own, which is the mark of a complex civilisation. The Mayan written language was unique in that it made use of both phonetic and symbolic alphabets, later called glyphs. The phonetic glyphs, called syllabograms, strung together different phonetic voices to build a single word.

Logograms, or the symbolic glyphs, were used to depict a word with the help of a single image. Mayans had nearly 800 of these glyphs and by mixing both types of glyphs, Mayans had a very flexible language which was used for effective communication, for penning down books and writing inscriptions on stone slabs.

Mayan Calendrics

One of the most notable scientific achievements of the ancient Mayans was the development of a calendar. Since the development of calendar was linked to astronomy, the calendar itself was of religious significance in Mayan society. The Mayan calendar comprised of three separate cycles. One of these was the lunar cycle, comprising of 260 days in a year and used to mark different religious rituals.

Another was the solar cycle, comprising of 365 days and used for daily computations of dates. The third cycle was the Long Count which spanned over more than 5000 years and was used to compute dates a long way in the past or the future. Mayan Long Count calendar dates as far back as 236 B.C.

Mayan Water Management System

Among the architectural feats of the Mayans was a highly effective water management system. Mayans lived in a region where regular access to water was unpredictable. Mayans had to rely on rainfall for most of their agricultural needs but it wasn't a dependable source given the uncertain nature of average annual rainfall.

Mayans devised a solution to this by constructing an elaborate water management system. For this purpose, underground reservoirs were constructed where rainwater was collected during the rainy season. The reservoirs were lined with lime to mitigate any water seepage. Mayans then used this water at time of scarce rains, supplying it to the city and also using it for agricultural purposes.

Mayan Science Summary

Mayan civilization was highly advanced in many aspects, utilising scientific innovations in fields such as architecture and astronomy. They had an elaborate writing system which utilised both symbolic and phonetic representations, allowing Mayans to use a very advanced written language. Mayans also had a very well-developed mathematical system which used the notion of zero and had a base-20 numerical system to represent larger numbers.

The achievements of Mayans in astronomy were no less magnificent. Using their extensive astronomical knowledge, Mayans were able to create an elaborate and highly accurate calendar with multiple cycles. Larger dates of this calendar were penned down using the mathematical system.

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Although an ancient civilization, Mayans were able to make remarkable scientific progress in different fields. This was necessitated by the adverse circumstances in which Mayans lived which ultimately led them to craft innovative solutions by use of indigenous scientific and technological solutions.

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This extremely useful youtube video shows how we can change the Mayan Number system to our own base 10 numbers.
Citations:
Sousa, James. The Mayan Number System: Writing Mayan Number In Base 10. 2020, https://youtu.be/https://gPUOrcilVS0. Accessed 8 Feb 2020.

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The Mayan Number System: Writing Mayan Number in Base 10

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This is a helpful video for those who want to know what authentic Mayan food was. Even if you want to remake it, keep in mind to that this was from hundreds of years ago.
Citation:
Matt's Megabites, director. What Is Mayan Food? YouTube, YouTube, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTmAYfYcPEc.

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This image is what us as Americans think of Mayan food, this could be a primary source, or it could have been changed. For me, it seems changed, because it's been a long time since the Mayans where thriving.
Citations:
Belize Travel Blog. image. 2020, https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fbelize-travel-blog.chaacreek.com%2F2017%2F11%2Fmayan-food%2F&psig=AOvVaw2ZXBemc9zf64QtUgP1UoWZ&ust=1581452509470000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCNDH6vvnx-cCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE. Accessed 10 Feb 2020.

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The Mayans where great astronomers, they even used stars and the sun to make their temples.
Citations:
NASA. MASA: Mayan Astronomy. 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5W9zFwBQb6c. Accessed 8 Feb 2020.

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The image below shows how the Mayans wrote out their mathematics, which looks much simpler than our numbers. 1,2,3.
Citations: Mastin, Luke. "Mayan Mathematics". Storyofmathematics.Com, 2020, https://www.storyofmathematics.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/mayan_numerals.gif.

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The Mayans lived in independent city-states, meaning that each city had their own ruler and community.
Citations:
Aveni, Anthony. “Mayan Government.” Mayan Government, 2020, www.webpages.uidaho.edu/arch499/nonwest/mayan/agriculture.htm.

