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Architects do it with models: the history of architecture in 16 models

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Architects do it with models: the history of architecture in 16 models

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The Architectural Model as Tool, Medium and Agent of Change

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The Architectural Model as Tool, Medium and Agent of Change

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Models of architecture are omnipresent in everyday life and frequently referred to in architectural discourse. Most familiar is the physical scale model used as a tool to aid architects in translating ideas into a concrete three-dimensional description of proposed or exiting structure. But this is not the only use for models that may also act as a source of inspiration and medium for generating new designs. Additionally, we can examine the architectural model in perhaps its oldest use in material culture as a sign and symbolic icon. Here the model can embody the values of a culture, projecting an uncertain future into a present reality, thereby privileging the ideas of an institution or the individual.

These multiple and certainly simultaneous uses for models are possible because of their capacity to negotiate across different worlds and between different actors. Whether physical or digital, models stand somewhere between theoretical concepts and contingent realities, reflective of both settings, thereby allowing us to use them as instruments in our understanding of both situations. Long familiar in the sciences was the use of models as descriptive tools in the transition of Ptolemaic to Copernican cosmology but also as didactic tools for visualizing the body in physical terms. Recent research has taken a closer look at similar roles which the architectural model has had on architectural practice including the commercialization of model making practices upon design during the post-war years in the United States; the role of paper in translating drawings to models in sixteenth-century Italy, the effect of artists and art practice on architectural models in the education of German architects during the early twentieth century and the emergence of the digital model in construction practices over the past thirty years.

Architecture is not the only discipline that models. Economists and historians of science have been discussing these ideas for at least the past fifty years. Models function in a variety of ways within a disciplinary field. They do this to help us formulate theories and to learn about the world. Above all, models achieve this through their autonomy-models are never entirely theoretical or entirely real. Therefore, they can be used as instruments of exploration, able to bridge between the theoretical and the real. While models are independent, somewhere between theory and world, they need to relate to at least one of these realms in order to function. A model of a pendulum represents certain kinds of theoretical motion, whether physical or digital, molecular ball-and-spoke models draw on contemporary understandings of chemistry to display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds between them. Conversely, when a model bears a close relation to the world, it can be used to explore theoretical concepts by extending their basic structure or to develop new theoretical frameworks.

In this sense, architects not only model physically in card, paper and timber at various scales, but also in different media. Whatever the medium, modelling as a cultural technique manifests itself in a variety of ways with the aim of providing its user with a baseline of certainty. Models can thus show the implication of theories in concrete situations, displaying or experimenting on a known theoretical construction, but one now played out in the world through the model.

In this issue, authors have responded to four major thematic strands about their use as a tool or medium that is fundamental in understanding critical moments of change in architectural culture. Several of the papers in this issue of ATR address the presentation and exhibition of models as a central aspect of practice. In his paper "Revisiting Idea as Model (1976-81)," Stefaan Vervoot argues that the 1976 exhibition in New York should be understood as a juncture that marked a break in the use and conception of the scale model. Davide Pisu examines the manualetti, a series of booklets that guided the designers in the INA-Casa program of reconstruction in post-war Italy, arguing that these manualetti operated as "normative models" that promoted a vernacular and nationalistic agenda.

Secondly, models are intrinsically linked to the conceptualisation of architectural theories-raising questions regarding the cyclical dilemma of cause and effect. Shota Vashakmadze's article "Modeling the Line" explores the adoption of computer modelling practices that were aligned to the transition from paper to screen, reasoning that these tools offered new conditions for their users. Using Vilém Flusser's theoretical framework on the role of technical images, in "BIM and Beyond," Felipe Loureiro, Roberto Bartholoo, Gabriel Bursztyn and Luiz Ribiero question the qualities and limitations of BIM models as architectural tools in light of an absence of their physical or haptic qualities. While Dijia Chen, in "Resolving the Theoretical Irreconcilable," explores how Aldo Rossi's industrial design products mediated between ideal and reality, subject and object, repairing the theoretical gaps in the architect's work.

Thirdly, the emergence of particular model-making materials or techniques enabled the exploration of particular formal, material, structural or technical solutions. In "A Critical Agency of Full-size Models," Claudia Conforti, Fabio Colonnese, Maria d'Amelio and Lorenzo Greico focus on Renaissance Italy, where the prototype was situated in the operative field shared by architects and sculptors, allowing for a visual control of a project on site ahead of proportional and mathematical designed methods. Equally, new materials and the tools required to shape them informed new developments in architectural practice and pedagogy. Yvette Putra considers the relationship between models and discourse in the work of the Australian architect Alex Selenitsch. Her article, "Architectural Models at the Boundary of the Architectural Profession" raises questions of authorship, the role of disciplinary knowledge, and the context of a model's presentation in society.

Finally, the place of the model-maker as an actor in the production of the built environment-a position occupied at various times by different actors including craftsmen and professional model-makers as well as architects themselves. In his paper on post-war British architecture, "Entangled Dependencies," David Lund posits that the relationship between the architect, the architectural model, and the modelmaker exists as a socio-political network governed by asymmetric tensions and mutual dependencies.

Taken as a collective study, this themed issue on "The Architectural Model as Tool, Medium and Agent of Change" begins to consider these ideas: on the one hand answering questions regarding the medium, and on the other, by problematizing it further, indicating that further research is not only required, but essential.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Matthew Mindrup
Matthew Mindrup is a Sydney-based architect and architectural historian whose research explores the role of materials, and especially physical models in the conception and construction of architecture. He lectures broadly and publicly on this subject and those of his books including The Material Imagination (Routledge, 2015), his co-translation of Bruno Taut's 1919 anthology The City Crown (Routledge, 2015) and the first comprehensive history of the architectural model and its uses entitled The Architectural Model: Histories of the Miniature and the Prototype, the Exemplar and the Muse (MIT Press, 2019).

Matthew Wells
Matthew Wells teaches the history and theory of architecture at the GTA Institute, ETH Zurich. His teaching and research focus on representational techniques, environmental technologies, and professionalism in the built environment of modernity. He studied art history at the Courtauld Institute of Art and completed his doctorate on nineteenth-century architectural models at the Victoria & Albert Museum. His PhD was awarded the Theodor-Fischer-Preis in 2019 and commended in the RIBA President's Awards for Research in 2017. He is working on the manuscript of this book, provisionally titled "Modelling in the Metropolis," while a second book, Survey, will be published by Park Books in Autumn 2021.

Notes

1 See, for example, Teresa Fankhänel, Theodore Conrad: The Master Craftsman of Architectural Model Making (London: Bloomsbury, 2020); Teresa Fankhänel, Olivia Horsfall Turner, Simona Valeriani, and Matthew Wells, eds., An Alphabet of Architectural Models (London: Merrell, 2021); Sabine Frommel and Raphaël Tassin, eds., Les maquettes d'architecture: fonction et évolution d'un instrument de conception et de réalisation (Paris: Picard, 2015); Ralf Liptau, Architekturen Bilden: Das Modell in Entwurfsprozessen Der Nachkriegsmoderne, Architekturen (Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag, 2019); Matthew Mindrup, "Translations from Material to Technology in Bauhaus Architecture," Cloud-Cuckoo-Land: International Journal of Architectural Theory 33, no. 19 (2014): 161-72.

2 Key examples include Marshall Spector, "Models and theories," British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 16, no. 62 (1965): 121-42; Mary Hesse, Models and Analogies in Science (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1966); Mary S. Morgan and Margaret Morrison, Models as Mediators: Perspectives on Natural and Social Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Soraya de Chadarevian and Nick Hopwood, eds., Models: The Third Dimension of Science (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004).

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The Architectural Model as Tool, Medium and Agent of Change

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Models of architecture are omnipresent in everyday life and frequently referred to in architectural discourse. Most familiar is the physical scale model used as a tool to aid architects in translating ideas into a concrete three-dimensional description of proposed or exiting structure.

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As an architect you will need to know how to calculate slopes and gradients in differing situations. The most common occurrence of this is working with ramped access to buildings, groundworks, car parks and so on. Slopes can be measured in angles, percentages and ratios. For this post I will focus on the measurement of slopes in ratios, mainly because gradient ratios are stated in the building regulations. At the end I will also take a quick look at slope percentages and how to work them out.

Approved Document Part M of the building regulations specifies limits for ramp gradients for access to a building. If access to a building is too steep it is not deemed to be a safe access and creates difficulty for people in wheelchairs who may not have the strength to propel themselves up a slope, or may have difficulty slowing down when descending a slope that is too steep. Some people find they need to stop frequently when ascending/descending ramp and therefore suitable landings are required at specified intervals to allow for this.

