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Students should be able to conduct a habitat study; research and investigate the adaptation, competition and interdependence of organisms within specific habitats and communities.

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BW3, BW10, NoS3, NoS4, NoS10

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Science Collaborative Planning Document - interactive

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Lesson Plan 5 for Padlet - Habitat Study

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Ecosystem
Ecology
Organism
Habitat
Environment
Population
Predator
Prey
Interdependence
Competition
Adaptation

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Students get a chance to create a poster of a food chain/web. Allows application of knowledge around producers, consumers, decomposers. Outline of nutrient recycling and its importance.

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Study of living things and how they interact with their environment.

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Useful visual for students on adaptation

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Useful visual for students on adaptation

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Useful video to help students see the different habitats, associated plants and animals and how they have adapted to live there. 

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Useful video to help students see the different habitats, associated plants and animals and how they have adapted to live there. 

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Harmony Square - Educational Videos & Activities

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All About Habitats: Kids' Guide to Tundra, Deserts, Grasslands, Forests, and More

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Students to understand that plants and animalscompete for resoruces to survive.

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Pollination is an easy example for students to remember for interdependence. Relatable for them as they will have encountered bees and flowers before. 

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Where two organisms rely on each other for some aspect of survival

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Students should appreciate the interconnectedness and complexity of wildlife and the natural world. Everything happens effects another.

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Used by students to conduct the habitat study

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Used by students to conduct the habitat study

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Collect and record data on the sheet.

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Useful website for students to learn about habitat studies in more detail. 

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Useful website for students to learn about habitat studies in more detail. 

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When conducting an ecosystem study it is important to follow procedures to ensure care of the ecosystem and accuracy of results. The following procedures should be followed for ecosystem studies:
1. Generate a map of the ecosystem/habitat site
There are two types of maps which should be created; Simple Map and Profile Map

Simple - plan view, prepared using a baseline and measuring tape.

Profile - prepared using metre sticks, a spirit level and a measuring tape.

Mark in any distinctive physical features e.g. streams, trees, ponds, rock, paths etc. Show scale.

2. Identify plants and animals
Use an expert, pocket guide or a key and follow the countryside code.

Only collect organisms if it is absolutely necessary and you cannot identify them in the field.

Return organisms to the habitat if possible.

Leave the habitat as you found it.

Beware of dangers such as deep water, thorns, stinging insects.

Having identified plants and animals:

Draw and label 5 plants and 5 animals.

Study one in detail - include the way in which the organism gets its food (mode of nutrition). Draw the reproductive parts of a flower and the method of pollination.

The habitat of each of the 10 organisms should be identified on the original map.

3. Estimate numbers of plants and animals

A qualitative study records the presence or absence of species.

A quantitative study measures the number of each species.

Subjective - a personal judgement as to the number (not recommended as it may vary from person to person)

Objective - an independent method of calculating numbers is used.

Objective quantitative studies

Quadrats:

Allows for the approximate calculation of % cover of plants or stationary animals (use % area covered in each quadrat or use a graduated quadrat)

Frequency -the likelihood of finding a named species with any one throw of the quadrat e.g. slugs found in 4 out of 16 gives a frequency of 4/16 x 100 = 25 %. This method is fast and easy. However, it is dependent on organism and quadrat size and presumes that organisms are evenly distributed throughout habitat.

Transects:

Line transect (rope marked at intervals - record what touches the line and measure environmental conditions at each).

Belt transect - take quadrats in a line.

Capture - recapture method:
Assumptions:

Marking must not harm the animals e.g. make it more visible to predator

Animals are dispersed evenly in the habitat (not bunched e.g. colonies of ants)

Animals are restricted to local area

Marked animals must be given time to integrate with the unmarked population

4. Measure the environmental (abiotic) factors
Three abiotic factors are measured (e.g. see table below). Results should be related to the choice of habitat selected by each organism (10) identified in the study.

Aspect

Compass

Direction slope faces impacts flowering, fruiting, and plant growth due to temperature and wind exposure.

Soil pH

Universal indicator, pH meter

Supports some plants and therefore some animals.

Light intensity

Light meter

Plants are adapted to different light intensities.

Aspect can affect the following:

Temperature (thermometer) - if south-facing it will receive more sun - warmer and brighter and therefore flowers will flower earlier than north-facing slopes.

Wind (anemometer & wind gauge) - Plants grow better on sheltered side.

Soil pH can determine growth of specific species e.g.:

Acidic soil allows mountain ash, gorse, holly, birch to grow

Neutral/basic soil allows hawthorn, ash, blackthorn, elder to grow

Light intensity can affect the following:

Light - increases the number of flowering plants

Shade e.g. under laurel shrubs - ivy

Organisms show many adaptations that allow them to survive in their habitat.

5. Analysis & Presentation of results:

Use tables, lists, charts, graphs, diagrams, histograms.

Include food chains, food webs, pyramid of numbers (identify the role of the organism in energy transfer).

Identify local ecological issues related to the woods.

Produce peport

Note potential sources of errors in an ecosystem:

Human error - from mistakes in measuring (judgement) or recording.

Changing conditions, both natural e.g. seasonal: autumn - summer, or artificial e.g. pollution.

Accidental discoveries may be recorded - e.g. rare animal (bird of prey) may be present on a rare occasion or at night (owl) or shy animal discovered by quiet walker and not all members of a group.

Sample size - habitats studied may not accurately reflect the overall ecosystem if the habitat is too small to include all animals and plants or if only a few habitats are studied.