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Chaac mask from Uxmal

The Mayans developed a hierarchical government ruled by kings and priests. They lived in independent city-states consisting of rural communities and large urban ceremonial centers. There were no standing armies, but warfare played an important role in religion, power and prestige. Religion was woven into all facets of daily life and was the major unifying factor of the civilization. They practiced human sacrifice and would often raid other communities to obtain victims.

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Chaac mask from Uxmal The Mayans developed a hierarchical government ruled by kings and priests. They lived in independent city-states consisting of rural communities and large urban ceremonial centers. There were no standing armies, but warfare played an important role in religion, power and prestige.

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This video is an in depth lesson of the mayan civilization, what I got out of this is that the Mayas created a hieratical government, the King on top, and slaves at the bottom.
Citations: "Mayan Civilization: Economy, Politics, Culture & Religion." Study.com, 3 November 2014, study.com/academy/lesson/mayan-civilization-economy-politics-culture-religion.html

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This image is from the Mayas illustrated to show how they sacrificed people. If you notice, you can see how the sun god is looking down upon them. So they are trying to illustrate the sacrifice is intended to the sun god.
Citations:
Cheng, Cindy. “Mayan Sacrifice.” Human Sacrifice In Maya Culture, 2020, scholarblogs.emory.edu/gravematters/files/2017/02/4101852.gif.

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This is an image of the Mayan Solar Calendar, as you can see, their is a man holding a hieroglyph in the center of the calendar and hieroglyphs around showing each day.
Citation:
"The Mayan Calendar" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
February 8, 2020 https://www.historyonthenet.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/600px-Mayan_Zodiac_Circle.jpg

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This website is great for learning how the Mayans used their own number system to do math like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Citations:
Schools of Mathematics, and Statistics. “Mayan Mathematics.” Mayan Mathematics, School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland, 2020, mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Mayan_mathematics.html.

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Hernán Cortés, excited by stories of the lands which Columbus had recently discovered, sailed from Spain in 1505 landing in Hispaniola which is now Santo Domingo. After farming there for some years he sailed with Velázquez to conquer Cuba in 1511. He was twice elected major of Santiago then, on 18 February 1519, he sailed for the coast of Yucatán with a force of 11 ships, 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 16 horses. He landed at Tabasco on the northern coast of the Yucatán peninsular. He met with little resistance from the local population and they presented him with presents including twenty girls. He married Malinche, one of these girls.

The people of the Yucatán peninsular were descendants of the ancient Mayan civilisation which had been in decline from about 900 AD. It is the mathematical achievements of this civilisation which we are concerned with in this article. However, before describing these, we should note that Cortés went on to conquer the Aztec peoples of Mexico. He captured Tenochtitlán before the end of 1519 (the city was rebuilt as Mexico City in 1521) and the Aztec empire fell to Cortés before the end of 1521. Malinche, who acted as interpreter for Cortés, played an important role in his ventures.

In order to understand how knowledge of the Mayan people has reached us we must consider another Spanish character in this story, namely Diego de Landa. He joined the Franciscan Order in 1541 when about 17 years old and requested that he be sent to the New World as a missionary. Landa helped the Mayan peoples in the Yucatán peninsular and generally tried his best to protect them from their new Spanish masters. He visited the ruins of the great cities of the Mayan civilisation and learnt from the people about their customs and history.

However, despite being sympathetic to the Mayan people, Landa abhorred their religious practices. To the devote Christian that Landa was, the Mayan religion with its icons and the Mayan texts written in hieroglyphics appeared like the work of the devil. He ordered all Mayan idols be destroyed and all Mayan books be burned. Landa seems to have been surprised at the distress this caused the Mayans.

Nobody can quite understand Landa's feelings but perhaps he regretted his actions or perhaps he tried to justify them. Certainly what he then did was to write a bookRelación de las cosas de Yucatán Ⓣ (1566) which describes the hieroglyphics, customs, temples, religious practices and history of the Mayans which his own actions had done so much to eradicate. The book was lost for many years but rediscovered in Madrid three hundred years later in 1869.

