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Formula commonly used to determined the level of production at which an organization breaks even

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Quality Circle Definition

Amanda, Jim, Kim, Julia, Aaron and Angelia all work for Yummy Cupcakes Company. They meet every day for lunch to discuss their families and vacation plans and exchange jokes. In addition, the six employees also meet once a week as part of a quality circle, which involves a group of employees who work in the same position or department meeting to discuss, analyze and find solutions for problems related to improving work performance.

In this lesson, we will take a look at the Yummy Cupcakes example to gain an understanding of the structure of the quality circle, the responsibility of its members and how to conduct quality circle meetings.

Quality Circle Structure

The six employees were excited to take part in a corporate quality circle. When management established the group, they came up with some key requirements to ensure the success of the quality circle. Here is the structure they established:

Members must volunteer for the positions

The group should consist of 6-12 members

Circle members should be employees from the same work area or participating in the same type of work

Members should agree to meet at a regularly planned time

The purpose of the quality circle should be to improve total performance and quality of work life

Team Member Responsibilities

When the quality circle was established at Yummy Cupcakes, team member responsibilities were also created. First of all, Yummy Cupcakes' top management began the implementation by asking for volunteers and explaining the overall process.

The next important part of the quality circle development was the steering committees, which are usually made up of middle management and help prioritize issues. For example, Yummy Cupcakes' steering committee recently tasked the quality circle with making recommendations on improving working conditions. The result was better air supply and a new air conditioner to help the employees be more comfortable on the bakery production floor.

Coordinators are also important. They organize and direct the quality circle activities and ensure that the recommendations are implemented to match operations capabilities. Angelia acts as the coordinator for Yummy Cupcakes' quality circle. She was nominated by management and helps guide the rest of the members through circle activities. In the last meeting, the members kept getting confused about how to make their recommendations for green cleaning products for the factory. Angelia was able to explain the proper request process to change supplies for the cleaning crew.

Like every other group, the quality circle has a leader, which is a person chosen by the members among themselves to provide direction and control over the group. Unlike many other companies, the quality circle members of Yummy Cupcakes have decided to rotate the leader role every six months. Currently the leader is Jim, and he helps run the meetings and assigns tasks.

Members of the quality circle at Yummy Cupcakes are the six employees (Amanda, Jim, Kim, Julia, Aaron and Angelia). The members are responsible for identifying problems and finding solutions. Any non-members of the group can still offer recommendations to the quality circle, but do not take part in weekly meetings. Now that quality circle members' basic responsibilities have been identified, we will discuss the specific tasks that occur at the meetings.

How to Conduct Quality Circles

The six members of Yummy Cupcakes' quality circle follow a specific problem-solving method in order to identify problems and provide effective solutions. The quality circle team's first objective is to identify a problem facing the work team. In today's meeting, the quality circle team, based on Julia's observations, uncovered a potential problem regarding a piece of equipment in production.

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quality circle: definition & process - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Quality Circle: Definition & Process - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Amanda, Jim, Kim, Julia, Aaron and Angelia all work for Yummy Cupcakes Company. They meet every day for lunch to discuss their families and vacation plans and exchange jokes.

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Deming's flow diagram for improving product quality

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Management information systems use technology to assist managerial decision-making.

network cable image by Radoslav Lazarov from Fotolia.com

A management information system (MIS) is a set of systems and procedures that gather data from a range of sources, compile it and present it in a readable format. Managers use an MIS to create reports that provide them with a comprehensive overview of all the information they need to make decisions ranging from daily minutiae to top-level strategy. Today's management information systems rely largely on technology to compile and present data, but the concept is older than modern computing technologies.

Making Decisions

The main purpose of a management information system is to make managers' decision-making more efficient and productive. By pooling information from a range of sources into a single database and presenting the information in a logical format, an MIS can provide managers with everything they need to make highly informed decisions and perform in-depth analysis of operational issues.

Collecting Information

An MIS can be developed to collect nearly any type of information managers require. They can view financial data such as daily revenues and expenses at a glance and attribute them to specific departments or groups. Performance indicators such as the timeliness of projects or the quality of products coming off an assembly line can help managers pinpoint areas of needed improvement. Staff can manage schedules for work shifts, incoming deliveries and outgoing shipments from any place linked to the MIS.

A management information system can facilitate collaboration and communication as well. Employees can edit and share documents and communicate relevant information on anticipated developments and warnings across the organization.

Compiling Reports

One of the most valuable features of a management information system is its ability to pull in internal and external data from a variety of sources and present it in an easy to analyze format. Internal reports present information in a way that managers can understand, by including all relevant data and grouping data in a logical manner. For example, a report viewed by a corporate manager for a restaurant chain may show revenue, expenses, labor-hours and volume of each outlet, allowing him to see which store makes the most money per employee on the floor and which stores have higher expenses compared to revenue and volume--an indicator of waste or theft.

Non-profit organizations can use an MIS to automatically generate reports required by the federal government. This allows employees and volunteers to focus their time on more productive activities and can reduce errors and the costs associated with resubmitting federal reports.

Front-Line Benefts

Front-line employees can use an MIS to perform their jobs more effectively as well. For example, employees at all levels can consult an MIS to check on the status of inventory items, view stats related to their specific department or group and request internal transfers of materials.

Compiling Data

A management information system can be a costly investment. In addition to purchasing an MIS software package, customizing the system and hiring extra IT personnel to oversee and maintain the system, a company must train all employees to use the system. Front-line employees often perform the first two steps in an MIS, data collection and input, leaving them with less time to focus on productive activities; this can increase overall salary expenses. Weigh the costs of an MIS against the potential benefits before implementing this tool in your small business.

About the Author

David Ingram has written for multiple publications since 2009, including "The Houston Chronicle" and online at Business.com. As a small-business owner, Ingram regularly confronts modern issues in management, marketing, finance and business law. He has earned a Bachelor of Arts in management from Walsh University.

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What Is a Management Information System?

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A management information system (MIS) is a set of systems and procedures that gather data from a range of sources, compile it and present it in a readable format. Managers use an MIS to create reports that provide them with a comprehensive overview of all the information they need to make decisions ranging from daily minutiae to top-level strategy.

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Rensis Likert and his associates studied the patterns and styles of managers for three decades at the University of Michigan, USA, and identified a four-fold model of management systems.

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To some extent, a high level of employee motivation is derived from effective management practices. To develop motivated employees, a manager must treat people

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Some of the most important theories of motivation are as follows: 1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory 2. Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory 3. McClelland's Need Theory 4. McGregor's Participation Theory 5. Urwick's Theory Z 6. Argyris's Theory 7. Vroom's Expectancy Theory 8. Porter and Lawler's Expectancy Theory.

From the very beginning, when the human organisations were established, various thinkers have tried to find out the answer to what motivates people to work. Different approaches applied by them have resulted in a number of theories concerning motivation.

These are discussed in brief in that order.

1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory:

It is probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Maslow's need hierarchy theory Maslow's theory is based on the human needs. Drawing chiefly on his clinical experience, he classified all human needs into a hierarchical manner from the lower to the higher order.

In essence, he believed that once a given level of need is satisfied, it no longer serves to motivate man. Then, the next higher level of need has to be activated in order to motivate the man. Maslow identified five levels in his need hierarchy as shown in figure 17.2.

These are now discussed one by one:

1. Physiological Needs:

These needs are basic to human life and, hence, include food, clothing, shelter, air, water and necessities of life. These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They exert tremendous influence on human behaviour. These needs are to be met first at least partly before higher level needs emerge. Once physiological needs are satisfied, they no longer motivate the man.

2. Safety Needs:

After satisfying the physiological needs, the next needs felt are called safety and security needs. These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more money and, hence, the individual is prompted to work more. Like physiological needs, these become inactive once they are satisfied.