Quadrats are limited by the size of species (trees too large, animals moving too fast) (The Physics Teacher, 2018)

When analysing and presenting results, organism adaptations to their habitat may be structural, competitive or behavioural.

Primrose

Early growth and flowering

Less competition for light before leaves grow on trees

Ladybirds

Brightly coloured

Indicates their presence (high in formic acid)

When reporting results, it is also important to include the types of organisms and vegetation found in the habitat, common invertebrate species found in the habitat and predator species to those invertebrates (see below table)

Trees & shrubs layer

Ash, hawthorn, blackthorn, elder, holly, willow

Greenfly, caterpillars, ladybirds, spiders

Chaffinch, blue-tit, robin, sparrowhawk

Herb layer

Primrose, stitchwort, cow parsley, celandine

Butterflies, snails, slugs, flies, wasps, midges, bees

Blackbird, thrush, fieldmouse

Ground layer

Ivy, ferns, fungi, mosses

Woodlice, centipedes, beetles, millipedes

Pymgy shrew, hedgehog

Soil layer

Fungi, bacteria

Earthworms, flatworms

Robin, blackbird, thrush, pig, fox

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When conducting an ecosystem study it is important to follow procedures to ensure care of the ecosystem and accuracy of results. The following procedures should be followed for ecosystem studies: 1. Generate a map of the ecosystem/habitat site There are two types of maps which should be created; Simple Map and Profile Map Simple - plan view, prepared using a baseline and measuring tape.

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Used for quantitative analysis for students. 

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Equipment used by students to conduct a habitat study

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Equipment used by students to conduct a habitat study

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Students will learn how to use the equipment and then get to apply this to collect data during their study.

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Measured by students during the habitat study using various equipment.
Light - Light meter
pH - pH meter
Temperature (Soil/Air)- Thermometer
Wind - Anemometer
Humidity - Hydrometer

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Importance:
Promote and protect wildlife
Keep a healthy and functional ecosystem

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Conservation | Definition, Ecology, Examples, & Facts

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Conservation, study of the loss of Earth’s biological diversity and the ways this loss can be prevented. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life either in a particular place or on the entire planet Earth, including its ecosystems, species, populations, and genes.

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Addition of harmful substances to the environment.
Examples include air, water, soil.

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Learn about Pollution | Environment Defilement | Cartoon

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Impact of pollution on the plant and the earth.
Students see how it effects out ecosystems, plants and animals etc.

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We've all heard of it, but what is climate change and what is it doing to our planet?

So, what is climate change?

Climate change (or global warming), is the process of our planet heating up.

Scientists estimate that since the Industrial Revolution, human activity has caused the Earth to warm by approximately 1°C. While that might not sound like much, it means big things for people and wildlife around the globe.

Unfortunately, rising temperatures don't just mean that we'll get nicer weather - if only! The changing climate will actually make our weather more extreme and unpredictable.

As temperatures rise, some areas will get wetter and lots of animals (and humans!) could find they're not able to adapt to their changing climate.

Check out our magazine!
National Geographic Kids is an exciting monthly read for planet-passionate boys and girls, aged 6-13! Packed full of fun features, jaw-dropping facts and awe-inspiring photos - it'll keep you entertained for hours! Find our magazine in all good newsagents, or become a subscriber and have it delivered to your door! Ask your parents to check out the 'Subscribe' tab on our website!
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What causes climate change?

1. Burning fossil fuels

Over the past 150 years, industrialised countries have been burning large amounts of fossil fuels such as oil and gas. The gases released into the atmosphere during this process act like an invisible 'blanket', trapping heat from the sun and warming the Earth. This is known as the " Greenhouse Effect ".

2. Farming

Believe it or not, cows' eating habits contribute towards climate change. Just like us, when cows eat, methane - a type of greenhouse gas - builds up in their digestive system and is released in the form of... a burp! This might sound funny, but when you imagine that there are almost 1.5 billion cows releasing all that gas into the atmosphere, it sure adds up!

3. Deforestation

Forests absorb huge amounts of carbon dioxide - another greenhouse gas - from the air, and release oxygen back into it. The Amazon rainforest is so large and efficient at doing this that it acts like our planet's air conditioner - limiting climate change. Sadly, many rainforests are being cut down to make wood, palm oil and to clear the way for farmland, roads, oil mines, and dams.

How will climate change affect the planet?

The Earth has had many tropical climates and ice ages over the billions of years that it's been in existence, so why is now so different? Well, this is because for the last 150 years human activity has meant we're releasing a huge amount of harmful gases into the Earth's atmosphere, and records show that the global temperatures are rising more rapidly since this time.

A warmer climate could affect our planet in a number of ways:
- Shrinking sea ice
How will climate change affect wildlife?

Climate change is already affecting wildlife all over the world, but certain species are suffering more than others. Polar animals - whose icy natural habitat is melting in the warmer temperatures - are particularly at risk. In fact, experts believe that the Arctic sea ice is melting at a shocking rate - 9% per decade! Polar bears need sea ice to be able to hunt, raise their young and as places to rest after long periods of swimming. Certain seal species, like ringed seals make caves in the snow and ice to raise their pups, feed and mate.

It's not just polar animals who are in trouble. Apes like orangutans, which live in the rainforests of Indonesia, are under threat as their habitat is cut down, and more droughts cause more bushfires.

Sea turtles rely on nesting beaches to lay their eggs, many of which are threatened by rising sea levels. Did you know that the temperature of nests determines whether the eggs are male or female? Unfortunately, with temperatures on the rise, this could mean that many more females are born than males, threatening future turtle populations.

