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Oded Ezer's "Life/Death" t-shirts. I thought this idea was interesting, as he's talking about the refugees from Syria and their situation. My connection with this idea is pretty much related to my past generations. My great grandmother is from Syria, so
I feel sorry for the current situation in her country. This design of leaving the word "death" on the back gives me the feeling that the refugees are leaving the "death" behind and are going to find "life" ahead on their path.
http://www.designindaba.com/articles/creative-work/oded-ezer-designs-lifedeath-t-shirt

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A cylinder-shaped toy from the 19th century. It has a sequence of pictures on the inside surface and vertical slits spaced around it, through wich it is possible to see the pictures inside. When the toy rotates, it's possible to see through the slits the illusion of an animation.

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Camera = Latin for “room”
Obscura = Latin for “dark”

Go into a very dark room on a bright day. Make a small hole in a window cover and look at the opposite wall. What do you see? Magic! There in full color and movement will be the world outside the window — upside down! This magic is explained by a simple law of the physical world. Light travels in a straight line and when some of the rays reflected from a bright subject pass through a small hole in thin material they do not scatter but cross and reform as an upside down image on a flat surface held parallel to the hole.

Info obtained from:
http://brightbytes.com/cosite/what.html

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praxinoscope | Definition of praxinoscope in English by Oxford Dictionaries

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Definition of praxinoscope - A toy resembling a zoetrope, in which a series of figures representing successive positions of a moving object are arranged on the

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An early type of projector that used still images in a transparent slide.

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shadow theatre | Definition of shadow theatre in English by Oxford Dictionaries

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Definition of shadow theatre - a display in which the shadows of flat jointed puppets are cast on a screen which is viewed by the audience from the other side. S

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Wolfgang Tillmans' work research

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The opening today of "2017," Wolfgang Tillmans's survey at Tate Modern, is bringing a much needed breath of fresh air to the London museum, and not because recent exhibitions might have been lackluster-on the contrary, the ongoing Robert Rauschenberg retrospective is a triumph, and the recent solos of Agnes Martin and Sonia Delaunay were impeccable, to name a few.

Yet, showing a living and breathing artist who's making art in response to current events has turned those white walls into a stage that feels unquestionably more relevant.

And if there's one artist who has been making work about urgent matters, it is definitely Tillmans. His " EU Campaign " posters became the defining pro-Remain, anti-Brexit artwork, ahead of the UK referendum last year. Articulating what many people had in mind but were struggling to find words to express, those posters became emblems, freely distributed and printed, stuck to windows and wielded in demonstrations.

Working tirelessly since the early 1990s, it's been many years now since Tillmans's oeuvre completed, with flying colors, the arduous journey from the pages of fashion magazines to the walls and floors of museum across the world-Turner Prize included, an accolade which Tillmans won in 2000, becoming the first non-British artist do so.

The transition somewhat echoes that of fellow photographer Juergen Teller. Both were born in 1960s Germany, and started their careers as young artists in London. Both became beacons of youth culture thanks to their work for cult magazines like The Face or I-D. And, ultimately, both were accepted by museums, galleries, critics, and curators as "serious artists" (whatever that means).

But, while Teller's mostly figurative photographic work feels humorous, buoyant, and theatrical, Tillmans's work has always been introverted, exacting, and precise; keenly interested in formal experimentation and display, curious about the possibilities of abstraction, and definitely politically oriented.

"2017" is not a retrospective, Tate tells us, but this gathering of works-dating mostly from 2003 to now (with the exception of the 1983-89 series "FRAGILE")-is exhaustive enough to encompass all the key strands of his multifarious practice.

Pretty much everything is here: portraits of friends and exquisitely-cropped fragments of the bodies of lovers; domestic still-lifes; clubbing scenes; travelogues of trips to Ethiopia, St. Petersburg, and Los Angeles; abstract, almost sculptural works in the shape of folded prints in box frames and paper drops; his works on tables, most notably his "Truth Study Center" series; artist books and magazine interventions; the pro-EU posters...

Here we also find his forays into sound installation-music being one of his most enduring passions-via his ongoing " Playback Room," where music is played and lectures and conversation staged; performance, through the video Instrument (2015); and even running an artist space, Between Bridges, launched in London in 2006 and then transferred to Berlin, where Tillmans is now mostly based.

His voracious curiosity is palpable, as is his creative energy. In fact, surveying Tillmans's career is akin to witnessing his relentless ambition and the development of his talent. Having mastered a signature photographic style, and having carved a name for himself in the world of fashion and editorial photography, was clearly not enough for him. He had more and bigger things to say, and had to find new means to say them.

Engaging with forms of display was a natural step, a knack probably stemming from seeing his work laid out in countless magazines and books. The influence that Tillmans has had in contemporary display can't be overstated, particularly in the now-ubiquitous style of exhibiting photography unframed and pinned to the wall with bulldog clips.

Perhaps as a continuation of his more textural photographs-depicting fabrics and still lifes so close up they become difficult to read-experiments in abstraction followed suit, many of them featuring what is perhaps his favorite motif: the fold, which, as the exhibition's curator Chris Dercon kindly reminded us, was considered by the philosopher Leibniz as one of the most accurate ways to depict the complexities of the human soul.

In 2005, he began one of his most celebrated series: "Truth Study Center," table-based installations, sometimes in very large clusters, in which he displays newspaper clippings, creating new readings and meanings while questioning the veracity of those claims.

"Truth Study Center," which is ongoing, has always felt compelling, one of Tillmans's most daring and astute series. But in our current "post-truth" world of "alternative facts" and "fake news," it feels simultaneously incredibly prescient and of the moment.

"I was enraged and concerned and spending a lot of time reading media and thinking about all these different claims to the truth, 'the big truth' which was the ultimate justification behind all that violence and those wars. I realized that all the problems that the world faces right now arise from men claiming to possess absolute truths," Tillmans told me in 2010, when I interviewed him about this specific series of works, which were being shown as part of the exhibition " The Last Newspaper " at New York's New Museum.