3. Social Needs:

Man is a social being. He is, therefore, interested in social interaction, companionship, belongingness, etc. It is this socialising and belongingness why individuals prefer to work in groups and especially older people go to work.

4. Esteem Needs:

These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. They include such needs which indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence, knowledge and independence. The fulfillment of esteem needs leads to self-confidence, strength and capability of being useful in the organisation. However, inability to fulfill these needs results in feeling like inferiority, weakness and helplessness.

5. Self-Actualisation Needs:

This level represents the culmination of all the lower, intermediate, and higher needs of human beings. In other words, the final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-actualization. This refers to fulfillment.

The term self-actualization was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become actualized in what one is potentially good at. In effect, self- actualization is the person's motivation to transform perception of self into reality.

According to Maslow, the human needs follow a definite sequence of domination. The second need does not arise until the first is reasonably satisfied, and the third need does not emerge until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied and it goes on. The other side of the need hierarchy is that human needs are unlimited. However, Maslow's need hierarchy-theory is not without its detractors.

The main criticisms of the theory include the following:

1. The needs may or may not follow a definite hierarchical order. So to say, there may be overlapping in need hierarchy. For example, even if safety need is not satisfied, the social need may emerge.

2. The need priority model may not apply at all times in all places.

3. Researches show that man's behaviour at any time is mostly guided by multiplicity of behaviour. Hence, Maslow's preposition that one need is satisfied at one time is also of doubtful validity.

4. In case of some people, the level of motivation may be permanently lower. For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life if only he/she can get enough food.

Notwithstanding, Maslow's need hierarchy theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory's intuitive logic and easy to understand. One researcher came to the conclusion that theories that are intuitively strong die hard'.

2. Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory:

The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and propsed a new motivation theory popularly known as Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene (Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely reported motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms in and around Western Pennsylvania.

He asked these people to describe two important incidents at their jobs:

(1) When did you feel particularly good about your job, and

(2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job? He used the critical incident method of obtaining data.

The responses when analysed were found quite interesting and fairly consistent. The replies respondents gave when they felt good about their jobs were significantly different from the replies given when they felt bad. Reported good feelings were generally associated with job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators and hygiene factors have become known as Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation

Herzberg's motivational and hygiene factors have been shown in the Table 17.1

According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. The underlying reason, he says, is that removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of 'satisfaction' is 'no satisfaction' and the opposite of 'dissatisfaction' is 'no dissatisatisfaction'.

According to Herzberg, today's motivators are tomorrow's hygiene because the latter stop influencing the behaviour of persons when they get them. Accordingly, one's hygiene may be the motivator of another.

However, Herzberg's model is labeled with the following criticism also:

1. People generally tend to take credit themselves when things go well. They blame failure on the external environment.

2. The theory basically explains job satisfaction, not motivation.

3. Even job satisfaction is not measured on an overall basis. It is not unlikely that a person may dislike part of his/ her job, still thinks the job acceptable.

4. This theory neglects situational variable to motivate an individual.

Because of its ubiquitous nature, salary commonly shows up as a motivator as well as hygine.

Regardless of criticism, Herzberg's 'two-factor motivation theory' has been widely read and a few managers seem untaminar with his recommendations. The main use of his recommendations lies in planning and controlling of employees work.

3. McClelland's Need Theory:

Another well-known need-based theory of motivation, as opposed to hierarchy of needs of satisfaction-dissatisfaction, is the theory developed by McClelland and his associates'. McClelland developed his theory based on Henry Murray's developed long list of motives and manifest needs used in his early studies of personality. McClelland's need-theory is closely associated with learning theory, because he believed that needs are learned or acquired by the kinds of events people experienced in their environment and culture.

He found that people who acquire a particular need behave differently from those who do not have. His theory focuses on Murray's three needs; achievement, power and affiliation. In the literature, these three needs are abbreviated "n Ach", "n Pow", and "n Aff" respectively'.

They are defined as follows:

Need for Achievement:

This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard, and to strive to succeed. In other words, need for achievement is a behaviour directed toward competition with a standard of excellence. McClelland found that people with a high need for achievement perform better than those with a moderate or low need for achievement, and noted regional / national differences in achievement motivation.

Through his research, McClelland identified the following three characteristics of high-need achievers:

1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility for performing a task for finding a solution to a problem.

2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take calculated risks.

3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.

Need for Power:

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, the desire to influence others, the urge to change people, and the desire to make a difference in life. People with a high need for power are people who like to be in control of people and events. This results in ultimate satisfaction to man.

People who have a high need for power are characterized by:

1. A desire to influence and direct somebody else.

2. A desire to exercise control over others.

3. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.

Need for Affiliation:

The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people'. The need for affiliation, in many ways, is similar to Maslow's social needs.

The people with high need for affiliation have these characteristics:

1. They have a strong desire for acceptance and approval from others.

2. They tend to conform to the wishes of those people whose friendship and companionship they value.

3. They value the feelings of others.

Figure 17.2 is a summary chart of the three need theories of motivation just discussed. The chart shows the parallel relationship between the needs in each of the theories. Maslow refers to higher- lower order needs, whereas Herzberg refers to motivation and hygiene factors.

4. McGregor's Participation Theory:

Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct views of human being based on participation of workers. The first basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labled Theory Y.

Theory X is based on the following assumptions:

1. People are by nature indolent. That is, they like to work as little as possible.

2. People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be directed by others.

3. People are inherently self-centered and indifferent to organisational needs and goals.

4. People are generally gullible and not very sharp and bright.

On the contrary, Theory Y assumes that:

1. People are not by nature passive or resistant to organisational goals.

2. They want to assume responsibility.

3. They want their organisation to succeed.

4. People are capable of directing their own behaviour.

5. They have need for achievement.

What McGregor tried to dramatise through his theory X and Y is to outline the extremes to draw the fencing within which the organisational man is usually seen to behave. The fact remains that no organisational man would actually belong either to theory X or theory Y. In reality, he/she shares the traits of both. What actually happens is that man swings from one set or properties to the other with changes in his mood and motives in changing .environment.

5. Urwick's Theory Z:

Much after the propositions of theories X and Y by McGregor, the three theorists Urwick, Rangnekar, and Ouchi-propounded the third theory lebeled as Z theory.

The two propositions in Urwicks's theory are that:

(i) Each individual should know the organisational goals precisely and the amount of contribution through his efforts towards these goals.

(ii) Each individual should also know that the relation of organisational goals is going to satisfy his/her needs positively.

In Urwick's view, the above two make people ready to behave positively to accomplish both organisational and individual goals.

However, Ouchi's Theory Z has attracted the lot of attention of management practitioners as well as researchers. It must be noted that Z does not stand for anything, is merely the last alphabet in the English Language.

Theory Z is based on the following four postulates:

1. Strong Bond between Organisation and Employees

2. Employee Participation and Involvement

3. No Formal Organisation Structure

4. Human Resource Development

Ouchi's Theory Z represents the adoption of Japanese management practices (group decision making, social cohesion, job security, holistic concern for employees, etc.)by the American companies. In India, Maruti-Suzuki, Hero-Honda, etc., apply the postulates of theory Z.

6. Argyris's Theory:

Argyris has developed his motivation theory based on proposition how management practices affect the individual behaviour and growth In his view, the seven changes taking place in an individual personality make him/her a mature one. In other words, personality of individual develops

Argyris views that immaturity exists in individuals mainly because of organisational setting and management practices such as task specialisation, chain of command, unity of direction, and span of management. In order to make individuals grow mature, he proposes gradual shift from the existing pyramidal organisation structure to humanistic system; from existing management system to the more flexible and participative management.