How will people be affected by climate change?

Climate change won't just affect animals, it's already having an impact on people, too. Most affected are some of the people who grow the food we eat every day. Farming communities, especially in developing countries, are facing higher temperatures, increased rain, floods and droughts.

We Brits love a good cuppa, (around 165 million cups of the stuff every day!), but we probably take for granted just how much work goes into growing our tea. Environmental conditions can affect the flavour and quality plus it needs a very specific rainfall to grow. In Kenya, climate change is making rainfall patterns less and less predictable. Often there will be droughts followed by huge amounts rain, which makes it very difficult to grow tea.

Farmers might then resort to using cheap chemicals to improve their crop to earn more money, even when long-term use of these chemicals can destroy their soil.

How are people coping with climate change?

Buying Fairtrade products can help make sure a farmer is paid a fair wage. This means they can cover their costs, earn enough money to have a decent standard of living, and invest in their farms to keep their crop healthy, without needing to resort to cheap methods of farming which can further damage the environment.

This support also helps farmers to replace eucalyptus trees - which take up a lot of water - with indigenous trees that are better for the farmers' soil. They can learn to make fuel-efficient stoves which will not only make them a little extra money, but also reduce the carbon footprint of the community - cool!

How can I help prevent climate change?

Small changes in your own home can make a difference, too. Try switching to energy-saving lightbulbs, walking instead of using the car, turning off electrical items when you're not using them, recycling and reducing your food waste.

All these little things can make a difference. You can check out more eco-friendly ideas, in our kids' guide to saving the planet! Plus, check out our cool article about Greta Thunberg, too, to discover how young people are making their voices heard.

You can download information about Fairtrade and climate change for your school, here! www.fairtrade.org.uk/schools.

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What is climate change: facts for kids | National Geographic Kids

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What is climate change (a.k.a. global warming) & why is it happening? We explain how it affects our planet & how we can prevent it...

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Efficient disposal of our waste products. Reduce, reuse, recycle campaign. Outline how correct waste management will reduce pollution.

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A living thing.

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https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/conservation/273782

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Conservation is the responsible stewardship of the environment to preserve natural ecosystems while insuring that balanced consideration is also given to human needs for production and recreation. People vary in their opinions on the levels of importance of the various components and on how much emphasis should be placed on each. Thus, some people view the primary function of conservation as a mechanism to preserve natural habitats and wildlife, whereas others view conservation as the means to assure the persistence of economically important natural resources that are of direct benefit to humans. However, most agree that a major goal of conservation today is reasonable use of Earth 's natural resources in the broadest sense, which includes water, soil, wildlife, forests, minerals, and fossil fuels.

Freshwater habitats must be kept clean for drinking and for recreational activities. Soils must be kept fertile, without the accumulation of toxic chemicals from pesticides or herbicides, to provide fruits and vegetables and to prevent poisoning of wildlife. Forests must be managed to provide not only lumber and pulpwood for paper products but also homes and food for native wildlife. The use of oil, coal, and minerals important for an industrial society must be carefully monitored to be certain that the supply does not dwindle too rapidly and that natural habitats are not degraded in the process of producing and using them.

Conservationists work to preserve the natural heritage for future generations. People concerned with conservation seek not only to maintain a high-quality environment suitable for both wildlife and humans but also to preserve the natural biological, genetic, and habitat diversity of ecosystems. This often involves preventing or minimizing environmental pollution from industrial, agricultural, urban, and domestic sources, including toxic chemicals, radioactive wastes, and elevated water temperatures. Conservationists also seek to prevent the waste of natural resources of any sort, to reduce consumption of energy and unnecessary commercial products, and to support recycling efforts. All these efforts at achieving sustainability-the long-term healthy functioning and development of a biological community-are key to the conservation and environmental movements.

Natural resources are sometimes classified as renewable or nonrenewable. Forests, grasslands, wildlife, and soil are examples of renewable resources. They can be regenerated through natural processes, and prudent management can maintain them at steady levels. The consumption of the limited supplies of nonrenewable fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, whether wasteful or not, speeds their depletion. Conservation measures for fossil fuels involve reduced usage. Likewise, certain nonrenewable critical ores and metals, such as iron, aluminum (bauxite), and copper, have finite supplies and controlled accessibility that sometimes call for conservation measures, such as appropriate recycling programs, to assure continued production.

Another goal of conservation is to preserve the natural beauty of a community. When land is mistreated, the countryside can become aesthetically unpleasant. Vacant lots covered with trash, bare roadsides, garbage-laden streams, and the unregulated sprawl of strip malls are ugly. Conservation also helps to preserve areas suitable for recreation. As cities grow crowded, natural areas are needed for people enjoying leisure time. People need city parks, wildlife preserves, and national parks; grass and trees bordering roads and highways; and clear streams.

Natural resources are a vital part of sustaining human life, and conservation measures are designed to control, manage, and preserve them so that they can be used and appreciated to the fullest. A proper conservation program incorporates effective measures so that all natural resources are managed in the best interest of everyone.

The settlement of the United States provides a dramatic example of unsustainable depletion of resources. When the first European settlers arrived in North America, they found a continent rich in natural resources. Much of the land was covered with forests where wild animals abounded. Great herds of bison roamed the grasslands. The soil was deep and fertile. Clean lakes and streams, unpolluted with silt and chemical wastes, held a wealth of fish.