Almost seven years have passed, and his words and works seem just as relevant, if not more. In the show, there's a slew of explicitly political works, besides of course the anti-Brexit posters.

Particularly poignant is a 2016 series of images taken in border controls ("Border Installation"), and photographs of various seas and of a rescue mission in the island of Lampedusa, all referring to the plight of migrants and refugees, and how the western world is becoming a much more unwelcoming and dangerous place for those seeking new beginnings.

And yet, even at his most political and conceptual, there is always beauty and poetry in Tillmans's work.

"This exhibition is not about politics, it's about poetry, it's about installation art. It's about thinking about the world. I've never felt that the private and political can be separated, because the political is only the accumulation of many people's private lives, which constitute the body politics," Tillmans told me yesterday.

"My work has always been motivated by talking about society, by talking about how we live together, by how we feel in our bodies. Sexuality, like beauty, is never un-political, because they relate to what's accepted in society. Two men kissing, is that acceptable? These are all questions to do with beauty."

Ultimately, Tillmans's work states the belief that art is valuable and has a purpose-that beauty can have a positive effect. His stance is basically the opposite of irony and jadedness. Instead, he is earnest and optimistic, and his works seem to say that the world is beautiful, that life and freedom are precious, and that we should all work together to secure and preserve them, especially in the face of current threats.
"Wolfgang Tillmans: 2017" is on view at Tate Modern, London, from February 15 - June 11, 2017.

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Wolfgang Tillmans' Superb Survey at Tate Modern Has It All | artnet News

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The opening today of "2017," Wolfgang Tillmans's survey at Tate Modern, is bringing a much needed breath of fresh air to the London museum, and not because recent exhibitions might have been lackluster-on the contrary, the ongoing Robert Rauschenberg retrospective is a triumph, and the recent solos of Agnes Martin and Sonia Delaunay were impeccable, to name a few.

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Karen Stuke's work research

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This article has repeated information and it doesn't hold the reader's attention, therefore it's difficult to read. As a result and a matter of fact, I took two days to read it. The author clearly has focused more energy looking for theories instead of using it to write with his own words and ideas about the topic of the text.

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Authorship has become a popular term in graphic design circles, especially in those at the edges of the profession: the design academies and the murky territory between design and art. The word has an important ring to it, with seductive connotations of origination and agency. But the question of how designers become authors is a difficult one. and exactly who qualifies and what authored design might look like depends on how you define the term and determine admission into the pantheon.

Authorship may suggest new approaches to the issue of the design process in a profession traditionally associated more with the communication rather than the origination of messages. But theories of authorship also serve as legitimising strategies, and authorial aspirations may end up reinforcing certain conservative notions of design production and subjectivity - ideas that run counter to recent critical attempts to overthrow the perception of design as based on individual brilliance. The implications of such a re-definition deserve careful scrutiny. What does it really mean to call for a graphic designer to be an author?

The meaning of the word 'author' has shifted significantly through history and has been the subject of intense scrutiny over the last 40 years. The earliest definitions are not associated with writing per se, but rather denote 'the person who originates or gives existence to anything'. Other usages have authoritarian - even patriarchal - connotations: 'the father of all life', 'any inventor, constructor or founder', 'one who begets' and 'a director, commander, or ruler'. More recently, Wimsatt and Beardsley's seminal essay 'The Intention Fallacy' (1946) was one of the first to drive a wedge between the author and the text with its claim that a reader could never really 'know' the author through his or her writing.(1) The so-called 'death of the Author', proposed most succinctly by Roland Barthes in a 1968 essay of that name, is closely linked to the birth of critical theory, especially theory based in reader response and interpretation rather than intentionality.(2) Michel Foucault used the rhetorical question 'What is an Author?' in 1969 as the title of an influential essay which, in response to Barthes, outlines the basic characteristics and functions of the author and the problems associated with conventional ideas of authorship and origination.(3)

Foucault demonstrated that over the centuries the relationship between the author and the text has changed. The earliest sacred texts are authorless, their origins lost in history. In fact, the ancient, anonymous origin of such texts serves as a kind of authentication. On the other hand, scientific texts, at least until after the Renaissance, demanded an author's name as validation. By the eighteenth century, however, Foucault asserts, the situation had reversed: literature was authored and science had become the product of anonymous objectivity. Once authors began to be punished for their writing - that is, when a text could be transgressive - the link between the author and the text was firmly established. Text became a kind of private property, owned by the author, and a critical theory developed which reinforced that relationship, searching for keys to the text in the life and intention of its writer. With the rise of scientific method, on the other hand, scientific texts and mathematical proofs were no longer seen as authored texts but as discovered truths. The scientist revealed an extant phenomenon, a fact anyone faced with the same conditions would have uncovered. Therefore the scientist and mathematician could be the first to discover a paradigm, and lend their name to it, but could never claim authorship over it.

Post-structuralist readings tend to criticise the prestige attributed to the figure of the author. The focus shifts from the author's intention to the internal workings of the writing: not what it means but how it means. Barthes ends his essay supposing 'the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the Author'.(4) Foucault imagines a time when we might ask, 'What difference does it make who is speaking?'(5) The notion that a text is a line of words that releases a single meaning, the central message of and author / god, is overthrown.

