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Type II Diabetes is found in obese individuals and tends to be most common in adults. It is a diseased caused the pancreas' inability to produce enough insulin, and the cells ability to uptake sugar. This condition leads to constant high blood sugar levels due to the amount of sugar in the bloodstream. High blood sugar levels for extended periods of time can lead to issues and disorders in the nervous system, circulatory system, and immune system.

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Insulin uses a tyrosine kinase receptor which has enzymatic activity and is also a receptor. The insulin, which is a ligand, binds to the insulin receptor. This receptor is a dimer, and tyrosine protein kinases are found in the intracellular unit of the receptor. The insulin binds to the ligand binding site which causes the two polypeptide chains to join together. This conformational change leads to the activation of the protein kinase which can then have P groups added to each tyrosine amino acid in the tail of the polypeptide. A protein called insulin receptor substrate is attracted to the phosphorylated tyrosine, causing it to bind and become phosphorylated itself. The phosphorylated insulin receptor becomes an attachment point for a lipid kinase called phosphoinositide 3-kinase. This lipid kinase binds to the IRS, becoming phosphorylated, and attaches to the cell membrane. The lipid kinase then takes a phosphoryl group from ATP and attaches it to a fat molecule located in the membrane known as PIP2. The phosphorylation of PIP2 creates PIP3, which then travels along the membrane until it binds to the PIP3 dependent protein kinase and activates it. The activation of this protein kinase activates protein kinase B, also known as AKT1, which then diffuses around the cell. AKT1 stimulates movement of GLUT4 to the cell membrane.

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Defects in Signaling Pathways Lead to Disease

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Defects in Signaling Pathways Lead to Disease

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Insulin signaling issues leads to insulin resistance in body fat. Insulin receptors on the cell surface of target cells control insulin production which is used in many processes such as glucose uptake and protein synthesis. Obesity and expanding body fat leads to parts of the body fat becoming insulin resistant. This affects energy homeostasis, however energy homeostasis can still be maintained due to B-cells producing more insulin, however, these B-cells usually fail to produce enough insulin which can lead to the diagnosis of Type II Diabetes.

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Insulin is a peptide hormone that is released into the bloodstream by beta cells in the pancreas. Insulin binds to the insulin receptor on the surface of the cell, which leads to production of GLUT4, a transport protein that takes up glucose.

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Irregular Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Protein

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Irregular Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Protein

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In diabetes, insulin receptor proteins are irregularly phosphorylated. Phosphorylation of the insulin receptor protein usually stimulates a signal cascade, however the irregular phosphorylation prevents it from reacting properly with other molecules. It can also displace the insulin receptor molecule and amplify the degradation of the insulin receptor. Overall, these changes affect insulin signaling.