Surrounded by what seemed to be inexhaustible supplies of natural resources, and in the struggle to obtain food, clothing, and shelter, the settlers cut down millions of acres of the Eastern forests. As they moved westward, they plowed up the native grasslands to plant corn (maize) and wheat. Their growing cities dumped sewage and waste materials from factories and homes into the lakes and streams.

Much of the spring and summer rain in the United States falls in torrential thunderstorms, especially in the vast Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio river basins. The farmers who settled the country were mainly Europeans who had been used to gentle rains. The methods of tilling and planting that they brought with them and with which they were familiar were not suited to the new climate.

The land's capacity for water storage was diminished by the loss of the grasses that hold soil in place and prevent the escape of rainwater. With the blotter-like plant cover gone, many rivers flooded at unprecedented levels when the winter snows melted. During natural drought periods, wells ran dry and crops died in the fields. Dust storms blew the topsoil away. Birds, fish, and other wildlife that once thrived in the forests, fields, and streams became scarce. Some kinds became extinct, vanishing forever. These negative experiences gradually led the growing country to recognize some of its environmental problems, ultimately leading to some of the world's strongest and most effective conservation programs.

Worldwide, the abuses of the past, many of which continue into the present, have showed the need for a more sensible use of natural resources. The logging company that cuts down too many trees without replanting for the future or without regard for the welfare of all native wildlife that are affected; the industrial plant that fouls a river or pollutes the air with its wastes; the agriculturists who use pesticides and herbicides without concern for their environmental impacts, injuring not only their own natural communities but also those downstream-all are abusing natural resources and neglecting sustainable practices.

Conservation groups have promoted corrective legislation and instituted legal proceedings against violators. People have been made increasingly aware that their continued existence depends on these efforts to stop environmental deterioration. However, all members of society are seldom in agreement on what the proper path for conservation is because of special interests and differing personal goals and backgrounds. Although most people would agree that individuals have no right to destroy nature's wealth for personal profit, not all people agree with this view.

Conservation is everyone's responsibility, but a few individuals or companies can cause major setbacks in conservation programs. In many instances stringent laws and regulations must be passed and effectively enforced to stop the degradation and destruction of natural resources that bring gain to particular individuals or corporations but no environmental benefits to society.

However, public pressure can often be a motivating factor. Surveys in the early part of the 21st century revealed that Americans were more concerned about the environment than ever before and that corporate strategies of tracking and responding to public attitudes were economically the most prudent approach. When society collectively expresses the view that conservation of natural resources is important, the corporate industrial world that can affect those resources will respond appropriately. An example of how public attitude could have a measurable direct effect on conservation efforts is that the surveys revealed that more than 60 percent of citizens purchase recyclable products when given a choice. Such information will ultimately lead to companies supporting recycling because it has become more economically profitable to do so.

Water is an essential natural resource and is a frequent focus of conservation efforts. Everyone uses it. Water is needed in homes for drinking, cooking, washing clothes, and bathing, and it is used for non-vital activities such as filling home swimming pools, watering lawns, and washing vehicles. Communities must have water for fire protection, and they also use it for recreational activities such as swimming, boating, and fishing. Industries use water to produce electricity, to cool machinery, and to perform a large number of manufacturing processes. Some agricultural systems use vast quantities of water for irrigating crops during the growing season.

Water has been recognized since Babylonian times as one of the most valuable and vital resources for all living things, including humans. Ancient Mesopotamian laws about water use during drought periods designated who got to use water and how they could use it. Such laws were a form of conservation in that they were designed to assure the preservation of a limited environmental resource. Conflicts over water started long ago, and predictions are that they are going to get even worse in the near future as human populations increase in many parts of the world.

To minimize such conflicts, water conservation measures are likely to become commonplace in many regions, even in some places where water is now taken for granted. A dilemma for conservationists is how to deal with the wants and needs of humans for water during long periods of drought. Critical levels of water are required in lakes, streams, and rivers of a region for the basic needs of populated areas. But choices involving water diversion from one region to another involve balancing not only the competing needs of different communities but also options of using the water for power production, recreational activities, and the survival of some species of fish and other wildlife.

Watersheds and Their Importance
A watershed is the area drained by a river or a stream in a region. Such an area slopes toward a common land trough. Some rain runs off, or drains, over the ground surface. Runoff water forms small streams, which flow into larger ones. These eventually join to form a river, which may lead to a lake, reservoir, or ocean.

A natural watershed conserves water. It has clear streams and an ample cover of trees, grasses, and other plants. Plants help contribute to form a part of the topsoil called humus. Humus consists of decaying leaves and wood, bacteria, dead insects, and other plant and animal remains. It provides some of the nutrients for new plant life and many soil invertebrates. Together with a network of roots, it acts as a blotter that soaks up rain. Plants break the force of falling rain and scatter the drops over leaves and branches. Some of the water returns to the air by evaporation. Part of the water used by plants is passed through their leaves into the air again by transpiration.

Any remaining water that does not flow to streams sinks into the earth through countless tiny channels. Some of the spaces in the soil through which water percolates are caused by natural features of the geology or soil itself. Others are made by plant roots and burrowing animals such as earthworms, insects, and moles.

The level at which the earth is permanently saturated is known as the water table. This vast underground water supply fluctuates with the seasons and the amount of rainfall. During long, heavy rains the soil may not be able to soak up all the water. Some of it runs off the surface, but in a forested watershed it moves slowly. Deep snow that melts slowly allows water to soak into the soil gradually. When all the trees in an area have been cut down (clear-cut) owing to poor forestry practices, or when grasses and other plants have been stripped off by fire, overgrazing, or poor farming practices, the watershed suffers. The water from rainfall flows over the ground's surface instead of being absorbed by the vegetation and organic materials that would be present on a natural forest floor.