He states that such situation will satisfy not only their physiological and safety needs, but also will motivate them to make ready to make more use of their physiological and safety needs. But also will motivate them to make ready to make more use of their potential in accomplishing organisational goals.

7. Vroom's Expectancy Theory:

One of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is offered by Victor Vroom in his Expectancy Theory" It is a cognitive process theory of motivation. The theory is founded on the basic notions that people will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe there are relationships between the effort they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes/ rewards they receive.

The relationships between notions of effort, performance, and reward are depicted in Figure 17.3

Thus, the key constructs in the expectancy theory of motivation are:

1. Valence:

Valence, according to Vroom, means the value or strength one places on a particular outcome or reward.

2. Expectancy:

It relates efforts to performance.

3. Instrumentality:

By instrumentality, Vroom means, the belief that performance is related to rewards.

Thus, Vroom's motivation can also be expressed in the form of an equation as follows: Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

Being the model multiplicative in nature, all the three variables must have high positive values to imply motivated performance choice. If any one of the variables approaches to zero level, the possibility of the so motivated performance also touches zero level.

However, Vroom's expectancy theory has its critics. The important ones are:

1. Critics like Porter and Lawler lebeled it as a theory of cognitive hedonism which proposes that individual cognitively chooses the course of action that leads to the greatest degree of pleasure or the smallest degree of pain.

2. The assumption that people are rational and calculating makes the theory idealistic.

3. The expectancy theory does not describe individual and situational differences.

But the valence or value people place on various rewards varies. For example, one employee prefers salary to benefits, whereas another person prefers to just the reverse. The valence for the same reward varies from situation to situation.

In spite of all these critics, the greatest point in me expectancy theory is that it explains why significant segment of workforce exerts low levels of efforts in carrying out job responsibilities.

8. Porter and Lawler's Expectancy Theory:

In fact, Porter and Lawler's theory is an improvement over Vroom's expectancy theory. They posit that motivation does not equal satisfaction or performance. The model suggested by them encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance. They proposed a multi-variate model to explain the complex relationship that exists between satisfaction and performance.

What is the main point in Porter and Lawler's model is that effort or motivation does not lead directly to performance. It is intact, mediated by abilities and traits and by role perceptions. Ultimately, performance leads to satisfaction,. The same is depicted in the following Fig 17.4.

There are three main elements in this model. Let us briefly discuss these one by one.

Effort:

Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given task. How much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two factors-

(i) Value of reward and

(ii) Perception of effort-reward probability.

Performance:

One's effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal or may not be. However the amount of performance is determined by the amount of labour and the ability and role perception of the employee. Thus, if an employee possesses less ability and/or makes wrong role perception, his/her performance may be low in spite of his putting in great efforts.

Satisfaction:

Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction depends upon the amount of rewards one achieves. If the amount of actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the employee will feel satisfied. On the country, if actual rewards fall short of perceived ones, he/she will be dissatisfied.

Rewards may be of two kinds-intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards are such as sense of accomplishment and self-actualisation. As regards extrinsic rewards, these may include working conditions and status. A fair degree of research support that, the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.

There is no denying of the fact that the motivation model proposed by Porter and Lawler is quite complex than other models of motivation. In fact motivation itself is not a simple cause-effect relationship rather it is a complex phenomenon Porter and Lawler have attempted to measure variables such as the values of possible rewards, the perception of effort-rewards probabilities and role perceptions in deriving satisfaction.

They recommended that the managers should carefully reassess their reward system and structure. The effort-performance-reward-satisfaction should be made integral to the entire system of managing men in organisation.

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Motivation Theories: Top 8 Theories of Motivation - Explained!

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ADVERTISEMENTS: Some of the most important theories of motivation are as follows: 1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory 2. Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory 3. McClelland's Need Theory 4. McGregor's Participation Theory 5. Urwick's Theory Z 6. Argyris's Theory 7. Vroom's Expectancy Theory 8. Porter and Lawler's Expectancy Theory.

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Argyris's maturity-immaturity continuum

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Level 5 Hierarchy

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Think back to the people in your life who have recognized your potential and used their talents to help you discover and shape your own. When a coach like this is present in the workplace, his or her influence can have a profound impact on the professional development of the entire team as well as the individuals within it. Most people would rather work under a manager who behaves as a coach than one who dictates and directs from above.

Coaching your employees is an important step in developing an internal culture that supports the customer experience. Sometimes coaching can happen "on the fly" when learning opportunities present themselves, but formal coaching sessions provide a great benefit to employees, who get the chance to ask questions, practice skills, and set goals against which they can measure their progress over time.

CSP believes strongly in the power of a good coach, so we're here to offer you a little coaching ourselves on how to effectively guide the development of your team.

The Measurements of a Good Coach

There is no exact blueprint for a good coach, as each coach will have their own strengths and weaknesses. However, there are some distinct qualities that good coaches have in common.

As you read this list, ask yourself how you measure up against each of these qualities and identify which areas could use more of your attention. If you have been receiving coaching yourself and feel like it could be more effective, this list might give you a window to a constructive conversation with your mentor to improve the relationship.

1. A good coach is self-aware.
To understand oneself, one's coaching style, and how it is perceived and received by employees, is a critical first step to becoming a valuable and effective coach. Self-awareness is a journey unto itself, so we'll be writing more about that in the coming weeks.

2. A good coach brings specific and well-defined issues to the attention of others.
Being unspecific about problem areas, or failing to bring them up with the appropriate parties, suggests a reluctance to affect positive change and a lack of leadership.

3. A good coach prepares for each session with information, examples, ideas, etc., and is ready for discussion.
Coaching sessions should be scheduled in advance, and the coach should have a solid agenda for each session that lays out the mission for the day. Without structure, the coaching session can devolve into a casual conversation with no real substance or direction.

4. A good coach treats individuals as partners in the organization, encouraging their input and trusting them to carry out assignments.
Some coaches are fans of "tough love," while others are more lenient, but what all good coaches have in common is respect for their mentees. Contempt and resentment have no place in an effective coaching relationship, and only breed further conflict.

5. A good coach knows the strengths and weaknesses of his or her employees.
Much like the coach of a sports team, he or she knows how to tap into the individual strengths of employees to get the most out of them and to get the greatest amount of productivity from the team, collectively and individually.

6. A good coach makes expectations clear at the beginning of the coaching session.
Both the coach and the employee must have a sense that this meeting has a distinct purpose, and must agree on what that purpose is, for the session to proceed smoothly.

7. A good coach allows enough time to adequately discuss issues and concerns.
Blocking out enough time for a solid session, rather than squeezing it in and rushing through, shows respect for the employee's time and allows them to participate more thoughtfully.

8. A good coach seeks out ideas and makes those ideas part of the solution.
Take it as a red flag if a coach is not willing to hear ideas, suggestions, or thoughts from other members of the team. A coach is there to serve the employees, not for the employees to serve his or her ego.

9. A good coach listens to others and tries to understand their points of view.
Rather than assigning blame or delivering unhelpful criticism, he or she allows the employee to explain things from the other side, which can often uncover the root of a misunderstanding or miscommunication.

10. A good coach expresses encouragement and optimism when both easy and difficult issues are discussed.
Sometimes an issue can be the elephant in the room that nobody wants to talk about. It's the coach's job to make this issue less intimidating by modeling a constructive attitude that brings the team together to address it.

11. A good coach directly asks for a commitment to solutions that have been agreed upon.
Coaches can't be wishy-washy about their expectations. If the employee isn't held accountable for improving, it becomes a waste of everyone's time to continue coaching.