A small number of Mayan documents survived destruction by Landa. The most important are: the Dresden Codex now kept in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek Dresden; the Madrid Codex now kept in the American Museum in Madrid; and the Paris Codex now in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris. The Dresden Codex is a treatise on astronomy, thought to have been copied in the eleventh century AD from an original document dating from the seventh or eighth centuries AD.

The Dresden codex:

Knowledge of the Mayan civilisation has been greatly increased in the last thirty years (see for example [3] and [8]). Modern techniques such as high resolution radar images, aerial photography and satellite images have changed conceptions of the Maya civilisation. We are interested in the Classic Period of the Maya which spans the period 250 AD to 900 AD, but this classic period was built on top of a civilisation which had lived in the region from about 2000 BC.

The Maya of the Classic Period built large cities, around fifteen have been identified in the Yucatán peninsular, with recent estimates of the population of the city of Tikal in the Southern Lowlands being around 50000 at its peak. Tikal is probably the largest of the cities and recent studies have identified about 3000 separate constructions including temples, palaces, shrines, wood and thatch houses, terraces, causeways, plazas and huge reservoirs for storing rainwater. The rulers were astronomer priests who lived in the cities who controlled the people with their religious instructions. Farming with sophisticated raised fields and irrigation systems provided the food to support the population.

A common culture, calendar, and mythology held the civilisation together and astronomy played an important part in the religion which underlay the whole life of the people. Of course astronomy and calendar calculations require mathematics and indeed the Maya constructed a very sophisticated number system. We do not know the date of these mathematical achievements but it seems certain that when the system was devised it contained features which were more advanced than any other in the world at the time.

The Maya number system was a base twenty system.

Here are the Mayan numerals.

Almost certainly the reason for base 20 arose from ancient people who counted on both their fingers and their toes. Although it was a base 20 system, called a vigesimal system, one can see how five plays a major role, again clearly relating to five fingers and toes. In fact it is worth noting that although the system is base 20 it only has three number symbols (perhaps the unit symbol arising from a pebble and the line symbol from a stick used in counting). Often people say how impossible it would be to have a number system to a large base since it would involve remembering so many special symbols. This shows how people are conditioned by the system they use and can only see variants of the number system in close analogy with the one with which they are familiar. Surprising and advanced features of the Mayan number system are the zero, denoted by a shell for reasons we cannot explain, and the positional nature of the system. However, the system was not a truly positional system as we shall now explain.

In a true base twenty system the first number would denote the number of units up to 19, the next would denote the number of 20's up to 19, the next the number of 400's up to 19, etc. However although the Maya number system starts this way with the units up to 19 and the 20's up to 19, it changes in the third place and this denotes the number of 360's up to 19 instead of the number of 400's. After this the system reverts to multiples of 20 so the fourth place is the number of 18 × 20², the next the number of 18 × 20³ and so on. For example [ 8;14;3;1;12 ] represents

12 + 1 × 20 + 3 × 18 × 20 + 14 × 18 × 20 ² + 8 × 18 × 20 ³ = 1253912.

As a second example [ 9;8;9;13;0 ] represents

0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 20 ² + 9 × 18 × 20 ³ =1357100.

Both these examples are found in the ruins of Mayan towns and we shall explain their significance below.

Now the system we have just described is used in the Dresden Codex and it is the only system for which we have any written evidence. In [4] Ifrah argues that the number system we have just introduced was the system of the Mayan priests and astronomers which they used for astronomical and calendar calculations. This is undoubtedly the case and that it was used in this way explains some of the irregularities in the system as we shall see below. It was the system used for calendars. However Ifrah also argues for a second truly base 20 system which would have been used by the merchants and was the number system which would also have been used in speech. This, he claims had a circle or dot (coming from a cocoa bean currency according to some, or a pebble used for counting according to others) as its unity, a horizontal bar for 5 and special symbols for 20, 400, 8000 etc. Ifrah writes [4]:-

Even though no trace of it remains, we can reasonably assume that the Maya had a number system of this kind, and that intermediate numbers were figured by repeating the signs as many times as was needed.
Let us say a little about the Maya calendar before returning to their number systems, for the calendar was behind the structure of the number system. Of course, there was also an influence in the other direction, and the base of the number system 20 played a major role in the structure of the calendar.