When there are no leaves, branches, or grasses to break the force of falling rain and the blotter of roots and humus is gone, mud closes the channels through which water sinks into the soil. If the land is level, the water stands in stagnant pools; if it slopes, the water runs downhill into the rivers. Streams in a mismanaged watershed become brown with silt, or suspended soil, because the racing water carries soil along with it.

A mismanaged, unvegetated watershed can result in destructive floods in the spring because heavy rains and melting snows reach rivers too quickly and overflow the banks downstream. In the summer, streams, springs, and wells can dry up because little or no water has sunk into the underground reservoirs.

Water Pollution
The silting of streams is a form of water pollution. Heavy siltation in streams and rivers kills fish and other aquatic animals including tadpoles, mollusks, and larval insects indirectly by reducing the amount of oxygen in the water. As the flowing water slows, silt is deposited on streambeds, and the natural flow patterns of waterways become altered. Reservoirs behind dams eventually fill with silt unless erosion is stopped in watersheds above.

Other kinds of water pollution have created other problems. Many waterways are used as dumps for household and industrial wastes. Some communities dump untreated sewage and garbage into the nearest streams. Industries contaminate the waterways when they discharge acids, chemicals, greases, oils, and organic matter into them. Such materials foul drinking water and endanger public health. They destroy commercial fisheries. They also make waterways unusable for recreational purposes. Leaks and spills from offshore oil wells and wrecked or damaged oil tankers have caused the widespread destruction of marine life.

The large-scale use of organic insecticides, herbicides, toxic metals, and pesticides has polluted streams and destroyed wildlife. Some pesticides tend to concentrate in the tissues of plants and animals in nature's food chains. Thus organisms at the ends of these chains, including humans, may take in harmful amounts of pesticides deposited in their food supply.

Whenever land is stripped of its plant cover, soil is inevitably lost by erosion, the so-called silent thief. A single rainstorm can wash away centuries-old accumulations of soil from neglected or badly managed fields. Topsoil is an extremely valuable natural resource. Under this thin blanket of rich dirt and humus, in which plants grow best, is a less fertile material called subsoil. If the surface layer of topsoil is blown or washed away, the remaining subsoil cannot support plant life. The submarginal farms must eventually be abandoned.

Types of Soil Erosion
In the late 1900s more than 700 million acres (283 million hectares) of agricultural land in the United States were subject to erosion. Some 230 million acres (93 million hectares) of cropland required constant supervision to control erosion caused by wind and water.

Dust storms are the evidence of wind erosion. Soil unprotected by plant cover simply blows away. During the 1930s millions of acres of farmlands were badly damaged by wind. Many fields lost from 2 to 12 inches (5 to 30 centimeters) of vital topsoil during this period. As a result, the entire southern Great Plains area was called the Dust Bowl.

One of the several kinds of water erosion is sheet erosion-the wasting away of level land in thin layers. The deterioration may go on for years without being noticed, though the land yields successively smaller crops. A patch of subsoil showing through on some slight rise of ground may be the first sign that the land is nearly finished as a food producer.

Splash erosion is the washing away of soil by the direct battering of rain. In rill erosion, runoff digs small channels called rills in the soil. The little rills run together, form a network of larger rills, and then develop into gullies. When gully erosion occurs, the land can become as unproductive as a desert.

Conservationists also recognize that livestock can overgraze a plot of land until severe soil erosion occurs. In the late 1900s about 4 million acres (1.6 million hectares) of topsoil were lost every year through erosion, and about 85 percent was estimated to be the result of overgrazing by livestock.

Although major losses of productive agricultural lands occurred in the first half of the 20th century because of erosion, a major concern in the 21st century is the loss of natural soils and habitats as a result of commercial development. Large tracts of productive land- estimated as high as 1 million acres (400,000 hectares) each year-continue to be lost through the building of roads, suburban housing, and industrial and other commercial site developments, including airport expansion.

Soil Conservation in Agriculture
Government agencies in many countries have developed soil and land classification systems. In the United States the Soil Erosion Service (soon renamed the Soil Conservation Service) was created in 1933 as a major division of the United States Department of Agriculture. The Soil Conservation Service (now called the Natural Resources Conservation Service [NRCS]) devised a land classification system that offered guidance in the proper use of land. Such factors as slope, type of soil, amount of rainfall, humidity, and vegetation type were considered when determining land use for maximum productivity. Of the eight land classifications, classes I, II, III, and IV were considered appropriate for cultivated crops; however, classes III and IV required skillful management to avoid serious erosion. Classes V through VII could be used for forests and for grazing. Class VIII land, which included sandy shores and extremely rocky places, was considered suitable only for wildlife or for scenic and recreational purposes. The NRCS uses a modification of the same system today.

Covering the ground with plants is one of the key elements in soil conservation. To test this, the Department of Agriculture experimented with two steep plots of adjacent land-one planted with crops and the other thickly covered with grass. The cultivated plot lost 7 inches (18 centimeters) of topsoil in 11 years. By contrast, it was estimated that it would take 34,000 years to lose the same amount of topsoil from the grass-covered plot.