12. A good coach provides the resources, authority, training and support necessary for others to carry out solutions.
Coaching doesn't end when the session ends. It is up to the coach to follow through with any additional guidance the employee might need to move forward.

13. A good coach offers support and assistance to those he or she is coaching to help them implement change and achieve desired goals.
Professional development is a team effort. It's usually not wise to simply cut the employee free after a session and expect him or her to achieve everything on their own.

14. A good coach follows up on coaching sessions in a timely manner.
It's all too easy for coaching to fall down the priority ladder among all the other demands of a manager's day-to-day job duties. At the end of each coaching session, it's a good idea to go ahead and schedule the next one, and to hold to that commitment when the time comes around.

15. When solutions do not turn out as expected, a good coach proactively helps to define alternative actions.
If at first the employee does not succeed, it could be that there was a misunderstanding, or it could be that the original solution was a mismatch for that particular employee. A good coach is open to having a backup plan (or two).

The theme running beneath many of these qualities is this: When coaching is done in the spirit of mutual respect, the rewards and benefits for your employees and your customers are endless. What is important is to establish a positive coaching relationship between the coach and the employees that incorporates all parties' strengths.
Read more: What are the differences between training and coaching?
More articles like this one can be found in our STARS library, available to current CSP clients as part of our full-service delivery. Contact us to find out how we support effective coaching and training in pursuit of the optimal customer experience.

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15 Qualities of a Good Coach in the Workplace - CSP

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Coaching your employees is an important step in developing an internal culture that supports the customer experience. CSP believes strongly in the power of a good coach, so we're here to offer you a little coaching ourselves on how to effectively guide the development of your team.

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Leadership Theories, Styles and Approaches

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Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication

Communication can be divided between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is communication using speech that is understood by all parties to the communication. In other words, it's talking. Keep in mind that we're talking about speech, not the written word. Written communication falls under its own category.

Non-verbal communication is a bit more complicated. It is sending a message without using words to convey meaning. Non-verbal communication can include many different elements. Let's look at some:

Vocal cues, referred to as paralinguistics, is a form of non-verbal communication that includes such things as pitch, inflection, tone, volume, speed of the speech, quality, non-word sounds, pronunciation, enunciation and even silence.

Body movement and gestures are also part of non-verbal communication. For example, leaning forward may mean interest, while crossing arms is often viewed as a defensive posture.

Facial expressions are a common form of non-verbal communication. Examples of facial expressions include smiling, crying and grimacing.

Space can also act as a form of non-verbal communication. Space includes the concept of territoriality and personal space. Territoriality is about making sure others know your territory. A fence is an example of territoriality. Personal space, on the other hand, is a three-dimensional space surrounding you that you don't want people to cross. If they come too close, you get uncomfortable.

Touch is often considered as positive and reinforcing, such as patting someone on the back for a job well done.

Clothing and artifacts can also send a message, including status, conformity or rebellion. Think about a doctor. Do they really need to wear a lab coat during all examinations? Not really, but it's a cue to their status. Artifacts include such things as hairstyles, jewelry, cosmetics, watches, shoes, tattoos and body piercing.

Formal & Informal Communication

Companies need to be able to communicate effectively. This is especially true of large companies where personal interaction may not be practical. This is where formal communication comes into play.

Formal communication involves utilizing the formal communication channels of an organization. Formal communication can move vertically in an organization. Information is collected and flows up to the top levels of management for review and decision making, while orders flow down from the top to the place where it will be implemented. For example, employees may be given a presentation from the human resources department on new policies and procedures.

Formal communication can also flow horizontally across the organization. Unlike vertical communication that involves communication between a higher and lower level of an organizational hierarchy, horizontal communication occurs between two parts of the organization at the same level. For example, the vice-presidents of a company may hold a quarterly meeting to discuss the upcoming quarter.

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verbal & non-verbal - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Types of Communication: Formal, Informal, Grapevine, Verbal & Non-Verbal - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Communication can be divided between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication is communication using speech that is understood by all parties to the communication. In other words, it's talking. Keep in mind that we're talking about speech, not the written word. Written communication falls under its own category.

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Digital Vision./Digital Vision/Getty Images

Communication is one of the most important aspects of management. Without strong communication, employees won't even understand what the manager wants them to accomplish. Effective communication also helps employees to value their jobs more by minimizing conflicts and letting each employee feel heard.

Provide Structure

A manager must develop a structure for communication in the workplace. This means mapping the communication channels for each aspect of business. For example, employees must understand whom they must go to for approval after completing a project. Employees also need structure on a daily basis. Managers should announce well in advance when meetings will be held, so employees can prepare questions and feedback. They must discuss with employees how much collaboration their job should involve on a daily and weekly basis, and with whom. They should also require weekly reports from employees on how they performed that week, and how they expect to perform in the coming week.

Solve Problems Together

To cultivate team spirit, managers must lead team members in solving problems together. A manager who leads as a dictator will keep team members from using their talents, feeling appreciated and communicating as a team. A good leader seeks input from team members and leads brainstorming sessions in which they collaborate on solutions. This ensures team members feel invested in solving the problems.

Practice Strong Visual Communication

Presenting data visually helps managers communicate the information better -- if they do it well. Graphs, charts and tables should help people understand information immediate An overabundance of information in one image makes them confusing, so managers should include only the most crucial information in such an image. This means ensuring they have a clear purpose for the image, not just adding it to make a presentation look flashy.

Practice Conflict Management

A good manager develops a conflict-management policy to address conflicts before they start. Additionally, he communicates the protocol to employees so they will take responsibility for managing conflicts wisely. He must be a good listener to solve conflicts, and he should refrain from taking sides. Assuring employees he has an open-door policy will encourage them to turn to him for assistance.

Consider Cultural Issues

A manager must understand how cultural backgrounds affect communication. An employee from a different culture or subculture may perceive the manager's words and actions differently than someone from the manager's culture. A good manager strives to learn what is polite and acceptable, both verbally and non verbally, in the cultures and subcultures of her employees.

Cultivate Extraverted Qualities

A manager must also strive to communicate confidently, knowing when to be firmer and when to be more relaxed. In a meeting with his team, for instance, he must make eye contact with all team members, speak assertively, maintain confident posture, and speak with emphasis, not in a monotone.

Practice Strong Written Communication

Finally, a strong manager strives to have clear, concise and well-organized writing. She also strives to keep her in-office correspondence free from typos as well as inaccurate statements. Strong writing helps employees to see their manager as more professional.

"Communication Skills for Project Managers"; G. Michael Campbell; 2009

"Graphics and Visual Communication for Managers"; Robert P. Sedlack et al.; 2008

"Intercultural Communication"; Nina Jacob; 2010

About the Author

Melanie J. Martin specializes in environmental issues and sustainable living. Her work has appeared in venues such as the Environmental News Network, "Ocean" magazine and "GREEN Retailer." Martin holds a Master of Arts in English.

Photo Credits

Digital Vision./Digital Vision/Getty Images

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Top Seven Requirements to Achieve Effective Communication in Management

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Communication is one of the most important aspects of management. Without strong communication, employees won't even understand what the manager wants them to accomplish. Effective communication also helps employees to value their jobs more by minimizing conflicts and letting each employee feel heard. A manager must develop a structure for communication in the workplace.

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The Effects of Interpersonal Communication in an Organization

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Interpersonal communication involves interchanging ideas with others using an assortment of methods, such as words, gestures, voice tone, facial expression and body posture. Interpersonal skills are the lifeblood of organizations because effective communication dictates operational efficiency and facilitates teamwork. ...

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When someone like Governor Chris Christie stands up and says "I'm responsible because it happened on my watch" the public often gets the sense that the speaker is being disingenuous and the underlying message is, "Yes, I'm responsible, but not directly."