The table below shows the guidelines from the building regulations:

To work out the gradient of an existing slope you will need the distance of the slope (run) and the height of the slope (rise). The method that follows may not be the most mathematical way to work out the ratio gradient of a slope - but it is really simple and has always worked for me!

Remember to convert units so they are the same. For example, we have a 10m ramp run and a rise of 500mm. Convert the run to 10,000mm.

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As an architect you will need to know how to calculate slopes and gradients in differing situations. The most common occurrence of this is working with ramped access to buildings, groundworks, car parks and so on. Slopes can be measured in angles, percentages and ratios.

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We already know that the ramp, aside from its different design possibilities, allows-without forgetting the notion of promenade architecturale- its users to overcome physical barriers in the urban and architectural context.

Although it basically consists of a continuous surface with a particular angle of slope, it is necessary to point out the many constructive specifications, which of course may vary due based on the standards of different governing bodies. The following clarifications are intended to assist and determine the appropriate dimensions for comfortable and efficient ramps for all, based on the concept of universal accessibility.

To what extent can the slope of a ramp be modified? How can we determine its width and the space needed for maneuvering? What considerations exist regarding the handrails? Here we review some calculations and design examples for different ramps, below.

How is the Slope of a Ramp Calculated?

The slope can be expressed as a percentage that results from the ratio between the height to be overcome (h) and the length of the horizontal plane (d), multiplied by 100.

Slope expressed as a percentage = (h/d) x 100

From this expression, we can solve for the unknown values of each term. An existing ramp of 1 meter in height with a horizontal distance of 10 meters, will have a slope of 10%.

Accordingly, knowing the height to overcome on a project allows us to review recommendations for a slope consistent with the required needs.

+ How to design and calculate a staircase?

A Schematic Example for an Outdoor Ramp

The recommended maximum slope for outdoor ramps can be established in relation to the height to be overcome and depends on the length of the plane. Based on averages and considerations from different countries -both regulatory and from manuals from Latin America-a slope of between 12-10% can, for example, be used only for very small heights, such as a step of up to 20 centimeters. As the heights require greater efforts, the slopes begin to reduce to reach recommendable values of 8% for heights of up to 50 centimeters; 6% for heights of up to 100 centimeters; 5% for heights of up to 150 centimeters; and 4% for ramps being used by the elderly.

In relation to the length of the ramp, for short distances-up to 1.5 meters-the slope should be less than 12%. For distances of up to 3 meters it must be less than 10%, and for distances of up to 9 meters, it should be less than 8%, always taking the above considerations regarding height into account.

The ramps should not have an excessive length without breaks-a maximum length of 9 meters-due to the efforts required to ascend without help in a wheelchair, or the force needed to transport heavy cargo.

An Example of the Calculated Distance Required (d)

As an example, to overcome a height of 54 centimeters, we will use a slope of 6%, which results in a horizontal plane of 9 meters.
d = 9 meters
A Schematic Example for an Indoor Ramp

Likewise, the percentages for the slopes of interior ramps allow for a 10% slope only to overcome very small heights, such as a step of up to 30 centimeters. Again, as the heights require greater efforts, the slopes are reduced to reach, for example, 8% for heights that go up to 75 centimeters; 6% for up to 150 centimeters; and 5% for the elderly.

Regarding the length of the ramps, for short distances-up to 3 meters-the slope should be less than 10%. For medium distances-between 3 and 6 meters-the slope should be less than 8%, and for distances between 6 and 9 meters, the slope must be less than 6% (also taking into account the previous recommendations regarding height).

Example of Calculated Distance Required (d)

To overcome a height of 90 centimeters, we will use a slope of 6%, which results in a 15 meter horizontal length.
d = 15 meters
Frequently Asked Questions

What shape/form must the ramp have?

The lengths of ramps must always be straight, as curved ramps make it difficult for the movement of a person in a wheelchair; in reference to this, the transverse slope of a ramp should also not exceed 2%, thereby avoiding any lateral slippage. In addition, it must be taken into account that with each change of direction, there must be a horizontal plane of at least 150 cm in diameter-a measurement that allows the 360 ° rotation of a wheelchair.

At their ends, ramps must have another horizontal plane of a minimum of 150 cm in diameter, free of obstacles and not impeded by the opening of doors. A person in a wheelchair cannot perform the opening maneuvers while sitting on the slope of the ramp.

What considerations exist for handrails?

Ramps must have continuous handrails-without interruptions-along their entire length, on both sides, and with different heights, ideally one between 65-75 cm and another between 90-100 cm. In addition, it is necessary that the handrails extend at their ends more than 30 centimeters so that anyone can reach it from the horizontal plane. They must be built in a fixed position and with smooth materials that don't change with temperature variations (imagine a handrail exposed to the sun throughout the day or in areas that experience freezing temperatures).

Leaving aside handrails, we can't forget that there is also a protective element on the perimeter of the ramp that exists to avoid any accidents on the clear edges, both by the sliding of wheelchairs, baby carriages, canes, or to warn people with reduced visual capacity.

How do we determine the width of a ramp?

Depending on local regulations, we find recommendations that range from a clearance width between handrails of at least 120 centimeters, as it comfortably allows the passage of a wheelchair and enables anyone to hold on both sides and a minimum clearance width of 180 centimeters for public spaces. In cases where a ramp width exceeding 180 centimeters is required, it would be appropriate to place an intermediate handrail that meets the above requirements.

When determining the width of a ramp, it is important to consider the maneuvering space of both a person with a wheelchair and a person with a baby carriage, mainly as a function of the intermediate breaks.

What materials can be used to construct a ramp?

Outside of any material used for the structure, the finishing materials of the ramp should use those that result in a hard non-slip surface that can be used in dry or wet conditions.

In addition, at the beginning and end of the ramp the horizontal surface there should be a tactile pavement, with different colors extending along the entire width of the ramp, to serve as a warning for people with reduced visual capacity. This same type of prevention should highlight the perimeter where the ramp opens, up to at least two meters clear of the passage.

We want to clarify that what is presented in this article is auxiliary information for the design of a ramp. All considerations for the construction of a ramp should always consider the specific characteristics of each project and should be prepared after evaluating the local regulations and according to the decisions taken by architects and/or professionals in the area.

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A guide for designing comfortable and efficient ramps for everyone.

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Beginner's Guide to Architecture Site Analysis Using Alcohol Makers

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Beginner's Guide to Architecture Site Analysis Using Alcohol Makers

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Complete Beginner's Guide to Architecture Site Analysis Using Alcohol Makers

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First in Architecture blog site analysis guide

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First in Architecture blog site analysis guide

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This is our updated (Oct 2018), revised site analysis guide for architecture. You can download this as a handy pdf by clicking the link below.

Click here to download!

Prior to starting any design, your client will want to know whether construction on the site is viable. Carrying out an extensive site analysis [or context analysis] will assess wether development is financially feasible, and establish parameters to implement the best design that responds to the physical and environmental features of the site.

A contextual analysis is a research activity that looks at the existing conditions of a project site, along with any imminent or potential future conditions. The purpose is to inform us about a site prior to the start of our design process so that our initial design thinking about a site can incorporate considered responses to the external conditions.

An architectural site analysis will look at issues such as site location, size, topography, zoning, traffic conditions and climate. The analysis also needs to consider any future developments, or changes to the sites surroundings, such as a change of roads designations, changing cultural patterns, or other significant building developments within the area.

Understanding the context of a site is key to enabling the designer to weave the new design in with the existing fabric of the site. It allows us to understand the existing opportunities, or problems in a site, and make informed decisions on how to respond to our findings. This response could be that the designed building reflects the surrounding context and is designed to be in sympathy, or perhaps to turn away or eliminate certain unwanted site conditions.

It is important when carrying out a site analysis, that we endeavour to research as much as possible and collect all available data that relates to the site and our design. A poorly executed site analysis can lead to a sub standard design due to the designer not having all available information to respond to and develop solutions for. You can never know too much about the site.

To help with collecting information, I have made a checklist that is a starting point for analysing the site and gathering data. The checklist is not exhaustive, which means you can add to the checklist every time you come across new issue or factor relating to a site.

Our analysis data can be split into two main categories. Hard data and soft data.

