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Translation takes place on ribosomes which are found either free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Each ribosome consists of 2 subunits:

Larger subunit: has two sites for the attachment of tRNA molecules- has 2 tRNA molecules associated with it at any time.

Smaller subunit: binds to the mRNA

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triplet of bases in mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid

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1. Initiation: a ribosome attaches to a start codon at one end of the mRNA molecule.
2. The 1st tRNA molecule attaches to the ribosome with a complementary anti-codon to the codon (three bases) on the mRNA. The codon and anti-codon form hydrogen bonds. A second tRNA molecule then attaches to the second attachment site on the ribosome.
3. Elongation: the two amino acids on the tRNA molecules are close enough for a ribosomal enzyme to catalyse the formation of a peptide bond between them.
4. The 1st tRNA molecule leaves the ribosome with its attachment site vacant, it returns to the cytoplasm to bond to another copy of its specific amino acid.
5. The ribosome moves one codon along the mRNA, where the next tRNA molecule can bind.
6. Termination: the sequence repeats until a stop codon is reached. The ribosome-mRNA-polypeptide complex separates.

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Transcription takes place in the nucleus

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nucleotide sequence in DNA and pre-mRNA that remains present in the final mature mRNA, after introns have been removed

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non-coding nucleotide sequence in DNA and pre-mRNA that is removed from pre-mRNA to produce mature mRNA

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In eukaryotes, the mRNA (messenger RNA) needs to be processed before it can synthesise the polypeptide.

The initial RNA version of the code is longer than the final mRNA because initial RNA; pre-mRNA contain non-coding nucleotide sequences called introns. The introns get cut out of the pre-mRNA by endonuclease.

The sequence left are called exons which are joined together/spliced with ligases.

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1. DNA helicase:breaks hydrogen bonds & this causes the strands in double helix to unwind & nucleotide bases are exposed.
2. RNA polymerase: binds to template strand of DNA at beginning of sequence to be copied. Free RNA nucleotides align opposite template strand based on the complementary bases between RNA & DNA.
3. A molecule of mRNA is synthesised & behind the RNA polymerase, the DNA strands rewind to reform the double helix.
4. RNA polymerase separates from the template strand when it reaches a 'stop' signal and the mRNA detaches.

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The sequence of codons on the mRNA is used to assemble a specific sequence of amino acids into a polypeptide chain, at the ribosomes.

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A segment of DNA acts as a template to direct the synthesis of a complementary sequence of RNA, with the enzyme RNA polymerase.

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1. Transcription
2. Translation