Post-modernism turned on a 'fragmented and schizophrenic decentering and dispersion' of the subject, noted Frederic Jameson.(6) The notion of a decentred text - a text which is skewed from the direct line of communication between sender and receiver, severed from the authority of its origin, and exists as a free floating element in a field of possible significations - has figured heavily in recent constructions of a design based in reading and readers. But Katherine McCoy's prescient image of designers moving beyond problem-solving and by 'authoring additional content and a self-conscious critique of the message ... adopting roles associated with art and literature' has as often as not been misconstrued.(7) Rather than working to incorporate theory into their methods of production, many so-called 'deconstructivist' designers literally illustrated Barthes' image of a reader-based text - 'a tissue of quotations drawn from innumerable centres of culture' - by scattering fragments of quotations across the surface of their 'authored' posters and book covers.(8) The dark implications of Barthes' theory, note Ellen Lupton and J. Abbott Miller, were fashioned into 'a romantic theory of self expression'.(9)

Perhaps after years as faceless facilitators, designers were ready to speak out. Some may have been eager to discard the internal affairs of formalism - to borrow a metaphor used by Paul de Man - and branch out into the foreign affairs of external politics and content.(10) By the 1970s Design had begun to discard the scientific approach that had held sway for decades, exemplified by the rationalist ideology that preached strict adherence to an eternal grid.

Müller-Brockmann's evocation of the 'aesthetic quality of mathematical thinking' is the clearest and most cited example of this approach.(11) Müller-Brockmann and a slew of fellow researchers such as Kepes, Dondis and Arnheim worked to uncover a pre-existing order and form in the way a scientist reveals 'truth'. But what is most peculiar and revealing in Müller-Brockmann's writing is his reliance on tropes of submission: the designers submits to the will of the system, forgoes personality, withholds interpretation.

On the surface, at least, it would seem that designers were moving away from authorless, scientific texts - in which inviolable visual principles arrived at through extensive visual research were revealed - towards a position in which the designer could claim some level of ownership over the message (and this at a time when literary theory was moving away from that very position). But some of the institutional features of design practice are at odds with zealous attempts at self-expression. The idea of a decentred message does not necessarily sit well in a professional relationship in which the client is paying the designer to convey specific information or emotions. In addition, most design is done in a collaborative setting, either within a client relationship or in the context of a studio that utilises the talents of numerous creative people, with the result that the origin of any particular idea is uncertain. The ever-present pressure of technology and electronic communication only muddies the water further.

Is there an auteur in the house?
It is perhaps not surprising that Barthes' 'The Death of the Author' was written in Paris in 1968, the year students joined workers on the barricades in a general strike and the western world flirted with real social revolution. The call for the overthrow of authority in the form of the author in favour of the reader - i.e. the masses - had a real resonance in 1968. But to lose power you must have already worn a mantle, which is perhaps why designers had a problem in trying to overthrow a power which they never possessed.

The figure of the author implied a totalitarian control over creative activity and seemed an essential ingredient of high art. If the relative level of genius - on the part of the author, painter, sculptor or composer - was the ultimate measure of artistic achievement, activities that lacked a clear central authority figure were devalued. The development of film theory during the period serves as an interesting example. In 1954 film critic and budding film director François Truffaut had first promulgated the 'politique des auteurs', a polemical strategy developed to reconfigure a critical theory of the cinema.(12) The problem was how to create a theory that imagined a film, necessarily the result of broad collaboration, as the work of a single artist, thus a work of art. The solution was to determine a set of criteria that allowed a critic to define certain directors as auteurs. In order to establish the film as a work of art, auteur theory held that the director - hitherto merely one third of the creative troika of director, writer and cinematographer - had ultimate control over the entire project.

Auteur theory - especially as espoused by the American critic Andrew Saris - speculated that directors must meet three criteria in order to pass into the sacred hall of auteurs.(13) Sarris proposed that the director must demonstrate technical expertise, have a stylistic signature that is visible over the course of several films and, through his or her choice of projects and cinematic treatment, show a consistency of vision and interior meaning. Since the film director had little control of the material he or she worked with - especially within the Hollywood studio system, where directors were assigned to projects - the signature way a range of scripts was treated was especially important.

The interesting thing about auteur theory is that film theorists, like designers, had to construct the notion of the author as a means of raising what was considered low entertainment to the plateau of fine art. The parallels between film direction and design practice are striking. Like the film director, the art director or designer is often distanced from his or her material and works collaboratively on it, directing the activity of a number of other creative people. In addition, over the course of a career both the film director and the designer work on a number of different projects with varying levels of creative potential. As a result, any inner meaning must come from aesthetic treatment as much as from content.

If we apply the criteria used to identify auteurs to graphic designers, we yield a body of work that may be elevated to auteur status. Technical proficiency could be claimed by any number of practitioners, but couple this with a signature style and the field narrows. The designers who fulfil these criteria will be familiar to any Eye reader; many of them have been featured in the magazine. (And, of course, selective republishing of certain work and exclusion of other construct a stylistically consistent oeuvre.) The list would probably include Fabian Baron, Tibor Kalman, David Carson, Neville Brody, Edward Fella, Anthon Beeke, Pierre Bernard, Gert Dunbar, Tadanoori Yokoo, Vaughn Oliver, Rick Valincenti, April Greiman, Jan van Toorn, Wolfgang Weingart and many others. But great technique and style alone do not an auteur make. If we add the requirement of interior meaning, how does this list fare? Are there designers who by special treatment and choice of projects approach the issue of deeper meaning in the way Bergman, Hitchcock or Welles does?

How do you compare a film poster with the film itself? The very scale of a cinematic project allows for a sweep of vision not possible in graphic design. Therefore graphic auteurs, almost by definition, would have to have produced large established bodies of work in which discernible patterns emerge. Who, then, are the graphic auteurs? Perhaps Bernard and Van Toorn, possibly Oliver, Beeke and Fella. There is a sense of getting a bigger idea, a deeper quality to their work, aided in the case of Bernard and van Toorn by their political affiliations and in Oliver by long association that produces a consistent genre of music, allowing for a range of experimentation. In these cases the graphic auteur both seeks projects he is commissioned to work on from a specific, recognisable critical perspective. Van Toorn will look at a brief for a corporate annual report from a socio-economic position, Bernard evokes a position of class struggle, capitalist brutality and social dysfunction and Oliver examines dark issues of decay, rapture and the human body. Jean Renoir observed that an artistic director spends his whole career remaking variations on the same film.