Soft data looks at site conditions that can be changed. Hard data looks at more concrete elements such as site boundaries, site areas, utility locations, contours, dimensions, site features, climate, legal information. Early site investigations should look at hard data. From this, we are able to establish which elements we consider to have a negative impact on the site or proposed design and which conditions have a more positive influence. This allows us to create a hierarchy and gives a more systematic approach to understanding our data and developing the design.

The general categories of data we will be looking at as we carry out our architectural site analysis are:

Location - where the site is situated

Neighbourhood context - the immediate surrounding of the site including data on zoning and buildings and other impacts on our project.

Zoning and size - dimensional considerations such as boundaries, easements, height restrictions, site area, access along with any further plans.

Legal information - ownership, restrictions or covenants, council related information, future urban development plans.

Natural physical features - actual features of the site such as trees, rocks, topography, rivers, ponds, drainage patterns.

Man made features - existing buildings, walls, surrounding vernacular, setbacks, materials, landscaping, scale.

Circulation - Vehicle and pedestrian movements in, through and around the site. Consider the timing of these movements, and duration of heavier patterns. Future traffic and road developments should also be considered.

Utilities - Any electricity, gas, water, sewer and telephone services that are situated in or near the site, along with distances, depths and materials.

Climate - all climatic information such as rainfall, snowfall, wind directions, temperatures, sun path, all considered during the different times of the year.

Sensory - this addresses the visual, audible and tactile aspects of the site, such as views, noise, and so on. These again should be considered in time frames and a positive or negative factor can be attributed to the condition.

Human and cultural - the cultural, psychological, behavioural and sociological aspects of the surrounding neighbourhood. Activities and patterns, density, population ethnic patterns, employment, income, values and so on.

Before you visit the site, there is a lot of information you can gain from a desktop study. By carrying out thorough research prior to your visit to site, you will arrive well informed, and possibly have identified specific things that you want to check or look out for on your site visit.

Prior to your site visit it may be necessary to obtain an OS map of the site. From this, and from client information you can clarify the location of site boundaries.

Things to look into before you go to site:

Geological maps to discover predominant type of soil or rock on the site.

Aerial photographs and maps (google and bing have really useful and quite different aerial

images). Historical maps can also be interesting.

Distances and travel times between the site and other locations of importance

Legal Information:

Rights of way, rights of access, Town and Country Planning restrictions, is the site in a green belt?

History of the site - anything you can use to inform your design. Any tunnels, disused mines, archaeological interests under the site could curtail development.

Historical use of the site - could industrial processes have contaminated the land?

If the site sits in a conservation area or close to listed buildings you may need to go into more detail regarding cultural significance, historic significance, etc.

Developmental controls - is the site subject to any specific planning controls, building control or health and safety?

Are there any trees on the site? Do they have Tree Preservation Orders on them?

Utilities:

Determine whether water, electricity, gas, telephone, sewerage and other services are connected to the land.

Climate:

Climate conditions of the site/area.

Is the area susceptible to flooding, is it considered a flood risk area?

Some information is not freely available, but a client or their legal representative should be able to clarify any issues regarding rights of way, rights of light, legal easements and any rights of tenants.

There are many more things to look at, and each site is very different, but hopefully this will give you a starting point for getting the best out of your site visit. In the next section we will look at visiting the site, and some of the items on the checklist according to the categories that you should look out for.

What to take with you

Depending on the project you will want to consider taking the following items with you when you go to look at a potential site, or proposed site for your design project. It is likely you will require PPE (personal protection equipment) so make sure you have all the necessary items before heading to site.

Camera - essential. Make sure you take pictures of everything. Also, make sure you get some shots of the site from a distance so you can use these in your final images, cgi's and so on. Also take pictures of what is opposite the site, so you can use these as reflections in windows of your design. It is so frustrating when you go to the trouble of visiting a site and come back wishing you had taken more pictures.

Smart phone. If you have any apps that assist with taking panoramic pictures, take a few of these too. You can do some interesting stuff when you get to later design stages if you have a few panoramics to play with.

Note book. Really important to be able to jot down any observations.

Tape measure. Some sites may be close to hazards or situations where you will need to measure the proximity. If you have one, a disto, or laser measure could also come in handy, but not essential. I use this disto.

Good weather! If you have a choice of when to visit the site try to pick a day when there is a bit of blue sky around. It will look better for your site photos, particularly if you are planning on using them in future presentations.

What to look out for

I would suggest you go with a list of items to look out for, and check off your list so that you don't miss anything. My list would go something like this based on the categories we established earlier:

Location

Site location details (road names, address, major landmarks etc)

Current context - existing buildings, car parking, roads.

Neighbourhood context

Look at existing and proposed building uses in the neighbourhood

What condition are the buildings in?

Are there exterior spaces and what are they used for?

Are there activities in the neighbourhood that may create strong vehicle or pedestrian traffic?

Existing vehicle movement patterns, major and minor roads, bus routes and stops.

Vernacular context, materials, architectural features, fenestration, landscaping, parking, building heights

Any nearby historical buildings, or buildings of particular significance

Sun and shade patterns during the year

Building context - what style, period, state of repair are the surrounding buildings? It is a historical/heritage/conservation area? Will your design need to reflect the existing style?

Is the site close to listed buildings?

Surfaces and materials around the site.

Site and Zoning

Site boundary and dimensions

Any rights of way through the site and the dimensions

Any easements location and dimensions

Buildable area of the site

Any building height restrictions

Access to the site - car parking, bus routes, train stations, cycle routes, pedestrian walkways.

Access to site for construction - will there be any obstacles or restrictions that could affect the construction process?

Natural Features

Topography of the site, valleys, ridges, slopes etc.

Vegetation - landscaping, greenery, shrubs and trees, open spaces.

Site levels. How will this affect your design process? How does the site drainage work, would there be any potential problems with drainage?

Man made features

What was the previous use of the site? Would there be any contamination concerns?

Are there existing buildings on the site - what is their state of repair? Is there any sign of subsidence or settlement damage?

Are the existing buildings part of the project?

Any walls, retaining walls on the site, or other built items

Circulation

Circulation - how do visitors/pedestrians/traffic to or near the site flow around or within it.

Accessibility - current provisions of disabled access to the site and how will this need to be considered.

Does the existing pedestrian movement need to be preserved?

What is the vehicle peak loads and when?

Public transport close to the site

Locations of best access to site for both vehicles and pedestrians

Travel time to walk across the site

Utilities

Location of all services: electricity, gas, water, sewer, telephone. This includes both underground and above ground.

Location of power poles.

Sensory

Views - where are the best views to and from the site.

Mark out the positive and negative views.

Which is the most likely feature aspect?

Look at views towards the site from different approaches to see how the site would be seen when drawing near to the site. What are the best views of the site, and would these change in the long term?

Noise, odour and pollution - is the site in a particularly noisy area? Or near industrial buildings that produce levels of pollution. Is it near a facility that creates smoke?

Human and Cultural

Negative neighbourhood issues such as vandalism and crime.

What are the attitudes towards the site and the potential build?

What are the general neighbourhood attitudes about the area?

What is the cultural, psychological, behavioural and sociological aspects of the surrounding area.

What is the population, density, family size, ethnic patterns, employment, recreation activities etc.

Climate

Orientation of the site.

Weather - how does the weather affect the site? Is it well shaded, exposed?

How does the temperature, rainfall etc vary throughout the year?

What are the prevailing wind directions throughout the year?

What is the sun path throughout the different times of the year, and day.

Take some time to walk around the site as much as possible. Take note of the general topography of the site, and any significant changes in level. Also note any indications of what is underneath the surface, for example, any marsh grasses could suggest that there is a high water table, if the soil is sticky it could indicate the subsoil on the site is clay. If there is any rubble on the site, it could suggest there has been previous development, or possibly landfill on the land.

Many of these site issues (particularly services) would be picked up on a topographical survey or other professional report, but for the benefit of a student site analysis assignment I think it would be good to demonstrate that you have considered the hazards that could be on or around the site.

The best way to present much of the data you have collected is through diagrams. There are varying approaches to expressing the features of the site, some prefer to include as much information as possible on one diagram, while others will produce a number of smaller diagrams to demonstrate particular site conditions or features.

Both options work, but if you decide to present all the data on one drawing, it is important to make sure it doesn't become muddled and difficult to interpret the information. So a single diagram demonstrating many of the site conditions will be a larger drawing than numerous individual diagrams demonstrating one site factor. It is also important that the hierarchy of the drawing is clear - using your pen thicknesses to demonstrate the different aspects.

