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Hydrologic cycle
Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Sulfur Cycle

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Natural renewal of water quality: three major processes
1. Evaporation
2. Precipitation
3. Transpiration
Alteration of the hydrologic cycle by humans
1. Withdrawal of large amounts of freshwater at rates faster than nature can replace it.
2. Clearing Vegetation.
3. Increased flooding when wetlands are drained.

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The carbon cycle depends on photosynthesis and respiration. The is a link between photosynthesis in producers and respiration in producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Additional CO₂ added to the atmosphere:

1. Tree clearing
2. Burning of fossil fuels
3. Warms the atmosphere

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Nitrogen fixed by lightning.

Nitrogen fixed by bacteria and cyanobacteria. (combine gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to make ammonia (NH₃ ) and ammonium ions (NH₄ ⁺ ))

Nitrification is the soil bacteria change ammonia and ammonium ions to nitrate ions (NO₃ ⁺ ).

Denitrification is the nitrate ions back to nitrogen gas

Human intervention in the nitrogen cycle

1.  Additional NO and N₂O in atmosphere from burning fossil fuels; also causes acid rain.

2. N₂O to atmosphere from bacteria acting on fertilizers and manure

3. Destruction of forest, grasslands, and wetlands.

4. Add excess nitrates to bodies of water.

5. Remove Nitrogen from topsoil.

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Cycles through water, the earth's crust, and living organisms

Limiting factor for plant growth.

Impact on human activities

1.  Clearing Forest

2. Removing Large amounts of phosphate from the earth to make fertilizers.

3. Erosion leaches phosphates into streams.

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Sulfur found in organisms, ocean sediments, soil, rocks, and fossil fuels.

SO2 in the atmosphere

H2SO4 and SO4

Human activities affect the sulfur cycle

1.  Burn sulfur- containing coal and oil.

2. Refine sulfure-containing petroleum.

3. Convert sulfur-containing metallic mineral ores.

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•Ice ages followed by warming temperatures

•Collisions between the earth and large asteroids

•New species

•Extinctions

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Certain species play vital and unique roles in their communities and ecosystems, and if they left the ecosystem they are part of could change dramatically

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•Species: set of individuals who can mate and produce fertile offspring

•8 million to 100 million species

•1.9 million identified

•Unidentified are mostly in rain forests and oceans

•Species diversity

•Genetic diversity

•Ecosystem diversity

•Biomes: regions with distinct climates/species

•Functional diversity

•Biodiversity is an important part of natural capital

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•Natural selection: individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce under a certain set of environmental conditions

•Huge body of evidence

•Fossils-Physical evidence of ancient organisms

•Reveal what their external structures looked like

•Fossil record: entire body of fossil evidence

•Only have fossils of 1% of all species that lived on earth

•Populations evolve by becoming genetically different

•Genetic variations

•First step in biological evolution

•Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells

•Mutations: random changes in DNA molecules

•Natural selection: acts on individuals

•Second step in biological evolution

•Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction

•Genetic resistance: ability of one or more members of a population to resist a chemical designed to kill it
•Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the environmental conditions

•Reproductive capacity

•Species that reproduce rapidly and in large numbers are better able to adapt

•Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on earth

•Locations of continents and oceans have shifted

•Species physically move, or adapt, or form new species through natural selection

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•Speciation: one species splits into two or more species

•Geographic isolation: happens first; physical isolation of populations for a long period

•Reproductive isolation: mutations and natural selection in geographically isolated populations lead to inability to produce viable offspring when members of two different populations mate

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•Extinction

•Biological extinction

•Local extinction

•Endemic species

•Found only in one area

•Particularly vulnerable

•Background extinction: typical low rate of extinction

•Mass extinction: 3-5 over 500 million years

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Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems.
Example- gas regulation, climate regulation, disturbance regulation, water regulation, water supply, and ect.

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•Producers, autographs

•Photosynthesis:

•CO2 + H2O + sunlight → glucose + oxygen

•Chemosynthesis

•Consumers, heterotrophs

•Primary consumers = herbivores

•Secondary consumers

•Tertiary consumers

•Carnivores, Omnivores

•Decomposers

•Consumers that release nutrients

•Bacteria

•Fungi

•Detritivores

•Feed on dead bodies of other organisms

•Earthworms

•Vultures

•Aerobic respiration

•Using oxygen to turn glucose back to carbon dioxide and water

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•Anaerobic respiration = fermentation

•End products are carbon compounds such as methane or acetic acid

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•Food chain

•Movement of energy and nutrients from one trophic level to the next

•Photosynthesis → feeding → decomposition

•Food web

•Network of interconnected food chains

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Energy Decreases with Each Link in a Food Chain or Web

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Energy Decreases with Each Link in a Food Chain or Web

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•Biomass

•Dry weight of all organic matter of a given trophic level in a food chain or food web

•Decreases at each higher trophic level due to heat loss

•Pyramid of energy flow

•90% of energy lost with each transfer

•Less chemical energy for higher trophic levels

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•Species diversity

•Species richness:

The number of different species in a given area

•Species evenness:

Comparative number of individuals

•Diversity varies with geographical location

•The most species-rich communities

1. Tropical rain forests

2. Coral reefs

3. Ocean bottom zone

4. Large tropical lakes

•Species equilibrium model, theory of island biogeography

Rate of new species immigrating should balance with the rate of species extinction

Island size and distance from the mainland need to be considered
•Species richness seems to increase productivity and stability or sustainability, and provide insurance against catastrophe

•How much species richness is needed is debatable

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 Five Major Roles Species Play within an Ecosystem

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 Five Major Roles Species Play within an Ecosystem

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1. Native species

2. Nonnative species

3. Indicator species

4. Keystone species

5. Foundation species

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•Indicator species

•Provide early warning of damage to a community

•Can monitor environmental quality

•Trout

•Birds

•Butterflies

•Frogs

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•Keystone species: roles have a large effect on the types and abundances of other species

•Pollinators

•Top predators

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•Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit others

•Elephants

•Beavers

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a population in a group of interbreeding individuals of the type in a given area at a given time

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1.  Competition-
Both species are harmed (population growth rates are reduced)

2. Parasitism-One species benefits, one is harmed

3. Mutualism-Both species benefit. Relationship may not be essential for either.

4. Commensalism-
One species benefits, one is not affected.

5. Ammensalism-
One species harms another, but is not affected itself

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Terrestrial biomes are land portions of the biosphere. Include forests, deserts, and grasslands characterized by distinct climates and specific species adapted to them

Aquatic life zones are the watery part of the biosphere.Include freshwater life zones such as lakes and streams, and marine life zones such as coral reefs, coastal estuaries, and the deep ocean

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Communities of plant and animal species are replaced over time by different and more complex communities