Great stylists such as Carson and Baron do not seem to qualify for admission to the auteur pantheon, at least according to Sarris's criteria, as it is difficult to discern a message in their work that transcends the stylistic elegance of the typography in the case of Baron and the studied inelegance of that of Carson. (You have to ask yourself, 'What is their work about?') Valicenti and Brody try to inject inner meaning into their work - as in Valicenti's self published Aids advertising and Brody's attachment to the post-linguistic alphabet systems - but their output remains impervious to any such intrusion. A judgement such as this, however, brings us to the Achilles' heel of auteur theory. In trying to describe interior meaning, Sarris resorts to 'the intangible difference between one personality and another'.(14) That retreat to intangibility - the 'I can't say what it is but I know it when I see it' aspect - is one of the reasons why the theory has long since fallen into disfavour in film criticism circles. It also never dealt adequately with the collaborative nature of cinema and the messy problems of movie-making. But while the theory is passé, its effect is still with us: the director to this day sits squarely at the centre of our perception of film structure. In the same way it could be that we have been applying a modified graphic auteur theory for years without being aware of it. After all, what is design theory if not a series of critical elevations and demotions as our attitudes about style, meaning and significance evolve?

Other models of authorship
Auteur theory maybe too limited a model for our current image of design authorship, but there are other ways to frame the issue based on different kinds of practice: the artist's book, concrete poetry, political activism, publishing, illustration and so on. Could a theory of poetics be a functional model? Use is a major sticking point in trying to view designed work as poetic: traditionally the poem as artwork is a self-contained artefact, while design refers to some exterior function or overt intention.

This poetic / practical opposition is resolved in two examples of design production: the artist's book and activist design. The artist's book offers a form of design authorship from which function has been fully exorcised. The artist's book, in general, is concrete, self-referential and allows for a range of visual experiments without the burden of fulfilling mundane commercial tasks. There is a long tradition of artists' books through the historical avant-garde, the Situationists, Fluxus and experimental publishing in the 1960s and 1970s. Its exponents include an eclectic mix of designers and authors (Dieter Rot, Tom Phillips, Warren Lehrer, Tom Ockerse, Johanna Drucker) as well as visual artists (Robert Morris, Barbara Kruger, Mary Kelly, Jenny Holzer, Hans Haacke). Dieter Rot has produced a monumental and consistent body of books which explore in a self-reflexive way, the nature of books. Lehrer has focused on production processes, such as printing and binding, and aspects of dialogue and narrative. He has recently produced a new group of graphic portraits, distributed in the form of trade paperback, perhaps the most recent attempt at wide distribution.

Artists' books - using words, images, structure and material to tell a story or invoke an emotion - may be the purest form of graphic authorship. But the odd thing about the genre is that many of the most skilled designers have avoided it and much of the work produced under the rubrik is of sub-standard graphic quality (not in terms of production values, which are often necessarily low, but in typography and composition). The singularity of the artist's book, the low technical quality and the absence of a practical application may alienate the professional graphic designer.

If the difference between poetry and practical messages is that the latter are successful only when we correctly infer the intention., then activist design would be labelled as absolutely practical. But activist work - including the work of Gran Fury, Bureau, Woman's Action Coalition, General Idea, ACT-UP, Class Action and Guerilla Girls - is also self-motivated and self-authored with a clear political agenda. Proactive work has a voice and a message, but in its overt intentionality lacks the self-referentiality of the artist's book. Yet several problems cloud the issue of authored activism, not least the question of collaboration. Whose voice is speaking? Not an individual, but some kind of unified community. Is this work open for interpretation or is its point the brutal transmission of a specific message? The rise of activist authorship has complicated the whole idea of authorship as a kind of free self-expression.

Perhaps the graphic author is one that writes and publishes material about design - Josef Müller-Brockmann or Rudy VanderLans, Paul Rand or Erik Spiekermann, William Morris or Neville Brody, Robin Kinross or Ellen Lupton. The entrepreneurial arm of authorship affords the possibility of a personal voice and wide distribution. Most split the activities into three discreet actions: editing, writing and designing. Even as their own clients, the design remains the vehicle of the written thought. (Kinross, for instance, works as a historian then changes hats and becomes a typographer.) Rudy VanderLans is perhaps the purest of the entrepreneurial authors, since in Emigre all three activities blend into a continuous whole. In Emigre the content is deeply embedded in the form - that is, the formal exploration is as much the content of the magazine as the writing. VanderLans expresses his message through the selection of the material (as an editor), the content of the writing (as a writer) and the form of the pages and typography (as a form-giver).

Ellen Lupton and her partner J. Abbott Miller have almost single-handedly constructed the new critical approach to graphic design, coupled with an exploratory practice. A project such as 'The Bathroom, the Kitchen and the Aesthetics of Waste', an exhibition at the MIT List Visual Arts Centre, seems to approach a new level of graphic authorship. The message is expressed equally through graphic / visual devices and text. The design of the show evokes the issues that are its content; it is clearly self-reflexive. (The exhibition catalogue, by contrast, does not embody the same level of graphic authorship. Here Lupton seem to have slipped back into the more familiar, functionally separate roles of author and designer.) But much of their other work demands to be reckoned with, visually and verbally.

While Lupton and Miller''s work is primarily critical - a reading of exterior social and historical phenomena directed at a specific audience - the illustrated book, often overlooked by the design community, is almost entirely concerned with the generation of creative narrative. Books for children have been one of the most successful outlets, but author / illustrators such as Sue Coe, Art Spiegelmann, Charles Burns, Ben Katchor, Dave McCaulley, Chris van Allesburg, Edward Gorey and Maurice Sendak have also used the book in wholly inventive ways and produced serious work. Books such as Speigelmann's Maus and Coe's X and Porkopolis expand the form into new areas.