You can represent data from your site visit in plans, elevations and sections, isometrics or perspectives. Be sure to choose the best option for the date you are trying to explain. We want to make sure the diagram is simple, and clear, with the data we are presenting graphically bolder than the referent information. You want the emphasis to be on the information you are communicating, for example a path through the site, or the position of trees on the site. If you choose to create a series of drawings, ensure that the site drawing is always the same orientation, and preferably scale, so that the reader can easily understand the drawings.

S o you have collected all this information and taken a shed load of photos, now you've got to evaluate this information and consider the implications to your design process. As well as considering all the points below you also have to integrate the requirements of the brief. You are slowly putting together the pieces of the puzzle in order to come up with a great design.

Your diagrams and data collection will be starting to build a picture of the site, helping you to evaluate what you have found and begin to consider solutions.

When looking at your site and considering your design think about the following:

The Site

Street patterns

Street section

Scale and the hierarchy/form/space

Land use

Typologies

Neighbourhood relationships, formal street variation

Perspective relationships, views

Edge conditions, surfaces and materials

Natural and man made

Movement and circulation within and around the site

Vehicle vs. pedestrian

Access

Public space vs. private space

Open space

History

Climate - sun angles and sun shadows

Negative and positive spaces - we move through negative spaces and dwell in positive spaces

The Building

During your evaluation of the site, it may be useful to create a model of a particular aspect, or even the site itself. A model may demonstrate something better than a drawing or photograph, particularly three dimensional situations. Land contours, are often demonstrated using a simple site model. This base model could then be used as part of your concept development.

Click here to download!

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Architecture Site Analysis Guide - Data Collection to Presentation

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This is our updated (Oct 2018), revised site analysis guide for architecture. You can download this as a handy pdf by clicking the link below. Click here to download! Prior to starting any design, your client will want to know whether construction on the site is viable.

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"Upcycling means not just finding value in old materials, building parts, or images, but also changing value itself. Finding aesthetic and economic merit in the combinations, defects, and recombinations of upcycling is as important as the actual reuse itself."

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Out of Liechtenstein, that tiny principality wedged between Austria and Switzerland, comes one of the most rousing clarion calls for upcycling I have read. Upcycling, let us be clear, is not recycling. The former term, which, if we can believe Wikipedia, first appeared in 1994, refers to adding value through reuse, rather than finding residual value in used or leftover materials. It is a process that is by now well-established in music (recycled riffs), fashion (Virgil Abloh selling salvaged Polo shirts), and industrial design (the Campana Brothers making furniture out of rags or toys). It is not, however, that well-known in architecture.

Enter Daniel Stockhammer, an assistant professor at the Institute of Architecture and Planning at the University of Liechtenstein who heads the design studio Upcycling with Cornelia Faisst. In his new book, Upcycling: Reuse and Repurposing as a Design Principle in Architecture (Triest Verlag, 2020), Stockhammer makes the following argument:

"The preservation and qualitative reuse and repurposing of existing building stock means: -architectural relevance is gained through complexity and multiplicity of meaning (instead of through form) -Identity, longevity, and historical and social continuity are bolstered -Knowledge of building culture and construction is secured - The simplicity, durability, and sustainability of building construction, building materials, and technology are challenged and promoted. The exploration of reuse and upcycling perceives buildings as once again being part of processes of social change. For the designers of our built environment, treating architecture as project (and the intellectual property) of many generations entails a transformation from creator to contributor. It means rethinking traditional certainties (and single-layered ideas) of modern building and preservation of architecture and it means posing new questions: -How do we conceive designs if indeterminacy becomes an essential component of architecture? -Which design approaches and tools are suitable for dealing with irregularities, incompleteness, and deficiencies? -How can design processes themselves become a central objective of design disciplines and what roles should architects play? -What structures and materials are suitable for keeping the processes open to enable that future buildings and construction waste can (again) be reused and repurposed?"

Central to this idea is the process of "urban mining," which involves scouring buildings about to be demolished to find the bits and pieces that can be reused. The masters of this kind of salvaging are the members of the Belgian collective Rotor, and in particular their RotorDC division (short for Deconstruction), which has made urban mining its specialty. They are particularly good at reusing office interiors that would seem the least likely to have value: the ones from the 1970s and 1980s, with their plethora of surfaces in beige-brown or anemic gray that only serve to highlight their fakeness, made with no particular responsiveness to the human body. My favorite project was one in which they turned rounded countertops from some bureaucratic institution into luxury residential kitchen surfaces.

The issue is, of course, that this kind of work can be very expensive, and the cost at which the rescued object is sold has to be high. RotorDC has a website selling salvaged doors, lighting fixtures, hooks, and other items that calls to mind an IKEA catalog, including the affordable prices. I suspect that the whole enterprise of locating, extracting, cleaning, and storing this material does not exactly make money. That could change if several trends converge. One is the taste for Midcentury Modern, which has started stretching to include buildings from the more recent past that are exactly the ones now being torn down. Another is the taste for shabby chic or ruin porn. Add to that the value we should place on sustainability, and we can hope that someday those salvaged items will command a similar market share as the copper pipes that are already upcycled from these buildings. If you look on social media and elsewhere, you can see that the yard-sale aesthetic is already creeping into the office environment and shabby-chic apartment decor.

Upcycling does not necessarily refer only to materials. Even if buildings cannot be saved, their imagery can be, as the Dutch artist Marjan Teeuwen demonstrates. She photographs about-to-be demolished buildings after rearranging their materials into quasi-monuments that pay homage to what is about to be lost. Configured to resemble the Cyclopian ruins of ancient civilizations, these piles of wood, hardboard, drywall, and plastic sheets take on a romantic beauty.

As Stockhammer and his co-editor, David Koralek, suggest in their book, the Eucharist is a form of upcycling (that observation comes from no less than a design guru than Alberto Alessi). But they also point to the long history of upcycling remnants of past civilizations to create idealized versions of those lost environments. Two of the authors who contributed essays to the collection focus on entire Alpine villages built in the 20th century out of salvaged material that evoke an organic whole that probably never existed, as well as on the work of Viollet-le-Duc, who famously made Notre Dame in Paris a perfected version of what its medieval builders might have intended it to be. You could also point to the Kok family, three generations of architects and photographers who reinvented Amsterdam's Canal Zone in the late 19th and early 20th century out of fragments of that Golden Age.

We have long condemned such efforts as fakery, or perhaps as the over-enthusiastic work performed at the dawn of the era of historic preservation. Stockhammer, however, has another perspective:"Architecture as a unique event is a construct based on modern paradigms such as gaining distance from the old, inventing the new, originality, self-containedness and authorship. They promote principles of consumption and speculation in two directions: that of the fast pace of life and that of the conservation of an alleged original condition... Architecture as an investment, on the other hand, assumes the mechanisms of the art world: cult of authorship, fetishistic obsession with the original intention of the artist, and overprotection of the completed building from alteration. During the course of the 20th century, architecture became a one-dimensional process of a self-contained task."

Upcycling means not just finding value in old materials, building parts, or images, but also changing value itself. Finding aesthetic and economic merit in the combinations, defects, and recombinations of upcycling is as important as the actual reuse itself. A beautiful example is a recent art work by Victor Solomon, who applied the Japanese craft of kintsugi to a crumbling basketball court using gold paint to highlight, rather than mask, the concrete's defects and repairs.

As Stockhammer says, we need to get beyond the fetishism of finished buildings and open ourselves up to the value hidden in the everyday-value that we can only unlock through creative reallocation, which might even entail destruction.
Aaron Betsky is a regularly featured columnist whose views and conclusions are not necessarily those of ARCHITECT magazine nor of the American Institute of Architects.

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Out of Liechtenstein, that tiny principality wedged between Austria and Switzerland, comes one of the most rousing clarion calls for upcycling I have read. Upcycling, let us be clear, is not recycling. The former term, which, if we can believe Wikipedia, first appeared in 1994, refers to adding value through reuse, rather than finding residual value in used or leftover materials.

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Showing what upcycle design is all about!

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When I was asked to think about the topic ' Designing For The Future ', I immediately thought about 'the future of design'. In both instances, one should look at the current way things are designed.

First of all, I want to say that design is important and innovation should play an important role. But is only innovative design the future or is there more to it? Well, innovation is usually about technique, software, production methods, materials, and function. Again, all very important aspects. And together with sustainability, it seems like things are great.

There's only one major aspect that is overlooked by many designers and design academies and that's ' upcycling '.

What is upcycling?

