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1. Obedience to Authority: State crime is usually carried out by those who obey authority. Adorno et al identify an authoritarian personality that includes a willingness to obey orders of superiors. Kelman and Hamilton found their study of the My Lai Massacre that there are three features that produce crimes of obedience:
-Authorisation: When acts are ordered or approved by those in authority
-Routinisation: Once the crime has been committed, the individual may need to commit it multiple times creating a routine where they can detach themselves from the action
-Dehumanisation: The enemy is portrayed as subhuman, so it makes it easier to see them as a target.
Eval: Deterministic view as some perpetrators of state-endorsed criminal activity show remorse.
2. Modernity and State Crime: Bauman argues that features of modern society makes it possible for atrocities such as the Holocaust-
-Division of Labour: 'Conveyor belt' approach to the running of concentration camps, meant that no one felt personally responsible
-Bureaucratisatin: Normalised the killings, made it routine
-Science and Technology: allowed for efficient systems to be created for the sole purpose of killing millions of people
Eval: Not all genocides occur through a highly organised division of labour
3. Culture of denial: Cohen argues that a concern with human rights and state crimes has been one of the major developments in criminology. Cohen argues that due to the growth of these organisations, states now have to make a greater effort to conceal of justify their human rights. He argues this involves a three stage spiral of denial:
Stage one: complete denial
Stage two: an attempt to change how the acts are described
Stage three: involves providing a justification for the actions such as the star was protecting its members. *Link to Matza
Eval: Techniques of neutralisation always demonise the state

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1. Domestic Law: Chambliss defines state crime as 'acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as representatives of the state'
2. Social Harms and Zemiology: Michalowski defines state crime based not upon the legality, but how harmful the act it itself. Hillyard et al argue we must take a wider view of state wrongdoing, beyond the boundaries of a country's laws.
Eval: Although arguably more effective than Chambliss' definition, it could be considered quite vague. What level of harm must occur before it is defined as a state crime.
3. International Law: Rothe and Mullins defines state crime as "any action by or on behalf of a state that violates international law and or a state's own domestic law'. This definition doesn't rely on personal definitions, but is based on globally agreed definitions.
Eval: This definition is still socially constructed by member states who have the ability to influence the law.
4. Human Rights: Schwendiger and Schwendinger argue that we should define crime in terms of the violation of human rights rather than the breaking of rules. The 'War on Terror' has highlighted crimes committed by terrorists who are sometimes state sponsored, but also by national governments themselves.
Eval: Cohen criticises the Schwendingers' definition of state crime due to the difficulty in establishing what is a human right and what isn't.

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McLaughlin identifies four categories of state crime:
1. Political crime e.g corruption and censorship
2. Crimes by security and police forces e.g genocide, torture
3. Economic crimes e.g official violations of health and safety laws
4. Social and cultural crimes e.g institutional racism
Case Study 1: Genocide in Rwanda- Minority Tutsi mediated their role over the Hutu majority. Rwanda gained independence ands a vote brought the Hutus to power. An escalating economic and political crisis in the 90s led to civil war. Hutu presidents' plane was shot down which triggered a genocide. 800,00 Tutsis were slaughtered.
Case Study 2: Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster- Risky negligent and cost-cutting decisions made by the state agency NASA led to an explosion that killed 7 astronauts.
Case Study 3: Deepwater Horizon Disaster- state failed to regulate and control a corporations behaviour making crime easier. Government failed to see the companies' cost-cutting decisions. Led to 11 deaths and the largest accidental oil spill in history

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Why is state crime one of the most serious forms of crime?

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Why is state crime one of the most serious forms of crime?

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1. Scale of State Crime: The power of the state enables it to commit extremely large scale crimes with widespread victimisation. E.G. Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge government of Pol Pot is believed to have killed up 2 million people. The state's monopoly of violence gives it the potential to inflict massive harm, while its power means it is well placed to cover up its crimes.
2. State= Source of Law: It is the state's role to define what is criminal, and to manage the criminal justice system and prosecute offenders. State crime undermines the system of justice, its power also means it can avoid defining its own actions as criminal

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Green and Ward define state crime as 'illegal or deviant activities perpetuated by, or with the complicity of state agencies'. It includes all types of crimes committed by or on behalf of states, governments or other agencies.
State crimes can include:
The torture and illegal treatment or punishment of citizens
Corrupt or criminal policing
War crimes- involving illegal acts committed during wars, like the murder of civilians
Genocide
State-sponsered terrorism
Violations of human rights

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Dealing with Green Crime: Laws and Legislation

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Dealing with Green Crime: Laws and Legislation

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Legislation has gained paces internationally since the mid-twentieth century and the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment is generally credited with giving rise to further enhanced awareness of the need for environmental regulations. Subsequent discussions include the Earth Summit held at Rio in 1992 and Earth Summit 2 in New York in 1997.
Eval: Focusing on the much broader concept of harms rather than simply legally defined crimes, it is hard to define boundaries of what a green crime is.