But leaders are responsible directly for the behavior of others because leaders are accountable for the day-in and day-out operating culture of their organization. Leaders may not be able to monitor everything, but it's a leader's job to make sure there's an organizational culture in place that assures that what happens on their watch is consistent with their intent.

Leadership and culture are two concepts that are inexorably connected. While conceptually different, organizational behaviorists, such as Edgar Schein, believe they are intertwined. In Schein's book, Organizational Culture and Leadership, he states that leaders both embed and transmit the culture. That is, leaders articulate the culture, make it real, and transfer it throughout the organization.

As a leader, whether you're a CEO, an entrepreneur, or a department head, you should not regard culture as an external artifact, but part and parcel of who you are in the organization. Culture is a core element of your overall vision and strategic plan.

One thing is for sure: academic researchers do not agree about what culture is. There are numerous definitions and all sorts of theories, but all the academic work it seems to boil down to the idea that culture is about the norms that shape acceptable and unacceptable behavior in an organization.

As a leader, you have to keep in mind that culture is a tool that will help you take the organization to where you want it to go. Your vision of the organization is created by the decisions you make regarding the creation and transmission of core norms that comprise your organization's culture.

This leaves you with four challenges:
1. Articulate a core cultural statement.
A core cultural statement is not distinct from an operational mission statement, rather it is embedded in the operational mission statement. When you say that you want to be the "single best real estate agency in New York, "expand on this operational mission statement and elaborate on what type of relationships and behaviors you expect to help your team achieve this goal.
2. Develop a cultural vocabulary.
Once you've articulated the core cultural statement within your mission, consider how to describe it. Ask yourself what reinforcing words, adjectives, and nouns can best reflect your core cultural statement.

You can't always repeat the core cultural statement, but you can use appropriate vocabulary to reinforce it. Make a list of words that transmit the essence of your culture and use them.
3. Model your behavior.
Leaders are always reminded how important it is to practice what you preach. With culture, modeling behavior is particularly important. Specifically, if you want others to own the culture, you have to act in such a manner that shows others that you live the culture.

The culture must be reflected in your behavior in a natural, consistent, and unobtrusive way so the modeling is authentic. It may be a mundane truism, but the role of leadership is to model.
4. Avoid cultural drift.
While it's easy to achieve agreement on the core cultural statement, there is a tendency over time to ignore them. A drift sets in and the core culture is supported by token gestures. There is a tendency to overlook the importance of an organization's core culture. As one person recently told me, "Sure, culture is important, but I have other things to worry about." Day-in and day-out, leadership should reinforce, recognize, and reward behavior that's consistent with your core cultural statement.

Of course this doesn't mean running around patting people on the back, but it does mean rewarding behaviors or, at least, recognizing behaviors, that fit with the culture. Leaders must remember that it is equally, if not more important, to sanction behaviors or at least point out behaviors that are inconsistent with the larger organizational culture.

Culture is a social-psychological organizational state, and it depends on your leadership. That means you have to focus on specific mechanisms, strategies, and tactics that will embed culture so deeply in your organization that it becomes part of everyday life.

When your cultural leadership is successful, acceptable behavior will be taken for granted way of life for your organization and it's unlikely you'll find yourself in a Governor Christie situation trying to explain why everything went so terribly wrong.

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How to Establish Your Company's Organizational Culture

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When someone like Governor Chris Christie stands up and says "I'm responsible because it happened on my watch" the public often gets the sense that the speaker is being disingenuous and the underlying message is, "Yes, I'm responsible, but not directly."

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Type of Authority

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TYPES OF AUTHORITY : LINE & STAFF ROLES

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Authority is the right to perform or command. It allows its holder to act in certain designated ways and to directly influence the actions of others through orders. It also allows its holder to allocate the organization's resources to achieve organizational objectives. AUTHORITY ON THE JOB : Barnard defines authority as the character of communication...

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7 Responsibility Relationships among Managers, as used in the Management Responsibility Guide:

1. General Responsibility: The individual who guides and directs the execution of the function through the person accepting operating responsibility.

2. Operating Responsibility: The individual who is directly responsible for the execution of the Function.

3. Specific Responsibility: The individual who is responsible for executing a specific or limited portion of the function.

4. Must be Consulted: The individual whose area is affected by a decision who must be called on to render advice or relate information before any decision is made or approval is granted. This individual does not, however, make the decision or grant approval.

5. May Be Consulted: The individual who may be called on to related information, render advice, or make recommendations before the action is taken.

6. Must be Notified: The individual who must be notified of any action that has been taken.

7. Must Approve: The individual,other than persons holding general and operating responsibility who must approve or disapprove the decision.

RESPONSIBLE MANAGERS:

Managers can be described as responsible if they perform the activities they are obligated to perform.

Since managers have more impact on an organization than non managers, responsible managers are a requisite for system success.

The degree of responsibility that a manager possesses can be determined by appraising the manager on the following 4 dimensions:

1. Attitude toward and conduct with subordinates.

2. Behaviour with Upper Management

3. Behaviour with Other Groups

4. Personal Attitudes and Values

4 Key Dimensions of Responsible Management Behaviour

Attitude toward and conduct with subordinates.

Responsible Managers take complete charge of their work groups.

They Pass Praise and credit along to subordinates.

They stay close to problems and activities.

They take actions to maintain productivity and are willing to terminate poor performers if necessary.

Behaviour with Upper Management:

Responsible Managers accept criticism for mistakes and buffer their groups from excessive criticism.

Responsible managers ensure that their groups meet management expectations and objectives.

Behaviour with Other Groups :

Responsible Managers make sure that any gaps between their areas and those of other managers are securely filled.

Personal Attitudes & Values:

Responsible managers identify with the group.

Put goals ahead of personal desires or .

corporate resources as if the resources were their own.

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7 Responsibility Relationships among Managers, as used in the Management Responsibility Guide: General Responsibility: The individual who guides and directs the execution of the function through the person accepting operating responsibility. Operating Responsibility: The individual who is directly responsible for the execution of the Function.

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Graicuna's formula to determine the number of possible relationships between a manager and subordinates when the number of subordinates is known.

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Basic Types of Organizational Structure: Formal & Informal

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Almost every company has a formal structure in place, even if that structure is only loosely adhered to. Most organizations also have an informal structure as well. There are times when the informal structure conflicts with the formal structure, making it important to understand the intricacies of both types. ...

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Establishing and maintaining coordination within an organization

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SWOT

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In this article, we've compiled the most comprehensive list of downloadable SWOT analysis templates offered in Excel, Word, and Powerpoint formats.

Included on this page, you'll find a basic SWOT matrix Excel template, SWOT competitor analysis template, SWOT analysis strategy template, and more for any given business, project, or personal objective.

SWOT Analysis Templates for Excel

Basic SWOT Matrix Excel Template

Download Basic SWOT Matrix Template

This SWOT matrix template provides the basic 2x2 layout for an easy-to-read view of your analysis. It also includes a column for measuring the significance of each item in your SWOT categories. This is important for understanding how the different elements in your analysis measure up to each other and which areas require the most attention. Take advantage of the fact that this is an Excel template by using additional worksheets for supporting data or other analyses. You get the simplicity of a SWOT matrix with the functionality of Excel.

SWOT Analysis PowerPoint Templates

Simple SWOT Matrix PPT Template

Download Simple SWOT Matrix Template

PowerPoint | Smartsheet

This SWOT PowerPoint template has a straightforward matrix design with bright colors for readability and visual interest. The simple matrix format makes it easy to see the correlations between the internal and external factors so you can identify the risks quickly. This template works well for PPT presentations, because it's attention grabbing but also looks professional.