Other models that may indicate a level of graphic authorship include projects of such a scale that the designer is called on to make sense of a sea of material and construct narrative. Bruce Mau's work with Rem Koolhaas on the gigantic S,M,L,XL, an architectural and typographic 'novel' (see Eye no.15 vol.4), and Irma Boom's five-year commission from a powerful Dutch corporation to create a commemorative work of unspecified form, scale and content are two such projects. Here the designer - working like a film director on the unfolding cinematic structure of the work - assumes a primary position in the shaping of material.

The final category is that of designers who use the medium of professional graphic design to create self-referential statements and comparisons. Examples include April Greiman's special issue of Design Quarterly, a full-scale image of her pixellated body with a personal text full of dreams and visions, and any number of intricate and enigmatic works by the likes of Tom Bonauro and Allen Hori (for instance, Hori's graphic interpretation of a Beatrice Warde essay in a recent Mohawk paper promotion). Operating in a space between service-orientated projects and free expression, these works eschew the parameters of a client relationship while retaining the forms dictated by the needs of commerce: the book, poster, exhibition and so on. In the case of Hori's visual essay, the client pays for a graphic work to embellish a corporate project and the designer lends his avant-garde credentials to the corporation.

Forward or backwards?
If the ways a designer can be an author are complex and confused, the way designers have used the term and the value ascribed to it are equally so. Any number of recent statements claim authorship as the panacea to the woes of the brow-beaten designer. A recent call for entries for a design exhibition entitled 'Designer as Author: Voices and Visions' sought to identify 'graphic designers who are engaged in work that transcends the traditional service-oriented commercial production, and who pursue projects that are personal, social or investigative in nature'(15) The rejection of the role of the facilitator and call to 'transcend' traditional production imply that the authored design holds some higher, purer purpose. The amplification of the personal voice legitimises design as equal to more traditional privileged forms of authorship.

But if designers should aim for open readings and free textual interpretations - as a litany of contemporary theorists have convinced us - that desire is thwarted by oppositional theories of authorship. Foucault noted that the figure of the author is not a particularly liberating one: the author as origin, authority and ultimate owner of the text guards against free will of the reader. Transferring the authority of the text back over to the author contains and categorises the work, narrowing the possibilities for interpretation. The figure of the author reconfirms the traditional idea of the genius creator; the status of the creator frames the work and imbues it with mythical value.

While some claims for authorship may be simply an indication of a renewed sense of responsibility, at times they seem ploys to gain proper rights, attempts to exercise some kind of agency where there has traditionally been none. Ultimately the author equals authority. While the longing for graphic authorship may be the longing for legitimacy or power, is celebrating the design as central character necessarily a positive move? Isn't that what has fuelled the last 50 years of design history? If we really want to go beyond the designer-as-hero model, we may have to imagine a time when we can ask, 'what difference does it make who designed it?'

On the other hand work is created by someone. (All those calls for the death of the author are made by famous authors.) While the development and definition of artistic styles, and their identification and classification, are at the heart of an outmoded Modernist criticism, we must still work to engage these problems in new ways. It may be that the real challenge is to embrace the multiplicity of methods - artistic and commercial, individual and collaborative - that comprises design language. An examination of the designer-as-author could help us to rethink process, expand design methods and elaborate our historical frame to incorporate all forms of graphic discourse. But while theories of graphic authorship may change the way work is made, the primary concern of both the viewer and the critic is not who made it, but rather what it does and how it does it.

(1) WK Wimsatt and Monroe C. Beardsley, 'The Intentional Fallacy' in Critical Theory since Plato, ed. Hazard Adams, New York: HBJ, 1971

(2) Roland Barthes, 'The Death of the Author', in Image-Music-Text, New York, Hill and Wang (translated by Stephen Heath), 1977

(3) Michel Foucault, 'What is an Author?' in Textual Strategies, ed. Josué Harari, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979

(4) Barthes, op. cit, p145.

(5) Foucault, op. cit, p160

(6) Fredric Jameson quoted in Mark Dery, 'The Persistence of Industrial Memory' in Architecture New York no. 10, p25

(7) Katherine McCoy, 'The New Discourse' in Design Quarterly no. 148, 1990, p.16

(8) Barthes, op. cit., p146

(9) Ellen Lupton and J. Abbott Miller, 'Deconstruction and Graphic Design: History meets Theory' in Visible Language 228.4, ed. Andrew Blauvelt, Autumn 1994, p352

(10) Paul de Man, 'Semiology and Rhetoric' in Textual Strategies, op. cit, p121

(11) Josef Müller-Brockmann, Grid Systems in Graphic Design, Stuttgart, Verlag Gerd Jatje, 1981, p10

(12) Cahiers du cinéma, no. 31, January 1954

(13) See Andrew Sarris, The Primal Screen, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1973

(14) Andrew Serris, 'Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962' in Film Culture reader, ed. P. Adams Sitney, New York, Praeger Publishers, 1970, p133

(15) 'Re:Quest for Submissions' to the 'Designer as Author: Voices and Visions' exhibition, Northern Kentucky University, 1996

First published in Eye no. 20 vol. 5 1996

Eye is the world's most beautiful and collectable graphic design journal, published quarterly for professional designers, students and anyone interested in critical, informed writing about graphic design and visual culture. It is available from all good design bookshops and online at the Eye shop, where you can buy subscriptions and single issues.

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Authorship has become a popular term in graphic design circles, especially in those at the edges of the profession: the design academies and the murky territory between design and art. The word has an important ring to it, with seductive connotations of origination and agency.

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From this text I managed to extract some useful tips, and read it much faster and more efficiently than the other text. Among the tips, I can say that a few questions (though outdated) can still be effective to at least offer some guidance on this self-publish business. The questions I took from the text are: "Where will the work be read? Who will read it? How will it be manufactured? What other texts and pictures will surround it?". These questions can help me focus on the key aspects of publishing something: your targeted audience, how to reach this audience and how to use the looks of your work to attract your audience's attention to it.

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"The Designer as Producer," essay by Ellen Lupton, published in The Education of a Graphic Designer, ed. Steven Heller (New York: Allworth Press, 1998), 159-62.