The Maya had two calendars. One of these was a ritual calendar, known as the Tzolkin, composed of 260 days. It contained 13 "months" of 20 days each, the months being named after 13 gods while the twenty days were numbered from 0 to 19. The second calendar was a 365-day civil calendar called the Haab. This calendar consisted of 18 months, named after agricultural or religious events, each with 20 days (again numbered 0 to 19) and a short "month" of only 5 days that was called the Wayeb. The Wayeb was considered an unlucky period and Landa wrote in his classic text that the Maya did not wash, comb their hair or do any hard work during these five days. Anyone born during these days would have bad luck and remain poor and unhappy all their lives.

Why then was the ritual calendar based on 260 days? This is a question to which we have no satisfactory answer. One suggestion is that since the Maya lived in the tropics the sun was directly overhead twice every year. Perhaps they measured 260 days and 105 days as the successive periods between the sun being directly overhead (the fact that this is true for the Yucatán peninsular cannot be taken to prove this theory). A second theory is that the Maya had 13 gods of the "upper world", and 20 was the number of a man, so giving each god a 20 day month gave a ritual calendar of 260 days.

At any rate having two calendars, one with 260 days and the other with 365 days, meant that the two would calendars would return to the same cycle after lcm(260, 365) = 18980 days. Now this is after 52 civil years (or 73 ritual years) and indeed the Maya had a sacred cycle consisting of 52 years. Another major player in the calendar was the planet Venus. The Mayan astronomers calculated its synodic period (after which it has returned to the same position) as 584 days. Now after only two of the 52 years cycles Venus will have made 65 revolutions and also be back to the same position. This remarkable coincidence would have meant great celebrations by the Maya every 104 years.

Now there was a third way that the Mayan people had of measuring time which was not strictly a calendar. It was an absolute timescale which was based on a creation date and time was measured forward from this. What date was the Mayan creation date? The date most often taken is 12 August 3113 BC but we should say straightaway that not all historians agree that this was the zero of this so-called "Long Count". Now one might expect that this measurement of time would either give the number of ritual calendar years since creation or the number of civil calendar years since creation. However it does neither.

The Long Count is based on a year of 360 days, or perhaps it is more accurate to say that it is just a count of days with then numbers represented in the Mayan number system. Now we see the probable reason for the departure of the number system from a true base 20 system. It was so that the system approximately represented years. Many inscriptions are found in the Mayan towns which give the date of erection in terms of this long count. Consider the two examples of Mayan numbers given above. The first
is the date given on a plate which came from the town of Tikal. It translates to

12 + 1 × 20 + 3 × 18 × 20 + 14 × 18 × 20 ² + 8 × 18 × 20 ³

which is 1253912 days from the creation date of 12 August 3113 BC so the plate was carved in 320 AD.

The second example
is the completion date on a building in Palenque in Tabasco, near the landing site of Cortés. It translates to

0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 20 ² + 9 × 18 × 20 ³

which is 1357100 days from the creation date of 12 August 3113 BC so the building was completed in 603 AD.

We should note some properties (or more strictly non-properties) of the Mayan number system. The Mayans appear to have had no concept of a fraction but, as we shall see below, they were still able to make remarkably accurate astronomical measurements. Also since the Mayan numbers were not a true positional base 20 system, it fails to have the nice mathematical properties that we expect of a positional system. For example

[ 9;8;9;13;0 ] = 0 + 13 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 20 ² + 9 × 18 × 20 ³ = 1357100

yet

[ 9;8;9;13 ] = 13 + 9 × 20 + 8 × 18 × 20 + 9 × 18 × 20 ² = 67873.

Moving all the numbers one place left would multiply the number by 20 in a true base 20 positional system yet 20 × 67873 = 1357460 which is not equal to 1357100. For when we multiple [ 9;8;9;13 ] by 20 we get 9 × 400 where in [ 9;8;9;13;0 ] we have 9 × 360.

We should also note that the Mayans almost certainly did not have methods of multiplication for their numbers and definitely did not use division of numbers. Yet the Mayan number system is certainly capable of being used for the operations of multiplication and division as the authors of [15] demonstrate.