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1. Global 'Risk Society': Beck argues that in our late modern society, developments in technology brings risks, such as global warming and climate change. Beck calls these manufactured risks, and are unprecedented dangers. Beck argues that 'smog is democratic' meaning that pollution from any country affects the entire world and the result of pollution can have a knock-on effect.
Eval: Difficult to establish all events and disasters as being manufactured. E.G. Heatwave in Russia may not be linked to global warming.
2. Green Criminology: White argues that criminologists should investigate any action that harms the physical environment and the human or non-human animals within it. Unlike traditional criminology, which focuses on the national/international laws concerning the environment, green criminology focuses on any act that damages the environment. Radical semiology focuses on a more realistic global picture of how we are damaging the environment. Green criminologists adopt an ecocentric view that sees humans and their environment as interdependent, so that environmental harm also hurts humans. White argues that TNCs and governments take on an anthropocentric view, which means they assume humans have a right to dominate nature for our own needs.
Eval: Some sociologists may argue that this approach is too radical and that not all pollution is avoidable. It also ignores the changes that some governments and companies have made to try and reduce emissions and environmental damage.
3. Marxist views of Green Crime: Green crime has been linked to inequality. South argues that environmental discrimination occurs, the pattern by which environmental hazards are perceived to be greatest in proximity to poor people, and especially those belonging to minorities. Green crime is just further evidence of the criminogenic nature of capitalism.
Eval: Some may argue that enough is being done to tackle green crime. E.G. it is the largest growth in legal definitions of new crimes in the UK

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Bridgland describes how after the tsunami of 2004, hundreds of barrels of radioactive waste, illegally dumped by European companies, washed up on the shores of Somalia

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Nigel South classifies green crimes into two types: primary and secondary.
Primary green crimes are crimes that are directly destructing or degrading the earth and its resources. E.G. Pollution, deforestation, destruction of ecosystems.
Secondary green crimes are crimes that are the result of companies and governments completely disregarding the rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters. E.G. Dumping toxic waste

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Green Crime can be defined as, crimes against the environment, including individual environmental crime and governmental crime.

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Hobbs and Dunningham found that the way crime is organised is linked to economic changes brought on by globalisation.
1. Glocal Organisation: New forms of organisations sometimes have international links, especially with the drugs trade. Individuals still need local contacts and networks to find opportunities to sell. Hobbs and Dunningham therefore, conclude that crime works as a 'glocal system' that is still locally based, but with global connections. The form it takes will vary from place to place according to local conditions.
Eval: May not be generalisable to other criminal activities, and also it is not clear that such patterns are new, more that the older structures have disappeared.
2. 'McMafia': Glenny refers the the criminal organisations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe as following the fall of communism as the 'McMafia'. Under communism, the Soviet state had regulated the prices of everything. Following the fall of communism, the Russian government deregulated most sectors of the economy except for natural resources such as oil. Anyone with access to funds could buy up these resources and sell them on for a massive profit. The collapse of the communist movement resulted in disorder and chaos, so these oligarchs employed mafia organisations to protect them. Unlike the Old Italian and American mafias which were based on ethnic/family ties and a clear-cut hierarchy, these Russian mafias were purely economic organisations. The Chechen maria soon began to 'franchise' its operation and this mafia became a brand name, so that sold protection rackets in other towns.
Eval: Not all criminologists agree on how to define 'global crime'. The website Wikileaks has released hundreds of thousands of confidential US documents. The government views Julian Assange, who founded the site, as a criminal, whereas others see him as a crusader for democracy

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The widening, deepening and speeding up of world-wide interconnectedness in all aspects of life, from cultural to criminal

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Globalisation has produced a mentality of 'risk consciousness'. An example, being the increased movement of people, such as economic

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There is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion per annum and this can lead to a multitude of crime:

Arms trafficking to illegal regimes and terrorists

Smuggling of illegal immigrants

Sex tourism, where Westerners travel to Third World countries for sex

Cyber-crimes such as identity theft and child pornography

Green crimes that damage the environment

International terrorism

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Taylor argues that globalisation has led to changes in pattern and extent of crime.
1. Relative Deprivation and Crime: Allowed transnational corporations to switch manufacturing to low-wage companies producing job insecurity, unemployment and poverty. Deregulation of financial markets means the government has little control over their economies. Marketisation has encouraged people to see themselves as individual consumers, calculating the personal costs and benefits of each action, undermining social cohesion. An increasingly materialistic culture creates a sense of relative deprivation , all these factors creating insecurity and widening inequalities that encourage the poor to turn to crime.
2. Corporate crime: Globalisation creates criminal opportunities on a grand scale for elite groups. The deregulation of financial markets has created opportunities for insider trading and the movement of funds around the globe to avoid taxation.
3. Organised crime-Supply and Demand: The rich West has a demand for drugs, sex workers and other illegal goods which fuels the transnational criminal organisations that provide the supply side from Third World countries such as Columbia, Peru and Afghanistan. In Columbia, an estimated 20% of the population depends on cocaine production for their livelihood.
Eval: Does not adequately explain how the changes make people behave in criminal ways and ignores the positive impact on globalisation.