SWOT Analysis Templates for Word

Simple SWOT Matrix Template

Download Simple SWOT Matrix Template

This template offers a colorful SWOT matrix in Word format. While most SWOT templates for Word are black and white, the added color here provides an interesting design element while keeping the layout simple. The template can also be easily modified to suit your needs.

SWOT Analysis Template With Summary

‌ Download SWOT Analysis Template with Summary - Word
This SWOT template includes a section for providing a written summary of the analysis. Use this section to present strategies based on the findings of your analysis, or for brainstorming, outlining an action plan, or proposing a revised objective. The template offers a straightforward layout that is easy to read and use.

Understanding SWOT Analysis

Why Use SWOT Analysis?

A SWOT analysis can be used as part of business planning, market analysis, project management, organizational change, individual development (such as a career change or evaluation), or any situation requiring strategic planning to reach an objective. It is sometimes done in combination with a PEST analysis, which looks at the broader political, economic, social and technological factors, and provides a macro-environmental view. This broader external analysis may be relevant depending on the size of the business and type or scope of project under consideration, but a simple SWOT analysis can be helpful for any size of business. And since the analysis considers both internal and external factors, it's an opportunity for businesses to take an honest look at what they can handle and which strategies or operations need to change.

While you can create a SWOT analysis using a list format to document strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, it is common for these categories to be represented in a 2x2 matrix. The matrix is essentially a table with four columns, showing internal factors on top and external below. This format puts the categories side-by-side, making it easier to see correlations among them. The SWOT templates provided below include the matrix format as well as other options. You'll find templates for Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint. All of the templates are free to download and can be customized to fit your project's needs. A SWOT template in Word offers simplicity, while Excel allows you to include additional data sheets in your analysis, and PowerPoint templates provide a visual display to enhance presentations. We've also included a Smartsheet SWOT template, which provides the benefits of a spreadsheet format with enhanced collaboration and additional features.

Internal and External Factors in SWOT Analysis

No matter which template you choose, your analysis will include the four SWOT categories. Let's take a closer look at what constitutes strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

Strengths and Weaknesses - These are internal factors, which in a business context may include financial resources, human resources, facilities, equipment, processes and systems. They may include elements such as business culture, certifications, reputation, and leadership. It's important to remember that what constitutes a strength or weakness will depend on the objective you are assessing. An element of your business could be a strength in one instance and a weakness in another context depending on how it affects your objectives. In general, you are looking for what characteristics give your business an advantage or disadvantage over others in achieving the objective.

Opportunities and Threats - The external elements influencing your business may include market trends, outside funding, customer demographics, suppliers, the economic climate, political and environmental issues, and other factors. The analysis can help identify new business opportunities and areas for growth as well as issues that could hinder a project or business endeavor. External factors are typically outside of your control - even weather and seasonal changes can influence business goals. Anticipating these factors early can help your team plan ahead and stay flexible when they occur. Part of the analysis is to examine how external opportunities and threats relate to internal strengths and weaknesses in order to determine whether an objective is even attainable and create a strategy for moving forward.

The SWOT framework is effective for analyzing and creating a simplified picture of a complex situation. But it's possible for it to be an oversimplification, which is one of the limitations of SWOT analysis. Another is that it is primarily a summary tool and doesn't provide a clear plan of action. Taking SWOT issues and translating them into actions is a critical part of the process, but it relies on the ability of whoever is conducting the analysis to identify key factors and use them to develop an effective strategy. This is a subjective process with inherent limitations, but there is no question that SWOT analysis can provide valuable insight for any business, project or individual.

Take Action on Your SWOT Analysis with Effective Project Management in Smartsheet

Determining the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to your project or organization is a key first step in managing and implementing a successful plan of action. Once you've completed your SWOT analysis, it's essential that you have the right tools in place to plan, manage, automate, and report on your project plan.

Smartsheet is a work execution platform that enables enterprises and teams to get from idea to impact - fast. Top project management leaders rely on Smartsheet to help align the right people, resources, and schedules to get work done.

Use Smartsheet to create consistent project elements, increase speed, and improve collaboration with scalable options that fit individual work preferences. Hold yourself and your team accountable, improve visibility into team priorities, and ensure nothing slips through the cracks.

Try Smartsheet to discover why project managers around the world use it to deliver projects on time and on budget.

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Download free SWOT analysis templates and matrices to assess your project's strengths & weaknesses. Available in Excel, Word & PowerPoint.

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Group Decision Making

The marketing team at Messy Chocolates Candy just received a huge assignment called Project Omega Bar! They need to come up with a brand new chocolate candy for launch into the market in three months. The marketing team is very excited to work on this project and finalize a new candy bar through group decision making, which is when a group of individuals tackles a problem together to achieve a solution.

Strengths

The marketing team at Messy Chocolates has had tremendous success creating new ideas in a team environment. The team's last two bars were sales record breakers: Chocolate Truffle Deluxe and Shortbread Dark Chocolate Bar. The group is looking forward to using the team approach to come up with another blockbuster bar. There are two big advantages to group decision making in an organizational setting, which are synergy and the sharing of information.

Synergy is the ability to utilize many minds to develop a multitude of ideas, leading to a high quality solution. For example, the team was able to develop a list of over 50 different new candy bar ideas, including Sweet & Salty Potato Chip Chocolate Bars, Gummy Bear Chocolate Bars, Cracker Chocolate Bars, Apple Chocolate Chip Bars, and a few other unique ideas. They would not have been able to be as creative if only one individual was working on the new idea.

The sharing of information helps the company make an informed decision. Each member of the group usually holds specific and unique information that, when combined together, makes for an overall educated, quality decision. For instance, one member of the group has in-depth knowledge of the competition. When the member spoke up about their competitor announcing a new salty and sweet bar soon, this made the team take an interest in that style of bar.

Weaknesses

There are some disadvantages to group decision making that can be overcome. One of the biggest weaknesses of group decision making is the development of groupthink. This is a process where the judgment, mental alacrity, and effectiveness of the group's decision making is hampered by pressures from the group. Group members, such as those in the marketing team at Messy Chocolates, tend to want solidarity and usually think alike. Time constraints also lead to groupthink because the failure to develop a solution will cause friction in the group. This leads to rushed decision making.

Groupthink can be eliminated by allowing plenty of discussion time for evaluating alternative choices completely. Unrealistic time constraints should also try to be avoided. Messy Chocolates tries to avoid groupthink by providing generous time allotments and room for discussion of alternative choices. Messy Chocolates' marketing team spent over one week brainstorming different ideas and voting to proceed with the final bar choice.

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strengths and weaknesses of group decision making - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Group Decision Making - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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The marketing team at Messy Chocolates Candy just received a huge assignment called Project Omega Bar! They need to come up with a brand new chocolate candy for launch into the market in three months.

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Decision Making Tools

Good managers do not simply just make decisions. Instead, they use tools to determine the best course of action, making it possible for the manager to make an informed decision. That does not mean that good managers always make the right decisions, but they certainly are making decisions that are more informed than they would be based purely on guesswork.

There are many different tools managers use to make decisions, but the ones that we see the most are the , and simulation. While there are more, these are the three we see the most, and it's important to understand them and know how to use them before you start making decisions.

The Decision Tree

The first tool we will look at is the decision tree. This tool has us write down an issue or problem, and then, as we think through the problem, we draw solutions or steps that branch out from the original issue. You start your decision tree by taking a piece of paper and drawing a small square to represent the decision you need to make. It could look something like this:

'Should we decide to continue to produce dress shoes only, or should we look at making sneakers as well?'

This first block represents the issue that requires you to make a decision. From there, just like the name 'decision tree' implies, branches start to sprout out with your thoughts for different solutions or directions for this issue.