Plant cover tends to reduce raindrop energy and hold rainwater where it falls, thus preventing the soil from blowing or washing away. Gullies can be healed in many cases by planting new plants. They provide a tangle of leaves and stems that trap and hold in place part of the soil carried by runoff. Another way to heal gullies is to build brush dams across them at regular intervals. Then soil and water running down the gully are caught behind the dams and held in place.

To help prevent the start of erosion and ensure that agriculture is sustainable, farmers have used a variety of conservation measures. The effectiveness of each depends on the climate, topography, and soil type.

Contouring and terracing

Windrows and shelterbelts

Deep tillage, or stubble mulching

Erosion on Urban Land
Cropland is not the only land with soil subject to erosion. The land on which housing and other urban projects are built is particularly susceptible because its protective cover is generally removed.

To prevent erosion on construction sites, builders should take corrective action. For example, mulches placed on steeply excavated slopes usually prevent soil from washing or blowing away. Straw or fiber netting may be used as mulches. On sites where erosion control is more difficult, hydroseeding can be used. Grass seed, fertilizer, and mulch are power-sprayed on excavated slopes. The quick-growing grass then stabilizes the soil against erosion. Many bridge and highway construction projects use silt fences below the disturbed areas to trap loose soil and prevent runoff into nearby streams.

Science in Seconds (www.scienceinseconds.com)

The preservation of wildlife greatly depends upon water and soil conservation. The native plants and animals constitute the wildlife of a region and are a product of the land resources and habitat conditions. But, like humans, wild animals must have food, water, and shelter. Destroying the forests, marshes, ponds, and grasslands alters their food and water supplies and the places in which they live, hibernate, and reproduce.

Environmental Impact
Wildlife conservationists generally recognize five distinct but interacting categories of environmental impact that need to be considered in regard to how human activities affect native wildlife in the broadest sense (all wild animals and plants). They are habitat loss and degradation, introduced species, pollution, disease and parasitism, and unsustainable use.

Habitat loss and degradation

Introduced exotic and invasive species
Master Sgt. Lance Cheung/U.S. Air Force

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Disease and parasitism

Endangered Species
Of the original native wildlife of the United States many species are now extinct. These include the passenger pigeon, the Carolina parakeet, the great auk, the Labrador duck, the Pallas cormorant, the dusky seaside sparrow, and the heath hen. Mammals gone forever include the Eastern elk, the Plains wolf, the sea mink, and the Badlands bighorn. Many smaller birds and mammals have also become extinct in the wild. Several species of mountaintop salamanders with small geographic ranges in the Appalachian Mountains are assumed to have been destroyed during strip mining activities of the past. The number of certain United States reptiles, including bog turtles, indigo snakes, southern hognose snakes, and northern cricket frogs, grows smaller every year. Many game species are now protected by law from overhunting and overfishing.

The United States Fish and Wildlife Service maintains a list of endangered and threatened species of the United States. Environmental concerns for a variety of nongame reptiles, amphibians, small fishes, insects, and mollusks, as well as other animals and plants, is reflected in the number of species classed as threatened or endangered. Some states also have laws and regulations that protect many of these species. However, many continue to be threatened by habitat destruction.

In the United States the Endangered Species Act has been effective for preserving some species that seemed destined for extinction. For example, the American alligator had been reduced to a relatively small number by the early 1960s because of overhunting for hides and meat. After 20 years of protection, the species recovered to a large extent. By the early 2000s, coastal states where alligators are abundant allowed limited hunting of the species.

Worldwide, the World Conservation Union (also called the International Union for Conservation of Nature, or IUCN) keeps track of species threatened with extinction. Endangered species include many of the world's great cats, whales, rhinoceroses, tapirs, and many other mammals, birds, and reptiles. However, housing and other facilities needed by an expanding human population are encroaching on their habitats. In addition, many species are the victims of the illegal pet trade and of the trade in exotic pelts and skins. The African elephant, once common throughout the sub-Saharan region of the African continent, has been greatly reduced in numbers because of illegal poaching for the ivory trade.

Many nonprofit conservation organizations have been formed to protect nongame species. Some focus on single species, and others on natural groupings of organisms. Two successful programs established in the 1990s are Partners in Flight (PIF) and Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC); PIF emphasizes conservation of land birds, while PARC is the largest program addressing conservation of both amphibians and reptiles. Both organizations have a U.S. focus but are international in scope. Other major conservation organizations that protect wildlife and their ecosystems worldwide include WWF (also called the World Wildlife Fund or the World Wide Fund for Nature), Conservation International, the Wildlife Conservation Society, and the International Crane Foundation, and, in the United States, Defenders of Wildlife and the National Wildlife Federation.

Refuges for Wildlife
Some governments have established national wildlife reservations and game refuges. Many refuges are established in places to which animals, especially migratory birds, have long been attracted. In the United States, many of these are administered by the Fish and Wildlife Service. All U.S. national parks and national monuments, operated by the National Park Service, serve as wildlife refuges.

Individuals can help restore wildlife to the countryside simply by providing birds, fish, and other animals with natural feeding, breeding, and refuge sites. They can do even more by encouraging their state and federal governments to provide effective laws for habitat protection.

Brush piles scattered through a woodlot provide retreats for cottontails, weasels, mink, and woodchucks. Whether natural or man-made, small wetlands without fish provide breeding habitat for frogs and salamanders and feeding areas for turtles, snakes, and aquatic insects. Fencerows can provide a haven for many kinds of birds.