For those of you who aren't familiar with the term upcycling: It's the process of transforming waste materials/objects, useless, or unwanted products into new products and/or materials of better quality, with a different function and often with better environmental value.Eking It Out | Photo © Rupert Herring

The term upcycling was introduced in 1994 by Reiner Pilz in an interview with Thornton Kay. A few years later in 1999, Gunter Pauli and Johannes F. Hartkemeyer published a book with the title 'Upcycling'. The concept was later incorporated by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in their 2002 book Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things. (followed by The Upcycle in 2013). The writers, according to Wikipedia, state that the goal of upcycling is to prevent wasting potentially useful materials by making use of existing ones. This reduces the consumption of new raw materials when creating new products. Reducing the use of new raw materials can result in a reduction of energy usage, air pollution, water pollution, and even greenhouse gas emissions.

The difference with recycling

And what's the difference with recycling you may ask. Also, a way to reduce waste ending up into landfills. Well, I always say that upcycling is the superlative for recycling. And it's good to notice that Salvaged metal homeware | Photo © Studio Hamed Ouattara more and more designers and brands see the benefits of upcycle design. Rightly so, because a slightly new version or a different shaped sofa without any added environmental value is not the way it should be anymore. When creating a product we should actually consider if it could be made by using upcycling and if it's needed at all.

This all seems simple and easy to implement, but it doesn't happen. At least not on a large scale. Countries that have been upcycling effectively for years are developing countries. They use old wood, redundant packaging, and clothing in new ways. Although it's a good thing for the environment, they do this more out of need.

Why upcycle design?

The first time the necessity of upcycling and lack of it in the design world became clear to me was when I visited the Tavolo Libero | Photo © Marcantonio Raimondi Malerba Salone 2012 in Milan, the largest furniture trade fair in the world, to look for great designs and concepts. And there was lots of it. As the global benchmark in home furnishing, the Salone did not disappoint. At some point, it was even too much, because the amount of design products is just overwhelming. I noticed that environment-friendly designs were scarce and almost all big brands didn't add anything to what was already there. Except of course a few young designers who were willing to stand out.

And that's when it became more and more clear to me that I was missing something. I became convinced that designers should produce responsible design - designs that are not just visually attractive, but also environmentally responsible and sustainable. Just designing more and more isn't the way it should be anymore. It's easier to design something from scratch where the designer has a choice to use whatever material or object available. But designing something where one has to use an old object or material is quite hard and challenging.

Designers and the public opinion should realize that upcycling is a wonderful way to turn waste into outstanding artistry that is not only stylish and functional but also contributes to saving the environment.

Beaker-Wok Chandelier | Photo © T.O.M.T.™

There's another aspect of upcycling that hasn't been mentioned. Besides environmental benefits, upcycling also stimulates jobs and enhances individuals' living conditions. Locals are motivated to participate in upcycling ventures, like in India. Participants, often craftsmen and skilled workers, utilize discarded materials/objects and turn them into amazing upcycle products designed by well-known designers. This way trash turns into treasures.

History

Upcycle design and art have been around for quite a long time. Just look at art made by Tour | Photo © FontanaArte Marcel Duchamp, Pablo Picasso, and many other artists. Around the '90s a few incredible designers started showing design made out of everyday products. They didn't always use discarded materials and objects, but they showed what could be done. They pointed out that we should look at objects in a different way. In a way that a certain object could get a new life, a different function. And by doing so ideas got triggered to use waste and old stuff, transforming them into new design pieces.

Well, one of those designers is the admired Gae Aulenti. She lived form 1927 till 2012 and was an Italian architect, lighting and interior designer, and industrial designer. Gae Aulenti was one of the few notable women architects and designers in mid-twentieth-century Europe. One of her designs as an industrial designer, and one of her later works, was an amazing table called ' TOUR ', designed in 1993.

Another big name in design is Into Maurer. He's one of the most innovative and influential lighting designers working today who has exhibited in many leading museums around the world. One of his iconic epicycle design pieces is called design Porca Miseria! A stunning suspension lamp made with porcelain shards.

Porca miseria! Photo © Ingo Maurer GmbH

Both design pieces aren't entirely made out discarded objects, but it shows what you can do with everyday objects.

The current state of affairs

Now the big thing is to create upcycle designs for those materials/products. Upcycling and especially upcycle design is still a niche. And a very small one if a may say so. But things are gradually changing and upcycling is currently taking off in the western world. Thanks to an increased awareness of eco-friendly products, especially those that have an affordable price tag. And if manufacturers see that upcycle design can be profitable it's even more interesting for them. "If upcycling is going to become mainstream, then the corporate world needs to see that it can be profitable," said Albe Zakes, spokesman of U.S. company Jerry Can Cabinets | Photo © Danish Fuel TerraCycle which specializes in finding new uses for discarded packaging.

A growing number of companies are starting to focus on upcycling although the trend is still in its early stages and waiting to be widely accepted by the industry.

Upcycle initiative

Here in the Netherlands, there's an initiative that I think is worth mentioning. It's called 'LIGHT UP | Photo © The Upcycle The Upcycle' where bicycle waste is transformed into a beautifully designed upcycle collection, incorporating everyday products such as chairs, lamps, and belts into the design. Here in the Netherlands, there are more bicycles than people! Bicycles, which are abandoned for whatever reason, are picked up by local municipalities and brought to different bicycle depots or dumpsites. For instance in Amsterdam, of the 64,575 bikes that were brought to the bike depot in 2012, 15,146 were claimed by the owner. Almost 78% of these bikes were unclaimed which is an enormous amount of waste!

A small percentage of these bikes are sold to other bicycle shops, but most of them are shredded to produce metals which are not very environmentally friendly. After careful planning and research, the Upcycle team has found a way to re-use old frames. Old frames are transformed and used as a base for new unique bicycles that they brand as 'Upcycles'. Instead of hiring professionals, the Upcycle team built a production team staffed by people from social workplaces. Not only did the Upcycle team help the environment but they also gave people job opportunities and alternative means to earn an income.

Upcycle designers

Like I've mentioned before in this post, there are more and more designers that see the benefits of upcycle design. On my blog upcycleDZINE, more than 500 upcycle designs are featured by over 400 designers that all show how incredible exciting upcycling can be. Here are some examples: Beetle Club Chair | Photo © The Rag And Bone Man Indusigns, Marcantonio Raimondi Malerba, T.O.M.T.™, Oxgut Hose Co., and Studio ORYX. These are just a few from a long list of amazing designers.

Distinctive design

Last but least I want to mention why upcycle design is a distinctive design. In contrast to 'normal' design, upcycle design gives you a product that is handmade, original, and often one of a kind and fun. And to top it all of the design piece has a story to tell, it has a history which therefore gives it added value besides being of course environmentally friendly. That's why I think that the future of design is, and should be about, upcycling.

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When I was asked to think about the topic ' Designing For The Future ', I immediately thought about 'the future of design'. In both instances, one should look at the current way things are designed. First of all, I want to say that design is important and innovation should play an important role.

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Bringing new voices to the conversation about London's future | Architecture Foundation

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Architecture Foundation - A coalition of architects, clients, professionals and public campaigning for a better built environment

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Architecture Foundation Turns 30: Chance Street with David Adjaye, Stephen Taylor, 6a & David Ogunmuyiwa

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Architecture Foundation Turns 30: Chance Street with David Adjaye, Stephen Taylor, 6a & David Ogunmuyiwa

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David Ogunmuyiwa presents the second episode of AF turns 30, a new weekly series by the Architecture Foundation, looking back at the last 30 years of architectural history.

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Chance Street: David Adjaye, Stephen Taylor & 6a discuss architectural legacy with David Ogunmuyiwa

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Lesley Lokko: Decolonising Architecture | Assemble Papers

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Lesley Lokko: Decolonising Architecture | Assemble Papers

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DM- For me, architecture school is all about dreaming, and thinking bigger and doing all the things you can’t do once you get into practice.
LL - Exactly, live out your imagination and not just your history.

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Lesley Lokko: Decolonising Architecture | Assemble Papers

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Just over 2000 years ago, Pliny the Elder uttered: “Ex Africa semper aliquid novi” (“Out of Africa there is always something new”). No-one is perhaps better equipped to discuss this idea than Professor Lesley Lokko. Currently Head of the Graduate School of Architecture (GSA) at the University of Joh…

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"Improvisation skills and creativity will become the highest assets" says Edelkoort of the "brand new page for a new beginning" once the pandemic is over.
https://www.typeroom.eu/covid-19-li-edelkoort-and-the-rise-of-the-age-of-the-amateur

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A Nolli Map is a two-dimensional plan drawing used to understand and document the accessibility and flow of space within a city. The first Nolli ever was drawn by the Italian architect from where the map derives its name from, Giovanni Battista Nolli.