You can make any number of branches, and there is no set pattern to the decision tree - it is defined more by its functionality than its form. Using a decision tree, you can capture your thoughts, review them and, if needed, add more branches, hopefully continuing on until you find your answer. Each decision you make leads you to another decision (or would/could choice) and that choice leads you to another.

Payback Analysis

I'm happy to say that payback analysis is much easier and much more finite than the decision tree. This tool will help you analyze financial investments. When we use payback analysis, we look at an investment and the anticipated savings or cost increase that will result from that investment. Then, we use a calculation that gives us a time frame for us to make back the money spent in the initial investment.

For example, let's say we are going to invest in energy-efficient lighting. We know that the initial investment would be $15,000, but we also know that our energy cost savings would be $5,000 a year. We can simply use some basic math to understand how long it would take for us to earn back our initial investment of $15,000. Did he say math? Nooo! Don't worry though - it's pretty simple.

We can divide $15,000 (our investment) by the amount we would save each year ($5,000), and from that basic calculation, we can see that it would take 3 years to make back our investment. If that time frame is something that is good for you, then you decide to make the investment. If not, see if you can come up with some other investment or savings to change the calculation. Either way, you will have used the payback analysis tool to make a well-informed decision.

Simulation

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quantitative decision making tools: decision trees

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payback analysis & simulations - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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Quantitative Decision Making Tools: Decision Trees, Payback Analysis & Simulations - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Good managers do not simply just make decisions. Instead, they use tools to determine the best course of action, making it possible for the manager to make an informed decision. That does not mean that good managers always make the right decisions, but they certainly are making decisions that are more informed than they would be based purely on guesswork.

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Decision Making

Decisions, decisions, decisions - seems like we have to make them all day, every day. What to wear, what we have to do at work, what do to with the children when we pick them up from school and so on and so on... let's face it - our lives are full of decisions.

Some we can make on autopilot as they are simply not that involved, while others take careful planning and thought processes to ensure we make the best decision possible. Usually this is because the decision that needs to be made is one that has significant impact if we make the incorrect one. Having said that, let us take a look at the decision making process associated with management.

Defining the Problem

The first step is to define the problem, or we could say, 'What are we trying to fix?' For our purposes, we will use someone who wants to purchase their first home, a pretty big step in a person's life and something that we have to give a lot of thought to in order to make sure we pick the right house.

Just wanting to purchase your first home is not really a problem; thus, the problem needs to be defined more. So, in this case, the problem is we are tired of renting an apartment and want a place of our own so we can get some equity and not just pay rent each month and get nothing from it.

Identifying Limiting Factors

Next we have to identify limiting factors. For this step, we need to review all the factors that could stop us from actually solving the problem - basically, things that would get in our way to stop us from fixing the issue that we want to fix.

It is important to understand that, at times, we come across a limiting factor that stops our process dead in its tracks. For example, if you had no money to put down on a house as a down payment, then you would not be able to move forward, as you have to put something down in order to purchase the house. For our purposes, we will assume you have the money to put down and are ready to become a homeowner.

Now, let's say we have the following limiting factors:

You can only afford $600.00 a month for a mortgage payment.

You do not own a car and have to take the bus to work, so the house needs to be near a bus station.

You need three bedrooms and two bathrooms.

Develop Potential Alternatives

Now that we have the limiting factors, we have to develop potential alternatives. Here you will be looking at what alternatives are available to help you get to your goal. Since we know our limiting factors, we can now develop alternatives to help us address those factors and help us with our problem.

For example, we could review the following potential alternatives:

Stay where you are and not buy a home (though that's really not solving the problem or dealing with alternatives).

If the house you really like is more money than you can afford, you can cut back on other expenses or get a roommate to help pay the monthly mortgage.

You could purchase a bike and ride to the bus stop if it's not close enough and take your bike to work with you if you find a home you like and can afford that is not near a bus stop.

Reduce your desire to only two bedrooms with the thought that a smaller home will be less money.

Now you would use those criteria to look for homes that take into account your limiting factors but also take into account the alternatives you've thought through. You are weighing your limiting factors against your alternatives to see how they blend together to get you the home you want and the way you want it.

Analyze the Alternatives

Now you have to analyze the alternatives. You will take each alternative you have and try to determine, in order, what is the most feasible to the least feasible. Looking at these alternatives, there are none really that are deal-breakers. However, as I said, we need to be realistic about these. Thus:

You might not be able to find a roommate you can actually live with.

You might realize that two bedrooms is simply not going to work for the space you need.

Cutting back on expenses is something you could do and work with while you find ways to solve the other issues as time goes by.

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the decision making process for organizations - video & lesson transcript | study.com

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The Decision Making Process for Organizations - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com

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Decisions, decisions, decisions - seems like we have to make them all day, every day. What to wear, what we have to do at work, what do to with the children when we pick them up from school and so on and so on... let's face it - our lives are full of decisions.

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TYPES OF DECISIONS & DECISION MAKING PROCESS

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A decision is a choice made between 2 or more available alternatives. Decision Making is the process of choosing the best alternative for reaching objectives. Managers make decisions affecting the organization daily and communicate those decisions to other organizational members. Some decisions affect a large number of organization members, cost a great deal of money...

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The following are the main types of decisions every organization need to take:

1. Programmed and non-programmed decisions:

Programmed decisions are concerned with the problems of repetitive nature or routine type matters.

A standard procedure is followed for tackling such problems. These decisions are taken generally by lower level managers. Decisions of this type may pertain to e.g. purchase of raw material, granting leave to an employee and supply of goods and implements to the employees, etc. Non-programmed decisions relate to difficult situations for which there is no easy solution.

These matters are very important for the organisation. For example, opening of a new branch of the organisation or a large number of employees absenting from the organisation or introducing new product in the market, etc., are the decisions which are normally taken at the higher level.

2. Routine and strategic decisions:

Routine decisions are related to the general functioning of the organisation. They do not require much evaluation and analysis and can be taken quickly. Ample powers are delegated to lower ranks to take these decisions within the broad policy structure of the organisation.

Strategic decisions are important which affect objectives, organisational goals and other important policy matters. These decisions usually involve huge investments or funds. These are non-repetitive in nature and are taken after careful analysis and evaluation of many alternatives. These decisions are taken at the higher level of management.

3. Tactical (Policy) and operational decisions:

Decisions pertaining to various policy matters of the organisation are policy decisions. These are taken by the top management and have long term impact on the functioning of the concern. For example, decisions regarding location of plant, volume of production and channels of distribution (Tactical) policies, etc. are policy decisions. Operating decisions relate to day-to-day functioning or operations of business. Middle and lower level managers take these decisions.

An example may be taken to distinguish these decisions. Decisions concerning payment of bonus to employees are a policy decision. On the other hand if bonus is to be given to the employees, calculation of bonus in respect of each employee is an operating decision.

4. Organisational and personal decisions:

When an individual takes decision as an executive in the official capacity, it is known as organisational decision. If decision is taken by the executive in the personal capacity (thereby affecting his personal life), it is known as personal decision.

Sometimes these decisions may affect functioning of the organisation also. For example, if an executive leaves the organisation, it may affect the organisation. The authority of taking organizational decisions may be delegated, whereas personal decisions cannot be delegated.

5. Major and minor decisions:

Another classification of decisions is major and minor. Decision pertaining to purchase of new factory premises is a major decision. Major decisions are taken by top management. Purchase of office stationery is a minor decision which can be taken by office superintendent.

6. Individual and group decisions:

When the decision is taken by a single individual, it is known as individual decision. Usually routine type decisions are taken by individuals within the broad policy framework of the organisation.

Group decisions are taken by group of individuals constituted in the form of a standing committee. Generally very important and pertinent matters for the organisation are referred to this committee. The main aim in taking group decisions is the involvement of maximum number of individuals in the process of decision- making.