Reprinted in Graphic Design: Now in Production, ed. Andrew Blauvelt and Ellen Lupton (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2012), 12-13.

The slogan "designer as author" has enlivened debates about the future of graphic design since the early 1990s. The word author suggests agency, intention, and creation, as opposed to the more passive functions of consulting, styling, and formatting. Authorship is a provocative model for rethinking the role of the graphic designer at the start of the millennium; it hinges, however, on a nostalgic ideal of the writer or artist as a singular point of origin. As an alternative to "designer as author" I suggest "designer as producer."

The avant-garde movements of the 1910s and 20s critiqued the ideal of authorship as a process of dredging unique forms from the depths of the interior self. Artists and intellectuals challenged romantic definitions of art by plunging into the worlds of mass media and mass production.

Production is a concept embedded in the history of modernism. Avant-garde artists and designers treated the techniques of manufacture not as neutral, transparent means to an end but as devices equipped with cultural meaning and aesthetic character. In 1934, the German critic Walter Benjamin wrote "The Author as Producer," a text that attacked the conventional view of authorship as a purely literary enterprise. He exclaimed that new forms of communication-film, radio, advertising, newspapers, the illustrated press-were melting down traditional artistic genres and corroding the borders between writing and reading, authoring and editing.

Benjamin was a Marxist, committed to the notion that the technologies of manufacture should be owned by the workers who operate them. In Marxist terminology, the "means of production" are the heart of human culture and should be collectively owned. Benjamin claimed that writing (and other arts) are grounded in the material structures of society, from the educational institutions that foster literacy to the publishing networks that manufacture and distribute texts. In detailing an agenda for a politically engaged literary practice, Benjamin demanded that artists must not merely adopt political "content," but must revolutionize the means through which their work is produced and distributed.

Benjamin attacked the model of the writer as an "expert" in the field of literary form, equipped only to craft words into texts and not to question the physical life of the work. The producer must ask, Where will the work be read? Who will read it? How will it be manufactured? What other texts and pictures will surround it? Benjamin argued that artists and photographers must not view their task as solely visual, lest they become mere suppliers of form to the existing apparatus of bourgeois publishing: "What we require of the photographer is the ability to give his picture the caption that wrenches it from modish commerce and gives it a revolutionary useful value. But we shall make this demand most emphatically when we-the writers-take up photography. Here, too, therefore, technical progress is for the author as producer the foundation of political progress" (230).

Benjamin claimed that to bridge the divide between author and publisher, author and reader, poet and popularizer, is a revolutionary act, because it challenges the professional and economic categories upon which the institutions of "literature" and "art" are erected. Benjamin's Marxist emphasis has a tragic edge when viewed from the vantage point of today. By the time he wrote "The Author as Producer," abstract art was already at variance with Stalin's state-enforced endorsement of social realism. Benjamin applauded Dada and Surrealism for challenging the institutions of art, and yet such experimental forms were forbidden in the Soviet state he so admired. Benjamin's theory of the author as producer remains relevant today, however, even if one proposes more modest challenges to the existing structures of media and publishing, opening new paths of access to the means of manufacture and dissemination.

In the 1920s, Benjamin met Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, the Hungarian Constructivist whose work as a photographer, typographer, artist, and writer made him a prominent figure at the Bauhaus. Benjamin's 1928 collection of essays One-Way Street reflects on experimental typography and the proliferation of such commercial media as the pamphlet, poster, and advertisement, which were upending the classical book as literature's sacred vessel. Benjamin wrote: "Printing, having found in the book a refuge in which to lead an autonomous existence, is pitilessly dragged out onto the street by advertisements and subjected to the brutal heteronomies of economic chaos. This is the hard schooling of its new form." Describing the relation of authorship to technology, Benjamin predicted that the writer will begin to compose his work with a typewriter instead of a pen when "the precision of typographic forms has entered directly into the conception of his books. One might suppose that new systems with more variable typefaces might then be needed" (79).

Such "new systems" are, of course, ubiquitous today in the form of software for word-processing and desk-top publishing. These tools have altered the tasks of graphic designers, enlarging their powers as well as burdening them with more kinds of work to do. Such is the rub of de-specialization. Benjamin celebrated the proletarian ring of the word "production," and the word carries those connotations forward into the current period. Within the professional context of graphic design, "production" is linked to the preparation of "artwork" for mechanical reproduction, rather than to the intellectual realm of "design." Production belongs to the physical activity of the base, the factory floor: it is the traditional domain of the paste-up artist, the stripper, the letterer, the typesetter. The "desktop" revolution that began in the mid-1980s brought these roles back into the process of design. The proletarianization of design offers designers a new crack at materialism, a chance to re-engage the physical aspects of our work. Whereas the term "author," like "designer," suggests the cerebral workings of the mind, production privileges the activity of the body. Production is rooted in the material world. It values things over ideas, making over imagining, practice over theory.

When Benjamin called for authors to become producers, he did not mean for them to become factory workers alienated from the form and purpose of the manufactured thing. The challenge for educators today is to help designers become the masters, not the slaves, of technology. There exist oportunities to seize control-intellectually and economically-of the means of production, and to share that control with the reading public, empowering them to become producers as well as consumers of meaning. As Benjamin phrased it in 1934, the goal is to turn "readers or spectators into collaborators" (233). His words resonate in current educational models, which encourage students to view the reader as a participant in the construction of meaning.

How can schools help students along such a path at this critical juncture in our history?

*Language is a raw material.* Enhance students' verbal literacy, giving them the confidence to work with and as editors, without forcing them to become writers.

*Theory is a practice.* Foster literacy by integrating the humanities into the studio. Infuse the act of making with the act of thinking.

*Writing is a tool.* Casual writing experiences encourage students to use writing as a device for "prototyping," to be employed alongside sketching, diagramming, and other forms of conceptualization.