Among the most valuable of nature's resources are forests. They play a key role in the maintenance of the watersheds that are essential to water and soil conservation. They shelter many forms of wildlife. They supply lumber for construction, cordwood for fuel, and pulp for paper. Forests also provide the raw materials used in many synthetic products considered essential for modern life, including fibers, plastics, and medicines.

Fire can be a major scourge of a forest, especially if natural fires have been suppressed in a region. Although lightning is sometimes responsible for kindling forest fires, human carelessness is most often the cause. Ground fires can destroy the organic soil of the forest and render it incapable of supporting tree life. Also, elimination of the understory leaves bare soil, making it more susceptible to water and wind erosion. When crown fires rage through the leafy tops of trees, they destroy timber and its resident wildlife. However, fire is a natural occurrence in many regions, and most forests rebound from occasional fires and the wildlife returns.

A common tool of foresters is the use of prescribed burning (sometimes known as controlled burning) to attempt to imitate the natural burning cycle of forests in a region. The purpose is to burn off leaf or pine needle litter and fallen twigs on the ground's surface to return nutrients to the soil. Occasional burning also prevents the buildup of such organic fuels, which can result in major forest fires that cannot be controlled. Prescribed burning presents a dilemma for forest managers and timber companies in some areas. Prescribed burns in populated areas near forests can send smoke into nearby homes, resulting in complaints from homeowners. However, foresters receive worse criticism when a forest fire becomes a completely unmanageable crown fire that burns down houses because prescribed burning was not done and natural burning cycles were suppressed.

Insect infestation can also threaten the life of a forest. In the United States, the Forest Pest Control Act of 1947 authorized surveys of public and private forests so that insect-borne diseases of trees could be detected and suppressed before they became epidemic.

A more serious threat than fire or insects is indiscriminate logging. When every tree of a stand is cut without any provision for natural reseeding or manual replanting, as is still common in many parts of the world, particularly the tropics, no canopy is left to protect the soil against the splash erosion of rainfall. The loose soil soon becomes deposited as silt in nearby streams. Timber must be treated as a renewable crop, carefully harvested to ensure a sustained yield of trees. In this way, a balance is struck between the cutting of mature trees and the growth of saplings. A major problem with forest removal in tropical areas is that no topsoil layer is present to promote natural reseeding. In the tropics, most of the nutrients are aboveground in the vegetation itself, rather than stored in the soil as is typical of temperate-zone forests. Thus, different forestry techniques must be used to assure conservation of tropical forests.

Minerals and fossil fuels are nonrenewable resources. Once exhausted, they can never be replaced. The United States has valuable stores of coal, oil, natural gas, and minerals. Until the U.S. Mineral Leasing Act was passed in 1920, the resources on public lands were transferred to private individuals, who sometimes exploited them. Since then, environmental sustainability has become a key factor when discussing how and when nonrenewable resources should be used. Today, in many countries worldwide, including the United States, government regulation attempts to assure that private industry makes proper use of these resources. In some countries, the government itself operates key mining industries.

Limited Supply
For years coal was mined as though it were inexhaustible-about one ton wasted for each ton mined. Various government agencies have promoted more efficient mining methods. In addition, the use of other sources of energy in home construction and in industry, and to generate electricity, has greatly extended the life of the coal supply. Natural gas and petroleum were once carelessly wasted also. In earlier days, for example, because no use for natural gas had been found, it was burned off or allowed to escape into the air.

Like other conservation needs, the wise management of mineral resources has become more pressing because of the growing number of consumers. As the human population increases, the demand increases for more consumer goods, such as household appliances and automobiles. Manufacturers meet these rising demands from already dwindling deposits of metal ore and fuels.

Some mineral resources, particularly metals, may be recycled so that they can be salvaged and reused. The recycling of waste metals is an important conservation practice that has become a major business. It is known as secondary production. Conservation programs for fossil fuels include reducing their use, such as by replacing them with more abundant and cleaner sources of energy.

Effects on the Environment
Conservation programs also call for curtailing environmental pollution, habitat degradation, and erosion caused by mining, processing, and using mineral products. Mining wastes are often rich in sulfuric acid, for example, and their runoff into streams can devastate communities of plants and animals living in the water and nearby. Without proper land reclamation programs, surface mining for coal and other minerals can strip off the fertile topsoil in an area and leave behind an abandoned wasteland in which few, if any, plants can grow. Coal burning can create pollution problems, not only in the atmosphere but also for organisms, especially amphibians and fish, living in aquatic systems. In addition, the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas, such as in power plants, factories, and motor vehicles, also releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide into the air; most scientists believe that this is the major cause of global warming.

Energy Crisis and Alternative Fuels
Throughout most of its history the United States has had ample, inexpensive supplies of fuels to provide energy. During the 20th century the country gradually shifted from reliance on coal as its principal fuel to dependence on natural gas and petroleum. By the late 1970s the United States was consuming more than one-third of the world's supply of these two fuels and was dependent on them for three-fourths of its energy.

As it became more apparent during the 1970s that natural gas and petroleum resources might be depleted within the foreseeable future, energy conservation became an important government policy. Conservation measures were also adopted because of political and economic developments. About one-half of the petroleum used by the United States was imported, much of it from Middle Eastern countries that opposed certain U.S. foreign policies. In addition, oil-exporting countries increased oil prices by more than 1,500 percent between 1970 and 1980.

In 1977 President Jimmy Carter established a Cabinet-level Department of Energy (which took over some of the functions of the Atomic Energy Commission) and proposed a comprehensive energy program. As passed by Congress in 1978, the program included measures to discourage energy consumption, particularly of natural gas and petroleum, and provided incentives for alternative energy sources. An Energy Security Act, to develop synthetic fuels, was passed in 1980.