Finally we should say a little about the Mayan advances in astronomy. Rodriguez writes in [19]:-

The Mayan concern for understanding the cycles of celestial bodies, particularly the Sun, the Moon and Venus, led them to accumulate a large set of highly accurate observations. An important aspect of their cosmology was the search for major cycles, in which the position of several objects repeated.
The Mayans carried out astronomical measurements with remarkable accuracy yet they had no instruments other than sticks. They used two sticks in the form of a cross, viewing astronomical objects through the right angle formed by the sticks. The Caracol building in Chichén Itza is thought by many to be a Mayan observatory. Many of the windows of the building are positioned to line up with significant lines of sight such as that of the setting sun on the spring equinox of 21 March and also certain lines of sight relating to the moon.

The Caracol building in Chichén Itza:

With such crude instruments the Maya were able to calculate the length of the year to be 365.242 days (the modern value is 365.242198 days). Two further remarkable calculations are of the length of the lunar month. At Copán (now on the border between Honduras and Guatemala) the Mayan astronomers found that 149 lunar months lasted 4400 days. This gives 29.5302 days as the length of the lunar month. At Palenque in Tabasco they calculated that 81 lunar months lasted 2392 days. This gives 29.5308 days as the length of the lunar month. The modern value is 29.53059 days. Was this not a remarkable achievement?

There are, however, very few other mathematical achievements of the Maya. Groemer [14] describes seven types of frieze ornaments occurring on Mayan buildings from the period 600 AD to 900 AD in the Puuc region of the Yucatán. This area includes the ruins at Kabah and Labna. Groemer gives twenty-five illustrations of friezes which show Mayan inventiveness and geometric intuition in such architectural decorations.

Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson

List of References (26 books/articles)
Other Web sites

1. Kevin Brown (Mayan numeration)

2. Rhonda Robinson (Mayan numbers)

3. Mayan World Study Center (Mayan Mathematics)

4. Mayan World Study Center (The Mayan calendar)

5. Michiel Berger (Mayan Astronomy)

6. B and V Böhm (The Dresden codex)

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Hernán Cortés, excited by stories of the lands which Columbus had recently discovered, sailed from Spain in 1505 landing in Hispaniola which is now Santo Domingo. After farming there for some years he sailed with Velázquez to conquer Cuba in 1511.

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On the bottom of the page, this website explains how the Mayans made a hot drink for the rich that we call "hot cocoa".
Citations:
Kindersley, Dorling. “Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and More!” DK Find Out!, Penguin Random House, 2020, www.dkfindout.com/us/history/mayans/what-did-maya-aztecs-and-incas-eat/.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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Visit DK Find Out! to learn about dinosaurs, space, animals, nature & more. Fun learning activities for kids with videos, quizzes & galleries at DKFindOut.com

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The Mayans believed that their gods lived perfectly human lives, from birth, profession and death. The image below shows 3 of the many gods that the Mayans had.
Citations:
Matisons, Dainis. image. 2020, https://mezoamericatribes.weebly.com/uploads/2/5/3/0/25303779/347284749.jpg?347. Accessed 11 Feb 2020.

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This website is a basic overview of Mayan government and religion.
Citations:
Matisons, Dainis. "Maya Government & Religion". Maya Government & Religion, 2020, https://mezoamericatribes.weebly.com/maya-government--religion.html.

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No single king ruled the entire civilization alone. Instead there were emperors selected by the nobles underneath the king who would rule different areas of the Mayan civilization. We practice a similar division with our local politics verses federal politics.

The emperor in charge of each province, would hand pick miners, builders, workers, farmers, warriors, and priests. Trade and their religious system held these diverse and individual areas together in unity.

Mayan followed a polytheistic religion centered on nature, astronomy and rituals. They worshiped a sun god, a maize (corn) god, a rain god, and a moon god along with 165 other gods. Unlike other religions, their gods led very human-like lives. They were born, grew up and performed jobs within each class, and also died.

They believed that all souls wound up in the underworld, even those of their kings. Only those sacrificed, or who died during childbirth, escaped that fate. In addition they believed that their gods were fed by human blood and so they performed human sacrifices regularly to connect with and appease their gods.

They were a people obsessed with time, spending lots of it in determining which were lucky or unlucky days to plant crops, harvest crops, go to war scheduling it based upon Venuses rise or fall in the skies.