*Technology is physical.* Whether the product of our work is printed on paper or emitted from a screen, designers deal with the human, material response to information.

*The medium is on the menu.* Familiarize students with the many ways that information and ideas are disseminated in contemporary life. Give them the tools to find their rightful place in the food chain.

The power of the term "author"-its cultural authority-lies in its connection to the written text. In order for designers to take charge of the content and social function of their work, they need not become fluent writers, no more than an art director must become a professional photographer or illustrator in order to use these media effectively. In the business of film, a "producer" brings together a broad range of skills-writing, directing, acting, cinematography, editing, and so on-in a work whose authorship is shared. For the designer to become a producer, she must have the skills to begin directing content, by critically navigating the social, aesthetic, and technological systems across which communications flow.

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"The Designer as Producer," essay by Ellen Lupton, published in The Education of a Graphic Designer, ed. Steven Heller (New York: Allworth Press, 1998), 159-62. Reprinted in Graphic Design: Now in Production, ed. Andrew Blauvelt and Ellen Lupton (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2012), 12-13.

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Talk 1 with Vanessa Carlos and Stefano Benholm
• The project Condo was born out of a frustration > gallery prices are expensive > artists are forced to exhibit what sells, not what they want and believe in;
• "Condo" stands for "condominium" (community is the real meaning behind this name);
• Partners are chosen in an organic way > people who think like those of Condo > those who didn't go to the capitalist side;
• Artists were frustrated with the "lack" (didn't find a more suitable word) of spaces for an exhibition;
• Used parties and young people - who'd rather get drunk than go to an art gallery - to get money to build a space;
• They know the current model doedoesn't work for them > had to innovate;
• "Big galleries > only care about profit > are unsustainable > contextualise the artist;
• Find partners in different fields > contacts > network;
• 120 galleries worldwide joined Condo;
[Condo > 3 years; Vanessa's gallery > 7 years]
• "In London, people have this appetite for art" > Vanessa's gallery is full since the first year;
• Huge taboo around the contract > good contract is about mutual benefit > the one who gets most benefited in the contract is the artist > an open communication is key for being clear about the contract's conditions;
• High taxes discourage the support for art;
• Collaboration is key for multiple benefit;
• Knowing the market is vital because if you go the wrong way, you may finish your carer before it starts;
• Artists usually get unrealistic demands of what young galleries can do;
• Contract > good for setting the rules only;
• "Pyramid" > everything points to the corporation > art will only be to get money > it will lose all its intellectual value.
Talk 2 with Livia Benedetti and Vivian Gandelsman
• Aarea > online platform that exhibits only the artist's work and only 1 artist per time > each exhibition lasts about 1 month;
• Use Facebook and Instagram to divulge a new project/exhibition;
• Artload > video platform that "tracks down" the artists;
• Why digital platforms? Art doesn'twant to go to the net > they wanted to take the art to other places, where people could have access to art;
• Creative Economy on the Arabian Emirates (don't know if this is correct) > spent 10 months travelling > returned to Brazil with an urge for doing something new;
• Challenges of working on the Internet: technical problems they don't know how to solve > network > have contacts that can help them with that;
• Aarea began with no business planning, with only the will of doing something;
• "How do you make money?" Tried a sponsor > it's been 1 year they have patrons > gallerists help using ads > have PayPal but hasn't been receiving any donations recently;
• Depend on Facebook for divulging their site;
• Collaborative system;
• Curators search diversity.
Kevin, Rafael and Splitstudio talk
• Future skill lacking > one of them is management;
• VFX editor > has to know everything, talk to the director and actors saying what's possible and what's not;
• Because of the speed, most of the 2D animations are presented on the TV;

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• Graphic design is not static > never the same;
• Graphic design and illustration have a lot to do with communication;
• Illustration doesn't always have to do with drawing;
• Labels are bad > make it difficult to have original ideas > corporation;
• Start with simple things: character design, storyboard;
• Come up with strategies that will get the best of me;
• Don't think, just immerse yourself in it;
• There's no "1 size fits all", there's no "golden rule" so the best thing you can do is be hungry and stay hungry, like a lion on the savanna;
• You have to see the competitors > may be better, may not be better, but still you have to see to know.

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This website gives me the information "UK approaches to teaching have evolved over many hundreds of years[...]", but I wonder how many years. This independent study reminds me of the Montessori method, which happens to be European as well (though Italian). I have searched this so that I could enrich my research and my idea for the current project, which is compare the Montessori daily routine with our daily routine at EBAC (check reflective journal for further information).

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UK approaches to teaching have evolved over many hundreds of years and aim to encourage independent, thoughtful and confident students. Rigorous quality assurance and academic audit procedures ensure that the educational opportunities available in the UK meet the best standards.

Most students benefit from the continuing support of a tutor, from small classes or tutorial and seminar groups and from a range of teaching methods that may include discussions, games, problem- solving, projects, practical work, peer tutoring, computer-assisted learning and simulations. These methods are effective: pass rates are high and drop-out rates are among the lowest in the world. By encouraging an independent approach, education in the UK helps you to develop intellectual and problem-solving skills for the international market.

English language courses

The teaching style is mainly practical and you will be encouraged to communicate from the moment you enter the classroom. Students on these courses are immersed in the language, rather than just studying it.

The wide range of creative teaching methods includes games, role- playing exercises, problem-solving and group discussions. You will also be able to make use of technology and the language labs to study without supervision.

Degree courses

During your degree programme, some of your specific courses will be compulsory but others will be optional, allowing you to tailor the programme to your specific needs.

The core topics of your course will be outlined to you through lectures. More in-depth analysis will take place in smaller tutorial and seminar groups where you will prepare topics in advance and discuss them with the other students and the tutor. You will need to read extensively about the subject and form your own ideas and opinions.

Postgraduate Programmes

All postgraduate programmes require you to do a great deal of work on your own initiative. On taught courses, postgraduate tutors and lecturers will provide the framework of the course and, within this, you will be able to pursue your own interests.