Government, industry, and private citizens all took steps to conserve energy. To meet new government standards, smaller and more efficient automobiles were produced. There was renewed emphasis on improving the country's mass transportation systems. Grants, loans, and tax credits were offered for the installation of insulation and other energy-saving devices in homes and commercial properties. Efficiency standards for appliances were adopted. The government mandated minimum and maximum temperatures for nonresidential buildings and suggested maintenance of similar temperatures in homes.

The energy crisis of the 1970s led to increased emphasis on alternative sources of power. The government supported further development of solar, geothermal, and wind power. Industries and utilities were encouraged, and in certain circumstances required, to use coal as an alternative to natural gas and petroleum. The government encouraged long-range research programs, including the development of economical methods of producing gas and oil from coal and shale. Gasohol-a mixture of ethanol (alcohol produced from grain or other plant matter) and gasoline-was tried as an alternative fuel for automobiles, and electric cars were developed.

With the election of Ronald Reagan as president in 1980, government support for most of those programs was ended. Instead, the government promoted the expansion of nuclear energy and a return to imported petroleum. In the early 2000s the United States used fossil fuels to meet roughly 85 percent of its energy needs, with nuclear power accounting for about another 8 percent.

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Worldwide, growing concern about global warming in the early 21st century led to greater efforts to reduce the use of fossil fuels and to rely increasingly on renewable, nonpolluting energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal power. New methods of using biomass energy, by burning plant matter or producing ethanol and other fuels from crops and agricultural wastes, were also investigated, and more electric and gasoline-electric hybrid automobiles were introduced.

J. Whitfield Gibbons

Herbert A. Smith

Ed.

Calhoun, Yael, ed. Conservation (Chelsea House, 2005). Cruden, Gabriel. Energy Alternatives (Lucent, 2005). Dalgleish, Sharon. Managing the Land; Protecting Forests; Protecting Wildlife; Renewing Energy; Saving Water (Chelsea House, 2003-04). Desonie, Dana. Humans and the Natural Environment (Chelsea House, 2008). Few, Roger. Animal Watch (DK, 2002). Gallant, R.A. Wonders of Biodiversity (Benchmark, 2003). Haddock, Patricia. Environmental Time Bomb: Our Threatened Planet (Enslow, 2000). Mongillo, John, and Mongillo, Peter. Teen Guides to Environmental Science, 5 vols. (Greenwood, 2004). Parker, Janice. The Disappearing Forests (Smart Apple Media, 2003). Patent, D.H. Biodiversity (Clarion, 1996). Penny, Malcolm. Endangered Species: Our Impact on the Planet (Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 2002). Royston, Angela. Energy of the Future (Heinemann, 2007). Saunders, Nigel, and Chapman, Steven. Energy Essentials: Renewable Energy (Raintree, 2004). West, Krista, ed. Critical Perspectives on Environmental Protection (Rosen, 2007).

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Conservation is the responsible stewardship of the environment to preserve natural ecosystems while insuring that balanced consideration is also given to human needs for...

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Adaptation: Dandelion roots grow deeper in drought conditions.
Competition: Flowers eg. buttercups/daisy's competing for light.
Interdependence: Bees and flowers during pollination.

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Adaptation: Cactus have waxy exterior prevent water loss.
Competition: Cheetah vs Hyena for food eg gazelle.
Interdependence: Cactus and bee pollination.

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In the year 2012, WHO, referred that ambient air pollution was responsible for 3.7 million annual deaths.

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Paper on opposable thumbs. Student understand adaptations of animals however showing them a human adaptation link back to students own experience. Focusing examples that they will have encountered e.g. grip strength of our thumb (using a pencil)

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Effects of air pollution on human respiratory systems. Relate to cardiovascular/respiratory disease.

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Particulate matter air pollution and respiratory impact on humans and animals - Environmental Science and Pollution Research

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Air pollution is now fully acknowledged to be a public health problem and a social issue. Particulate matter (PM) concentration has been linked with several clinical manifestations of pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases and is associated with morbidity and mortality induced by respiratory diseases both in human and animals.

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David Attenborough: A Life on Our Planet | Official Trailer | Netflix

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Useful website for students to find out more initiatives used to conserve the wildlife of our planet. 

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Useful website for students to find out more initiatives used to conserve the wildlife of our planet. 

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Saving nature is at the very heart of what we do as WWF. For 60 years, we have made it our mission to find solutions that save the marvelous array of life on our planet by applying the best science available and working closely with local communities.

But our work is far from done. Humans are behind the current rate of species extinction, which is at least 100-1,000 times higher than nature intended. We've seen an average decline of 69% in species populations since 1970, according to WWF's Living Planet Report 2022.

And the impacts will reach far beyond the potential cultural loss of iconic species like tigers, rhinos, and whales.

The good news is we've also seen what's working. WWF has been part of successful wildlife recovery stories ranging from southern Africa's black rhino to black bucks in the Himalayas. And this, in turn, is helping to protect rich and varied ecosystems while ensuring people continue to benefit from nature.

This much is clear: we cannot afford to fail in our mission to save a living planet.
View All Species >

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Wildlife Conservation | Initiatives | WWF

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Saving nature is at the very heart of what we do as WWF. For 60 years, we have made it our mission to find solutions that save the marvelous array of life on our planet by applying the best science available and working closely with local communities.