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No single king ruled the entire civilization alone. Instead there were emperors selected by the nobles underneath the king who would rule different areas of the Mayan civilization. We practice a similar division with our local politics verses federal politics. The emperor in charge of each province, would hand pick miners, builders, workers, farmers, warriors, and priests.

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Citations:
Yoo, Sellina. "Technology". Ancient Maya Civilization, 2020, https://ancientmayacivilization.weebly.com/technology.html.

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Technology:

Around the Mayan time, the wheel was found and was becoming famous everywhere. Other Mesoamerican civilizations excitedly used the wheel and found it miraculous, but the Mayans decided that the wheel was no use to them, because they did not domesticate animals, unlike other Mesoamerican civilizations, and what was the use of the wheel with no tamed animals? The Mayans firmly thought that it would be more efficient to use people to transport materials, and not use a cart.

The Mayans developed a very important transport device, a device that is still used now. It was called a tumpline or a mecapal. It allowed the Mayans to carry 125 pounds on their backs with ease and comfort. There was a strap around the shoulders that was connected to a frame or to other straps to support heavy loads. The tumpline is still used today, even if we changed it a little.

Mayans were also professionals at making tools out of jadeite. On a scale of 1 to 10 of mineral hardness, the maximum is 10 for a diamond. Steel is 5, and jadeite is 6.5 to 7. It is surprising, but jadeite is harder than steel and iron.

Mayan tools don't belong in the Stone Age or the Iron Age. Also, jadeite tools were not found in royal tombs of dead kings. It is thought that the artisans owned these jadeite tools, and the tools were passed down from artisan families. Only the artisans knew the techniques of designing them as well.

Jadeite tools were not prized nor used by the elites, the nobles. Not only jadeite was used for making tools, but also obsidian was used to make even stronger blades for knives and swords. Obsidian was volcanic glass in a ring of volcanoes along the Pacific coast of the Maya area.

Mayan technicians made techniques for cutting sharp blades. As said, Mayans used specialized jade tools that helped their technological achievements. Maya is thought to be the first civil engineers of the Americas. At the end of the Pleistocene Era, North America was populated with a lot of animals which are now extinct. The Mayan civilization had no iron ore. Now, in Mexico, iron ore is only found 1000 miles north of the state of Colima. Mayan black jadeite tools are very similar to the steel tools we use now. Jadeite tools were used for everything in Mayan life. It was the principal tools for the Mayans. All Mayan technicians used it, sculptors, stone cutters, wood carvers, and artisans.

Mayan jadeite tools ranged from all various sizes and shapes like chisels, gouges, axes, adzes, and hoes. Jadeite is formed in few locations around the world, and is very rare.

It was difficult to get around the Mayan civilization because of the thick jungle and forests. It was very easy to get lost and lose your way around. The Mayans made roads, also called sacbe, along thick jungle roots and slopes to get around more easily and to travel between city-states. The roads were concrete paved like our modern roads. They leaves and thick jungle around the roads were cut away so it would be more comfortable to move around on the roads. That invention made Mayan life way more easier. Kings visited each other more simply, and traders traveled on the roads between city-states all the time without getting lost. Many people believe that the Mayan roads led us to building our modern day highways and concrete paved roads. The Maya was the first civilization in Mesoamerica to build roads to travel from place to place.

Trading was a very big deal in the Maya. Traders traveled on foot and also on sea. They traveled all the way from Cuba to Antigua. They needed cargo vessels for their trading objects and the goods they brought back home. It is said, and quite possibly true since evidence has been found, that Christopher Columbus met a Mayan vessel on his 4th voyage. Mayan ships were long, with a lot of paddlers moving the ship. A Mayan vessel carried cargo and passengers. Seagoing canoes were used until sail powered and motor driven vessels were made and used. The Maya made many important discoveries, and these are not all of them. They invented their own design of an arch, how to build structures made out of cement, how to use a kiln to burn cement, etc. All of these inventions were very important, and without these inventions, our world would be slightly different.

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Technology: Around the Mayan time, the wheel was found and was becoming famous everywhere. Other Mesoamerican civilizations excitedly used the wheel and found it miraculous, but the Mayans decided that the wheel was no use to them, because they did not domesticate animals, unlike other Mesoamerican civilizations, and what was the use of the wheel with no tamed animals?