On research programmes, the principal teaching method is original research, which you complete under academic supervision. Writing a thesis about your research forms a main part of the programme.

MBAs

Master of Business Administration (MBA) courses are a particularly intensive and challenging form of taught postgraduate course. You'll be expected to work through a very large amount of material, complete projects and assignments and give regular presentations. Teaching methods characteristic of MBAs include case studies, simulations and business games.

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higher and further education institutions in uk

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Teaching Methods In UK - Geebee Education

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Teaching Methods In UK. GEEBEE EDUCATION is India's most trusted Overseas Education Consultant. We guide for Study Abroad options for bachelors and masters degree in various countries like USA, UK, Australia, New Zealand, Australia, Switzerland, Singapore, Germany, Ireland and UAE.

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I see artists have this collecting obsession for them to study this collected item and work on/with that later, but if such habit is not dealt with carefully it may end up becoming a problem, an illness. This is not a path I would follow in order to study something, though interesting when you want to compare the information each one has, as each will be unique.

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Ranging from mass-produced memorabilia and popular collectibles to one-of-a-kind curiosities, rare artefacts and specimens, the collections in Magnificent Obsessions provided insight into the inspirations, influences, motives and obsessions of artists.

While some artists are connoisseurs, others accumulate hoards of objects, never letting anything go. Many live with and make direct use of their collections and others keep them under wraps or in storage. Collecting objects for research and study is key to the practice of many artists in the exhibition. Presented alongside examples of their work, their collections, in turn, help to elucidate their art.

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Ranging from mass-produced memorabilia and popular collectibles to one-of-a-kind curiosities, rare artefacts and specimens, the collections in Magnificent Obsessions provided insight into the inspirations, influences, motives and obsessions of artists. While some artists are connoisseurs, others accumulate hoards of objects, never letting anything go.

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It's hard to believe in a "cameraless" photography. Good thing there are always those who can prove you wrong. These techniques may be more of a hard work than a camera, but the results are as impressive as the ones I'm used to and, surely enough, they give a new meaning to photography. These cameraless techniques have the power to give another dimension to the outcome, that may not be achieved with a camera.

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The essence of photography lies in its seemingly magical ability to fix shadows on light-sensitive surfaces. Normally, this requires a camera, but not always. Several artists work without a camera, creating images on photographic paper by casting shadows and manipulating light, or by chemically treating the surface of the paper.

Images made with a camera imply a documentary role. In contrast, camera-less photographs show what has never really existed. They are also always 'an original' because they are not made from a negative. Encountered as fragments, traces, signs, memories or dreams, they leave room for the imagination, transforming the world of objects into a world of visions.

Processes & techniques

Camera-less photographs can be made using a variety of techniques, the most common of which are the photogram, the luminogram and the chemigram. These techniques are sometimes used in combination. Many involve an element of chance.

Chemigram

Chemigrams are made by directly manipulating the surface of photographic paper, often with varnishes or oils and photographic chemicals. They are produced in full light and rely on the maker's skill in harnessing chance for creative effect. Documented experiments are often an important part of the process.

Digital C-print

A print made from digital images using digital printers. Inside such printers, chromogenic (or 'C'-type) photographic paper is exposed to red, green and blue lasers. The paper is then processed in the traditional, chemical-based manner. Images created by camera-less methods can be digitised and turned into C-prints. When processed in this way, camera-less images can be retouched, enlarged and reproduced as multiples.

Dye destruction print

A print made using direct positive colour paper. This paper was originally introduced in 1963 for printing colour transparencies or negatives. It is coated with at least three layers of emulsion, each of which is sensitised to one of the three primary colours. Each layer also contains a dye related to that colour. During development of the image, any unexposed dyes are bleached out (hence 'dye destruction'). The remaining dyes form a full-colour image.

Gelatin-silver print

A print made using paper that has been coated with gelatin containing silver salts. Where light strikes the silver salts, they become dark. The image is then developed out using chemical developer. The paper itself can have a matt or gloss surface, and the image can be toned. Introduced in 1871, the gelatin-silver print is still in general use today.

Luminogram

A variation of the photogram (see below). In a luminogram, light falling directly on the paper forms the image. Objects placed between the light and the paper (but not touching the paper) will filter or block the light, depending on whether they are transparent or opaque.

Photogram

Photograms are made by placing an object in contact with a photosensitive surface in the dark, and exposing both to light. Where the object blocks the light, either partially or fully, its shadow is recorded on the paper.

The term 'photogram' seems to have appeared around 1925. The photogram artist is not able to predict the results in the viewfinder of a camera, and often works in the dark. The final image is only apparent after physical and chemical manipulation or development.
Reading list

Luis Nadeau, Encyclopedia of Printing, Photographic and Photomechanical Processes New Brunswick, NJ (Atelier Luis Nadeau), 1989, and the related website, photoconservation.com

Gordon Baldwin, Looking at Photographs: A Guide to Technical Terms Los Angeles and London (J. Paul Getty Museum in association with the British Museum Press), 1991

This text was originally written to accompany the exhibition Shadow Catchers: Camera-less Photography, on display at the V&A South Kensington between 13 October 2010 and 20 February 2011.

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The essence of photography lies in its seemingly magical ability to fix shadows on light-sensitive surfaces. Normally, this requires a camera, but not always. Several artists work without a camera, creating images on photographic paper by casting shadows and manipulating light, or by chemically treating the surface of the paper.

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The content may be transformative, parody or remixed, but since they're no longer in their original state (since the moment they have been transformed), it's fair use. If we use part of the original work (no remix, no parody, no modification), but it doesn't compete with the original and/or is for nonprofit purposes, it's fair use. When the content is original, the risks are someone will copy it (if there's no copyright).
• How to tell the public about a new work? Go social media: whatsapp, email, Facebook, Twitter, instagram (the risk of being copied, if a picture's posted remains).