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12th February, 2018.

Defining the Caribbean is an elusive concept which simply cannot be categorized because certain territories that make up the Caribbean region may be excluded and territories that are not part of the Caribbean may be included.

The geographic definition involves the surface features of the landscape which includes rock type, soils, climate, etc. Emphasis is placed on the Caribbean Sea or Caribbean Basin when describing the Caribbean as it includes the territories washed by its water. However Guyana's coastline lines in the Atlantic Ocean but is still considered part of the Caribbean.

Furthermore, the Caribbean can be described as an Archipelago which is a chain of islands inclusive of the Lesser and the Greater Antilles. Contrary to this Caribbean territories like Belize, Guyana and Suriname are not islands but continental countries.

Additionally, history represents the best possible guide in defining the Caribbean. It places emphasis on the common bond regarding the impact of European Colonization, indentureship and the plantation system. This refers to all the territories, so that one means by which we can define the Caribbean is by identifying those countries that experienced the rule of the English, French, Dutch and Spanish. They all share the same historical and cultural experiences. Because of geography, Puerto Rico is seen as part of the Caribbean but they both share a closer history with Latin America.

Lastly, with regards to the political definition, despite having similar experiences of European and later USA domination, the Caribbean territories differ in political forms and the amount of autonomy they having in controlling their own affairs. For instance, St. Martin is a department of France meaning the people are full French citizens and accorded all the rights. However, Sint Maarten is a colony of the Netherlands which is a self-governing territory. The Dutch monarch is still head of state, represented by a governor. They are also considered part of the Caribbean region.

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26th February, 2018.

The European white indentured labour was the first indentureship scheme. In the early 1600s when gold and silver resources started to decline colonists decided to switch to agriculture, mainly Tobacco. Because the Amerindians had been essentially wiped out by the Europeans, there was the need for a new source of labour. White indentured servants, mostly criminals who instead of serving jail time were sent to the colonies as punishment, captured in wars or voluntarily signed a 5-7 year contract were the next source of labour.

They were willing to work to get transportation, land, clothes, food, or shelter instead of money. Indentured servants get to be released when they have worked their part of the deal. They also had rights and were still free by law. However, because most of them died before completing their contractual duties due to diseases, overwork and under-nourishment they were an unreliable labour source.

On the contrary, a chattel slavery is a European concept. A chattel slave is a piece of property, with no rights. The children of chattel slaves were automatically enslaved. They only path to freedom was through purchasing themselves or when their owner allowed them to be. Unlike the white indentured labourers, slaves worked against their will and in exchange for working the only thing slaves got was shelter which was small and shared amongst others. Slaves had no form of freedom or rights as they were owned by their masters. Those who were captured during were or imprisoned were sold by African kings.

Evidently, bonded white labour was not equivalent to chattel slavery as they both contradict each other in terms of ownership, payment regarding work and acquisition.

Caribbean chattel slavery differed from traditional West African slavery. As previously stated, a chattel slave was a piece of property but this was different in Africa. African slaves enslaved in order to pay off a debt or pay for some sought of criminal activity. They had some level of autonomy over the future of their offsprings as they might become part of their master’s family and even get freedom. This wasn’t the case for chattel slaves as their children automatically became a slave when they were born. "Some slaves became rich and powerful and even bought people for themselves. Others were put to economic use – sometimes working on their masters estates – but they did not form a distinct or class apart.” Suzane Miers  & Igor Kopytoff.

I think that skin colour played an essential role within Caribbean slave society. This is because during colonialism and slavery there existed a rigid closed system of social stratification (no social mobility) and the criteria determining one’s status was race, wealth and colour. It was based on ascribed status. The Africans were lower class and as such they were subordinate to white control who were upper class. The Europeans held hegemonic positions while the enslaved Africans occupied the lowest ranks.

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28th February, 2018.

What happened after slavery? The Emancipation Act (1833) came into motion on August 1st 1834. After slave emancipation there was the period of apprenticeship in Suriname (or Dutch Guiana). The term apprenticeship was applied to the stage between slavery and freedom. “It describes the position of former enslaved Africans working under a legal agreement for their ‘old masters’ for a low wage as an initiatory training in a trade between 1834 and 1838.” This worked in the planters’ favour as it was a deliberate action to ensure they were provided with a steady supply of servile labour even after the abolishment of slavery.

The new law immediately freed those enslaved under the age of 6 years old. Older slaves were to be ‘apprenticed’ for up to eight years to be taught a trade. The conditions of apprenticeship stated a mandatory 40.5 hrs per week, without wages, until 1st August 1840. Any work done after that period was to be paid. Persons working in homes worked full-time, with an earlier release date of August 1838. The purchase of freedom was also allowed to those who were willing and able.

Apprenticeship failed for several reasons. Firstly, the abuses were far too many to be effectively handled by the few stipendiary magistrates and they could not efficiently do their jobs because of collusion with the planters. The ex-slaves were not much better off under the new system as their labour was still exploited. Work hours were extended to 45 and even 50 as the day work increased from 9 to 11 hours at times. Consequently, short strikes occurred, and there were acts of sabotage, as during the slavery period. Harsh punishment, including flogging and imprisonment and even being sentenced to the treadmill was inflicted on disobedient apprentices similar to that of slavery. Those refusing to work overtime had their rations reduced and their handouts of rum, sugar, salt-fish and clothing were withheld. Planters deemed the apprentice's work as unsatisfactory, thus forcing them to do extra work when he could be working for wages. Some ex-slaves also had provision grounds, but the planters ordered fruit trees to be cut down and prevented the ex-slaves from keeping livestock.

Evidently, the anti-slavery movement had not quite won the battle to end slavery as the former enslaved benefitted so little from the Apprenticeship Act. With this being said, “Neither freedom nor enslavement” is indeed an apt assessment of the apprenticeship period since although they were freed the planters still had a high level of autonomy over them.

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8th February, 2018.

The Caribbean is enriched with artefacts that convey subliminal messages. These historical pieces can be linked to concepts such as defining the Caribbean, civilization, ethnocentrism and revisionism. To begin, the Caribbean can be defined from a geological perspective which is the study of the earth’s crust and the activities which occur in the various layers of the earth. These activities include tectonic, seismic and volcanic. Evidently, Igneous rocks aid in defining the Caribbean geographically as these rocks of Trinidad and Tobago were formed as a result of volcanic activity associated with the separation of Africa, North and South America by continental drift during the early cretaceous period approximately 1000 million years ago. This gives rise to the fact there was one continent before called Pangea.

Furthermore, this collection of rocks relates to the concept of civilisation. “Civilisation is the process in which a society reaches an advanced stage of social development.” 5 million years old Porcellanite rocks were found in Eric Trinidad. These rocks contribute to civilisation as in recent times they are often found in roofs, floors and walls. Volcanic rocks like Igneous rocks are primarily used for road building materials because of its solidity.

Revisionism is a policy of modification. This can seen through the collection of rocks in particular Flint which is a hard stone which fractures easily. Because of its flaking ability, flint was used by the Amerindians to make tools. Some examples of stone tools with flint include arrowheads, the tips of spears, hand axes and knives. In most recent times the uses of flint have been modified to adjust to today’s society. Striped flint is used as a gemstone while Flint pebbles are used to grind glazes and other raw materials for the ceramics industry. Flint is also used to ignite fire and as a building stone today. This conveys that the Caribbean is indeed dynamic and can adapt to the advancements in society.