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Small scale incremental developers are concerned with enhancing the character and economic vitality of neighborhoods through flexible, human-scaled, mixed-use buildings. In other words, a small developer's focus is in building places the way they have been built for centuries; piece by piece adapting to changing forces along the way. This is in direct opposition to the more popular trend of development, which is to build it big and all at once. The real estate produced from this mode of development is usually expensive, poorly designed, and hinders the organic growth of a city or community. It also shows that the developer at this scale, lacks basic understanding of the neighborhoods they 'invest' in, either intentionally or unintentionally. This is something that a small developer does well.

Figure 1: A string of rough Nolli sketches drawn while documenting Seaside, Florida. The documentation process doesn't have to be "pretty" at first. The point is to understand spatial and massing relationships. Source: Sketchbook of Marques King, 2014

Enter the Nolli Map, the most underutilized tool in the designer/developer tool box. A Nolli Map is a two-dimensional plan drawing used to understand and document the accessibility and flow of space within a city. The first Nolli ever was drawn by the Italian architect from where the map derives its name from, Giovanni Battista Nolli. For purposes of dividing the city into wards and planning future public works, in 1736 Pope Benedict XIV commissioned Nolli to create the most accurate plan drawing of Rome ever made. Giovanni documented every building within the city and consequently every space. Unique to the Nolli Drawing is the representation of public space inside buildings, as part of the urban realm. There is no distinction between inside and out; only space and mass. The Nolli Map of Rome presented the Eternal City in a way that deepened the comprehension of its neighborhood fabric.

In 2013, I worked directly under architect and urbanist Dhiru Thadani to produce the first Nolli Map of Seaside, Florida, the "original" New Urbanist community. The survey team changed heads many times over the year it took to complete, but outside of Dhiru, I was the only member to see it completed from start to finish. Over the course of that year, the teams and I hand surveyed every inch of the beach town. We measured as-built conditions of every road, house, shop, pavillion, tree, groundcover, sidewalk, fence, and even the sand dunes. At this point, I wouldn't be surprised if I understood the current Seaside better than some of the residents that live there. Which brings me to my chief point. As I enter into the realm of small scale incremental development myself, I can't help but recall the time I spent documenting Seaside. The level of comprehension I gained about this place, from walking and drawing every inch of it, was almost intimate. A key factor distinguishing small developers from the large developer is a deep and authentic understanding of a neighborhood. This is where the Nolli Map has its advantages and offers tremendous value to small scale developer. Here are four ways small developers can benefit from making a Nolli Map of their target neighborhood...
1. Understanding relationships of public and private space
The most important observation a Nolli Map reveals is the clear distinction between public and private space. This can be further simplified as "places people can go" vs. "places people can't go". Distinguishing between the two affords the developer the power to control all variety of movement in a city: movement of people, goods, and commerce, essentially crafting the urban experience for its users. Public spaces include streets, squares, and walks but also porches, yards, commercial space, lobbies, and vestibules of all sorts. Understanding the public vs.private space relationship-or lack thereof-within a given neighborhood is the foundation for establishing or fitting into walkable, human-scaled communities.
2. Uncovering the urban and architectural pattern language of a neighborhood. 3. Understand what's missing

Figure 2: An excerpt from the Seaside Nolli Plan. Tupelo Solid black masses represent the private space of the residences. Notice the pattern of front and side porches fronting the public way and how the porches are rendered as a part of the public space sequence. Source: Dhiru Thadani, 2015.

4. Understand that your building is not an isolated event but a small piece to a much larger system.
Cities and neighborhoods have a language. That language is spoken in terms of patterns that organize the places humans inhabit. A Nolli map will reveal these patterns both on an architectural and urban scale. Streets are the clearest examples of an urban pattern. They can be organized in a grid, linearly, radially, organically, or some hybrid of these. Certain architectural patterns will respond to the urban organization. For example at Seaside, there is an architectural pattern of porches fronting the street, acting as a mediator space between the public and private realm. As a small developer, fitting into this existing pattern language is essential to positively nurturing the walkability, sustainability, and functionality of a neighborhood. They are great typological clues to guide the small developer in what should be built.

Sustainable, walkable places have a very legible flow of public space between buildings and the urban realm. They also have a variety of architectural patterns, because there are different uses required to sustain the neighborhood. More private spaces like residences will have less public space porosity breaking up their massing than a commercial space will, where goods and services are exchanged for money. When you create a Nolli Map of an existing neighborhood all of these things will be revealed and one will be able to determine the components that are missing. These missing links are perfect opportunities for small scale developers to intervene responsibly into a neighborhood.

Figure 3: An excerpt from the Seaside Nolli Plan; Ruskin Square. Along the edges of Ruskin Square are different spatial patterns found inside its defining buildings to support the changes in use from single family residential to commercial/mixed use. Source: Dhiru Thadani, 2015.

My last point is a summation of the former three. Mapping an entire target neighborhood as a Nolli will inevitably reinforce to the small developer just how insignificant one piece of land or property is when viewed in isolation. It will illustrate that the true beauty of a place is less about one building, and more about how a coalition of carefully located buildings craft space and work together to produce great places for humans. I realize this is difficult for large-scale development because the culture there is to protect the investment, which is the building. But that's just it. Small developers are protecting the investment, that investment being the neighborhood. They invest in the protection and enhancement of its spaces, patterns, economy, and architecture by developing responsive, flexible and contextual buildings. Such an investment allows the entire neighborhood to flourish and so will the developer's pocket. Everyone wins.

As a disclaimer, I suggest living in the neighborhood you are developing in. It cements your investment of time and money in a place, which is the ultimate commitment. Not only do you care about your property, but you care about its context and socio-economic support system. Why? Because you live, work and play there as well. Nolli Maps help small developers understand their focus neighborhoods. Consequently, this creates economic value for the community and themselves by financing better products.

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Nolli map as a tool for small developers

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Small scale incremental developers are concerned with enhancing the character and economic vitality of neighborhoods through flexible, human-scaled, mixed-use buildings. In other words, a small developer's focus is in building places the way they have been built for centuries; piece by piece adapting to changing forces along the way.

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The 5-minute walk, also known as the “pedestrian shed” is considered to be the distance people are willing to walk before opting to drive.

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"He's nice, a bit of a close talker..."

This quote from Seinfeld introduces us into the field of proxemics - a study of spatial relationships between people and their effects on human behaviour.

Proxemics. n; the interrelated observations and theories of man's use of space as a specialised elaboration of culture - Edward T Hall, anthropologist

Hall coined the phrase in the 1960s, and completed several studies associated with how people behave across distances. He has attributed four zones where thresholds are crossed and behaviours therefore alter:

Intimate space: under 450mm apart

2. Personal space: 450mm to 1.2m apart

3. Social space: 2m to 3.6m apart

4. Public space: 3.6m to 7.6m

Of course, there are man variables to this, from culture appropriations to context. An Indian train experience is very different to that in Singapore; a loud rock concert is very different to a peaceful picnic on a Sunday afternoon. Hall's point is to be aware of how human behaviour is inherently linked to the size of our immediate environs.

The relationship to architecture is obvious. If a certain behaviour or atmosphere is to be encouraged, take note where this sits in the proxemic's 'zones' and design accordingly. A cosy restaurant desires to foster connections in the 'personal space', so ensure your dining chairs are spaced no less than 450mm and certainly no more than 1.2m. If you have a large dining room area, break the space down into smaller 'rooms' to create a greater level of intimacy. This may be as transparent as partitions that imply spatial divisions, or more solid to create private exclusive dining rooms.

Conversely, if designing an urban space to be used by the public as a thoroughfare, consider distances over 3.6m to facilitate movement. If you wish for people to loiter and stay in the urban space, ensure distances between the extents of the space do not go beyond the social space zones.

I feel that an understanding of proxemics in the home environment is tantamount. Lounge rooms (at least in Australia) seems to be getting bigger and bigger - a room up to 8m wide isn't unusual. However, if the interactions we wish to foster are around family connection, a large room only counteracts this intent. The distance between the sofa in my lounge room and the armchairs opposite is only 1.5m, for the intention to encourage conversation.

We don't need MORE space in our home environments; if anything, we need to carefully curate SMALLER spaces to encourage greater interactivity, designing out any hindrances that form a barrier against this.

A cohousing project of mine is designed to have the main living areas in each private dwelling to be 4.1m to 4.6m wide, including the walkway (depending on the dwelling). The common house, on the other hand, has living/dining spaces up to 6.3m wide. Being a more public space, the size of the rooms justifies the preferred behaviours within.

In short, an awareness of proxemics is important to understand how people will use a space. As architects, we can harness this knowledge to our advantage - with these insights, the way people interact can be fostered and encouraged through careful forethought in design.

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"He's nice, a bit of a close talker..." This quote from Seinfeld introduces us into the field of proxemics - a study of spatial relationships between people and their effects on human behaviour. Proxemics.

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Space Planning Basics - introduction for architectural design

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Note: You can download this space planning post as a PDF for printing or saving, by clicking the button below. Download PDF Now Space planning is a complex process with many factors to consider. The principles of space planning involve satisfying a defined criteria on a priority basis - as a result, space planning is frequently about compromise.

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Franco Purini: Study of Architectural Elements

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Franco Purini: Study of Architectural Elements

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The number 11-12 (Nov-Dec 1972) of Italian architecture magazine Controspazio presented a retrospective of the earliest "design researches" by the couple Franco Purini / Laura Thermes.

The article was part of an ongoing series titled L'architettura Interrotta (" Interrupted architecture") and the same issue featured another retrospective dedicated to arch. Ludwig Leo that we already featured on Socks.

The (then) relatively young Purini and Thermes, architects, teachers and writers, have started a collaboration since 1966 after studing with Ludovico Quaroni at the Faculty of Architecture of Rome - La Sapienza and working with both Maurizio Sacripanti and Vittorio Gregotti. Their work, based upon the practice of the architectural drawing, confronts the lines of rationalism and of the classical tradition with suggestions of metaphysical character. Their recognition came, rather than from the built work, after participating to the very first Venice Biennale of Architecture (1980) when they were called by Portoghesi (also director of Controspazio) to contribute, along with other renowned architects, to the design of the "Strada Novissima" installation.

The following drawings are from one of the paragraphs of the Controspazio retrospective, titled "1968. Studio di elementi architettonici" (" 1968. Study of architectural elements "). The following introduction was written in Italian by Franco Purini.

ln these drawings it is attempted a classification of typical situations in the relationship between the volume (cube), the plane and the linear element, in a hypothesis of architectural "composition" as a form of notation or "writing."
The cube, the base, the linear element (column, tower), the wall are the pieces of a series of formal connections, in an elementary formulation of the "construction", referring particularly to the theme of the trilithon.
The reduction of the objects (elements) to a limited number, the classification by sections of their relations, the construction of space as coexistence of these "objects" and as a ratio with respect to a reference plane (base or wall), allows to set up a "description" of the composition based on a closed number of propositions, in an attempt to constrain the project by forcing the comparison with a series of primary preordinate situations.
The central reference is to the structure of a classical temple and to the special connection that is built into it among the constituent elements.
In this hypothesis it is present the reference to the construction site (as the place of technological practice), whose functional processes are interpreted in their succession and in the order of the artefacts (the base, the wall that defines it in the elevation, the superimposed trilith) that are produced there.
The analysis by parts of the building tends to express this growth through additions of finite objects. That makes it possible to rethink the "constructive"process within a series of stages, each determined in its own formal autonomy. (translated from Italian by Socks)

ln queste tavole si è tentata una classificazione di situazioni tipiche del rapporto tra il volume (il cubo), il piano e l'elemento lineare, in una ipotesi di " composizione " architettonica come una forma di notazione o "scrittura ".
Il cubo, il basamento, l'elemento ad andamento lineare (colonna, torre), il muro sono i pezzi di cui si propongono alcune connessioni formali in una formulazione elementare della "costruzione ", riferita particolarmente al tema dell'impianto trilitico.
La riduzione degli oggetti (elementi) ad un numero limitato, la classificazione per sezioni dei loro rapporti, la costruzione dello spazio come compresenza di questi "oggetti " e come rapporto rispetto ad un piano di riferimento (basamento 0 muro), permette di istituire una " descrittiva " della composizione basata su un numero chiuso di proposizioni, nel tentativo di condizionare il progetto obbligando al confronto con una serie di situazioni primarie preordinate.
Il riferimento centrale è alla struttura del tempio classico e alla particolare connessione che si costruisce in esso tra gli elementi costitutivi.
È presente in questa ipotesi il riferimento al cantiere (come luogo della pratica tecnologica), i cui procedimenti funzionali sono interpretati nella loro successione e nell'ordine dei manufatti (il basamento, il muro che lo definisce in alzato, il trilite sovrapposto) che vi si producono.
L'analisi per pezzi della costruzione tende ad esprimere questa crescita per addizioni di oggetti finiti. Cio permette di ripensare il procedimento " costruttivo " dentro una serie di fasi determinate ciascuna nella propria autonomia formale.

Click on some of the images to enlarge.

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Franco Purini: Study of Architectural Elements (1968)

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The number 11-12 (Nov-Dec 1972) of Italian architecture magazine Controspazio presented a retrospective of the earliest "design researches" by the couple Franco Purini / Laura Thermes. The article was part of an ongoing series titled L'architettura Interrotta ("Interrupted architecture") and the...

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From Lines to Volumes: Architectural Drawings by Kristin Arestava

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These enigmatic pencil drawings by Kristin Arestava are an interesting experiment in architectural visualization. The abstract volumes are represented without ever defining a contour, but through the repetition of vertical lines drawn with different intensity to give a vibrancy to the single...

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Stijn Jonckheere, a Belgian self-titled "experimental architect", works on the brink of architecture, illustration and graphic design. His working method starts from personal interpretation of real-life locations which are then translated into detailed black and white drawings.
The technological features of the drawn artifacts are exposed revealing buildings that look like machines, carefully studied in their mechanical and structural functioning.

All images © Stijn Jonckheere

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The Mechanical-Architectural World of Stijn Jonckheere

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Stijn Jonckheere, a Belgian self-titled "experimental architect", works on the brink of architecture, illustration and graphic design. His working method starts from personal interpretation of real-life locations which are then translated into detailed black and white drawings. The technological features of the drawn artifacts are exposed revealing buildings that look like machines, carefully studied in their mechanical and structural functioning.

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Kenji Ekuan (1929 - 2015) was an industrial designer and a central figure in Japan's Metabolist movement. The shock provoked by the sight of Hiroshima bombings (where he lost his father and his sister) persuaded him to become a creator of things:

When I stood in the ruins of the city after losing my father and sister to the bomb there, I was suddenly overcome by this sense of personal mission. In a world where there was nothing left at all, I felt the call of all things man-made. The burned out shell of a streetcar, an overturned truck, a half-melted bicycle... I felt like they were calling out to me, saying, "Hear us, O traveler!" (...) Experiences like that redirected my perception of the mutability of life from a sense of vanity and desolation to the sense that change drives new growth. I vowed to pursue the kind of change that fit the needs of postwar Japan through industrial design" (Excerpt from an interview of Rem Koolhaas and Hans Ulrich Obrist with Kenji Ekuan, in "Project Japan, Metabolist Talks", Taschen 2011)

With a mixture of heroism and spirituality (arguably inherited from his late father, a Buddhist monk), Ekuan accomplished his life mission by designing "democratic" objects like public telephone booths, capsules, musical instruments and, - the one which he became famous for -, the Kikkoman soy sauce bottle. Less internationally known but equally as important are his contributions to the Metabolist project, (Kenji joined the group since the beginnings, at the 1960 World Design Conference), a series of interiors-, housing and mass produced designs and realisations questioning human inhabitation and ways of living. Determining to his education was the participation in Konrad Wachsmann's Tokyo seminar in 1955, a decisive turning point in the younger architects' awareness of technological possibilities, and the Buddha-like teachings of professor Iwataro Koike, to whom Ekuan and his fellows dedicated the name of their 1952-born design collective (GK - Group Koike).

After the 1953's " Phone Booth" (a pre-capsule design that became ubiquitous in Japan) and the 1962-63's " Plastic Ski Lodge" (a well equipped mobile home transportable on a truck), Ekuan began designing systems operating on every scale: from the single furniture to a city: " insisting", as stated on "Project Japan" " on fluidity between object, architecture, and urbanism ".

1964 " Furniture House" is the result of a series of experiments on the creation of domestic space through movable - Metabolist furniture - each one equipped with a structure of "skeleton", "organs" and "skin". The house is not defined by walls but by the composition of furniture, this way predating of almost ten years the experimentations of European and (above all) Italian radicals, as the pieces exhibited at 1972's " Italy, the New Domestic Landscape" (also, here). (Cf. our articles on Sottsass's and Joe Colombo 's furnitures domestic environments in Socks.)

Increasing the scale, in 1964 Ekuan designed the " Pumpkin House " as an expandable structure for a couple, able to feature outdoor space and even expandable to include a mini-capsule for a child.

1964's " Tortoise House " is a family dwelling integrated into an inhabitable space frame formed by separated room-units and facilitating growth.

Again in 1964 (obviously, a very productive year for Ekuan), yet escalating in scale from the furniture to the megastructure, is the design for a " Dwelling City", a double stacked tetrahedrons structure with capsules attached on the surface and the interior designated as public space. A primitive concept of " Cities within Cities " is obtained by the definition and mutliplications of clusters. The project was intended to be installed in the Kote area of Tokyo, frequently flooded.

Further reading:
Interview with Hall of Fame contributing writer Kenji Ekuan
Industrial designer Kenji Ekuan(1929 - 2015), on Kamiwaza

" Past Futures ", an article by Amelia Groom on Frieze

" Kenji Ekuan, Who Gave Soy Sauce Its Graceful Curves, Dies at 85 ", Obituary with on the New York Times

Images mostly via: "Project Japan, Metabolist Talks", Taschen 2011

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From the Furniture to the City: 1964 Scale-Escalating Projects by...

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Kenji Ekuan (1929 - 2015) was an industrial designer and a central figure in Japan's Metabolist movement. The shock provoked by the sight of Hiroshima bombings (where he lost his father and his sister) persuaded him to become a creator of things: When I stood in the ruins of the city after...

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For buildings other than dwellings:

A minimum stair width of 1200mm is acceptable where the stair is between enclosing walls, strings or up stands.

A minimum width between handrails of 1000mm.

If the width of the stair is more than 2m wide, the flight must be divided with a handrail to a minimum of 1m wide.

For dwellings:

900mm is an acceptable width for stairs.

For general access stairs a maximum allowance of 12 steps before a landing is required. With utility stairs, a maximum of 16 steps is allowed before a landing. In no circumstances should there be a single step, so it is better to balance out the landing position so that there are at least two or more steps either side of the landing.

It is stipulated in the building regulations that headroom on landings and on the flight of stairs must be at least 2m.

Minimum headroom for a loft conversion can be reduced to 1.8m at its lowest point, but 1.9m at the centre point of the stair.

Yes. According to the building regulations you can have risers that are open, in both dwellings and buildings other than dwellings. There are certain restrictions worth noting:
Dwellings
Treads must overlap by a minimum of 16mm.

The steps must be constructed so that a 100mm diameter spare cannot pass through the open riser.
Buildings other than dwellings
As above, although a closed riser is preferable.

A flight of stairs with more than 36 risers in consecutive flights a minimum of one change of direction must be included between flights - this applies to both dwellings and buildings other than dwellings.

For flights between landings the maximum number of riser should be:

Utility stairs - 16 risers

General access stairs - 12 risers

Yes, in all buildings a handrail must be provided and positioned between 900mm and 1100mm from the pitch line or floor.

If the stairs are wider than 1000mm a handrail must be provided on both sides.

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Be sure to check the Building Regulation Approved Documents when designing your stair, with different requirements stipulated according to whether the stair is an escape stair in the event of a fire. You can see all of the Building Regulation Approved Documents here.

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How to Calculate Stairs - Our Easy 101 Guide

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For buildings other than dwellings: A minimum stair width of 1200mm is acceptable where the stair is between enclosing walls, strings or up stands. A minimum width between handrails of 1000mm. If the width of the stair is more than 2m wide, the flight must be divided with a handrail to a minimum of 1m wide.

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The act of creating architecture can be seen as a problem solving process. Early phases of design will focus on establishing the problematic conditions of the project, and committing to finding a solution to those problems.

A designer will draw on experience, their existing design language to resolve issues and develop solutions. The following post (forming part of our Design Basics series) looks at openings, specifically window openings.

Windows perform a number of functions including allowing light into a room, ventilation, creating a view and connection with the external context.

Daylight will differ according to the time of day, the time of year and will depend on different locations. Daylight has a positive psychological effect as well as the practical benefits of reducing energy requirements for lighting.

Light can enter a building in a number of ways - direct sunlight, skylight and diffuse light, external reflected light and internal reflected light from room surfaces.

Positioning of openings

The options for positioning openings are numerous. Here we will take a look at some of these possibilities.

Within Planes

An opening can be positioned within a plane. For example, the opening can be centred on a wall, off centre, a selection of openings grouped on a wall or perhaps a ceiling skylight.

Positioning an opening within a plane, has many possibilities, which in turn will provide different visual outcomes.

An opening that is centred on a plane will give a balanced and stable appearance, whereas a window that is off centre can great a visual tension.

Consider the shape of the openings and whether it is contrasting with the shape of the enclosing plane, or is it complementing the shape of the plane? Multiple openings on a plane can be set out in a uniform manner, or staggered and dispersed to create a sense of movement on the plane.

An opening can become the positive element of the plane by increasing in size so that it is no longer a figure within the plane.

Corners

An opening can be positioned on a corner. So the opening may be along a single edge, along two edges or the opening may even turn a corner. A selection of openings can be grouped at a corner, and similarly, a skylight can be positioned at a corner of a space.

A corner opening may be used to capture a view or create a composition within a room. A corner window will allow light to wash the surface of the adjacent planes, creating a favourable source of light and improving the brightness of the space.

Between Planes

Openings can also be positioned between planes, so the window could be vertical between the floor and ceiling plane, or horizontal between two wall planes.

A vertical opening between planes will visually separate and identify the edges of the adjacent planes. If the vertical opening is positioned at a corner, the definition of the room space will be changed, allowing the space to extend beyond the corner. Again the light will wash over the adjacent surfaces allowing a bright space. Furthermore, if the vertical opening turns the corner, the definition of space will be further eroded and more light will be flooded into the space.

Horizontal openings across a wall will give the appearance of horizontal layers. It creates a panoramic view which when allowed to turn a corner will further enhance the view.

A skylight located along a plane will allow light to enter and wash over the adjacent planes. The skylight can be designed to capture direct sunlight, diffuse light or a combination of both.

Light

Quality of light can change according to the time of year, time of the day, and location. Light can either be direct sunlight, or diffuse daylight, along with reflecting surfaces. A room can be animated by the changing shades, tones and shadows that light will create throughout the day. The intensity, path and direction of the sun is predictable, and as such we are able to accurately anticipate the effect of a window size, shape, location, orientation within an enclosure and how it will impact a room. Sun path diagrams can be very useful to plan openings.

The size of a window will determine how much light enters a room, but other considerations need to be taken into account. Does the opening need to create a view, provide ventilation, give privacy? Does the window receive direct sunlight, and will it need shading? If a window is receiving direct sunlight, it can create issues with glare and solar heat gain.

By orientating a window away from the direct sunlight, a room can receive diffuse light throughout the day, which is a good balanced light.

Another important factor when considering an opening is the view. What is the focus of the room? Some rooms will have an inward focus, while others will be looking to the outside, or perhaps an adjacent space.

The size and location of the window will be determined by the requirements of the outlook, and how much visual privacy is needed.

A small window can create a frame for a view, so that it is like a painting on a wall. A long narrow window can give us a glimpse of a view, leaving us wanting to discover more. A larger window begins to create a vista, the external scene becomes the most dominant part of the room.

Interior openings can offer views and feelings of space as the user can see from one space to another. An overhead skylight can create a view to the sky, or perhaps the trees above. Bay windows can create a small nook for people to sit in, and feel completely immersed in the view or outside scene.

The design of openings in a building require numerous considerations as to their requirements and impacts on the overall internal space and exterior. Some of the suggestions above hopefully will help you consider these possibilities in your own design. We have a Pinterest board dedicated to windows!

Book Recommendation and reference:

A truly vital resource for all architecture students, and indeed any book from Francis Ching. Highly recommend.

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Architecture Design Basics - Openings - First In Architecture

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The act of creating architecture can be seen as a problem solving process. Early phases of design will focus on establishing the problematic conditions of the project, and committing to finding a solution to those problems. A designer will draw on experience, their existing design language to resolve issues and develop solutions.