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Decision Types: 6 Types of Decisions Every Organization Need To Take

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ADVERTISEMENTS: The following are the main types of decisions every organization need to take: 1. Programmed and non-programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are concerned with the problems of repetitive nature or routine type matters. ADVERTISEMENTS: A standard procedure is followed for tackling such problems. These decisions are taken generally by lower level managers.

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Stages of the product life cycle

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The MBO Process

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Organizational Objectives

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Steps in the planning process

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Hofstede's Ideas for Describing Culture

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Hofstede's 5 Cultural Dimensions visualized on a world map

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IMPORTANT VARIABLES IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM:

1. Different National Sovereignties.

2. Disparate National Economic Conditions

3. Different National Values and Institutions

4. Difference in timing of National Industrial Revolution

5. Geographical Distance

6. Different Areas and Population

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Disparate National Economic Conditions Different National Values and Institutions Difference

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National Industrial Revolution Geographical Distance Different Areas

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IMPORTANT VARIABLES IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM: Different National Sovereignties. Disparate National Economic Conditions Different National Values and Institutions Difference in timing of National Industrial Revolution Geographical Distance Different Areas and Population

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Google, Inc. Describe how it has become multinational by progressing through 2 or more stages of Jacoby's 6 stages of multinationalization.

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Glass ceiling effect

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Diversity - Multi-Generational Workforce

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Diversity

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The Importance of Diversity in Management

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As the marketplace for goods and services becomes increasingly global, businesses must understand and embrace diversity in their brands as well as in their work forces. Simply having a diverse employee population is no longer enough, according to Forbes; for a company to succeed in today's challenging economy, it must ...

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Code of ethics

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Sustainable Organizations

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Social Responsibility

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Women Managers

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Many CEOs who make gender diversity a priority-by setting aspirational goals for the proportion of women in leadership roles, insisting on diverse slates of candidates for senior positions, and developing mentoring and training programs-are frustrated. They and their companies spend time, money, and good intentions on efforts to build a more robust pipeline of upwardly mobile women, and then not much happens.

The problem with these leaders' approaches is that they don't address the often fragile process of coming to see oneself, and to be seen by others, as a leader. Becoming a leader involves much more than being put in a leadership role, acquiring new skills, and adapting one's style to the requirements of that role. It involves a fundamental identity shift. Organizations inadvertently undermine this process when they advise women to proactively seek leadership roles without also addressing policies and practices that communicate a mismatch between how women are seen and the qualities and experiences people tend to associate with leaders.

A significant body of research (see "Further Reading") shows that for women, the subtle gender bias that persists in organizations and in society disrupts the learning cycle at the heart of becoming a leader. This research also points to some steps that companies can take in order to rectify the situation. It's not enough to identify and instill the "right" skills and competencies as if in a social vacuum. The context must support a woman's motivation to lead and also increase the likelihood that others will recognize and encourage her efforts-even when she doesn't look or behave like the current generation of senior executives.

"Who Will Lead and Who Will Follow? A Social Process of Leadership Identity Construction in Organizations," by D. Scott DeRue and Susan J. Ashford (Academy of Management Review, October 2010)

"Women and Leadership: Defining the Challenges," by Robin J. Ely and Deborah L. Rhode ( Handbook of Leadership Theory and Practice, Harvard Business Press, 2010)

"Impossible Selves: Image Strategies and Identity Threat in Professional Women's Career Transitions," by Herminia Ibarra and Jenifer Petriglieri (Insead working paper, 2007)

"Negotiating in the Shadows of Organizations: Gender, Negotiation, and Change," by Deborah M. Kolb (Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, 2013)

"Taking Gender into Account: Theory and Design for Women's Leadership Development Programs," by Robin J. Ely, Herminia Ibarra, and Deborah Kolb (Academy of Management Learning & Education, September 2011)

The solutions to the pipeline problem are very different from what companies currently employ. Traditional high-potential, mentoring, and leadership education programs are necessary but not sufficient. Our research, teaching, and consulting reveal three additional actions companies can take to improve the chances that women will gain a sense of themselves as leaders, be recognized as such, and ultimately succeed. (This article expands on our paper "Taking Gender into Account: Theory and Design for Women's Leadership Development Programs," Academy of Management Learning & Education, September 2011.)

Becoming a Leader

People become leaders by internalizing a leadership identity and developing a sense of purpose. Internalizing a sense of oneself as a leader is an iterative process. A person asserts leadership by taking purposeful action-such as convening a meeting to revive a dormant project. Others affirm or resist the action, thus encouraging or discouraging subsequent assertions. These interactions inform the person's sense of self as a leader and communicate how others view his or her fitness for the role.

As a person's leadership capabilities grow and opportunities to demonstrate them expand, high-profile, challenging assignments and other organizational endorsements become more likely. Such affirmation gives the person the fortitude to step outside a comfort zone and experiment with unfamiliar behaviors and new ways of exercising leadership. An absence of affirmation, however, diminishes self-confidence and discourages him or her from seeking developmental opportunities or experimenting. Leadership identity, which begins as a tentative, peripheral aspect of the self, eventually withers away, along with opportunities to grow through new assignments and real achievements. Over time, an aspiring leader acquires a reputation as having-or not having-high potential.

The story of an investment banker we'll call Amanda is illustrative. Amanda's career stalled when she was in her thirties. Her problem, she was told, was that she lacked "presence" with clients (who were mostly older men) and was not sufficiently outspoken in meetings. Her career prospects looked bleak. But both her reputation and her confidence grew when she was assigned to work with two clients whose CFOs happened to be women. These women appreciated Amanda's smarts and the skillful way she handled their needs and concerns. Each in her own way started taking the initiative to raise Amanda's profile. One demanded that she be present at all key meetings, and the other refused to speak to anyone but Amanda when she called-actions that enhanced Amanda's credibility within her firm. "In our industry," Amanda explains, "having the key client relationship is everything." Her peers and supervisors began to see her not just as a competent project manager but as a trusted client adviser-an important prerequisite for promotion. These relationships, both internal and external, gave Amanda the confidence boost she needed to generate ideas and express them forthrightly, whether to colleagues or to clients. Her supervisors happily concluded that Amanda had finally shed her "meek and mild-mannered" former self and "stepped up" to leadership.

Effective leaders develop a sense of purpose by pursuing goals that align with their personal values and advance the collective good. This allows them to look beyond the status quo to what is possible and gives them a compelling reason to take action despite personal fears and insecurities. Such leaders are seen as authentic and trustworthy because they are willing to take risks in the service of shared goals. By connecting others to a larger purpose, they inspire commitment, boost resolve, and help colleagues find deeper meaning in their work.

Integrating leadership into one's core identity is particularly challenging for women, who must establish credibility in a culture that is deeply conflicted about whether, when, and how they should exercise authority. Practices that equate leadership with behaviors considered more common in men suggest that women are simply not cut out to be leaders. Furthermore, the human tendency to gravitate to people like oneself leads powerful men to sponsor and advocate for other men when leadership opportunities arise. As Amanda's story illustrates, women's leadership potential sometimes shows in less conventional ways-being responsive to clients' needs, for example, rather than boldly asserting a point of view-and sometimes it takes powerful women to recognize that potential. But powerful women are scarce.

Despite a lack of discriminatory intent, subtle, "second-generation" forms of workplace gender bias can obstruct the leadership identity development of a company's entire population of women. (See the sidebar "What Is Second-Generation Gender Bias?") The resulting underrepresentation of women in top positions reinforces entrenched beliefs, prompts and supports men's bids for leadership, and thus maintains the status quo.

Research has moved away from a focus on the deliberate exclusion of women and toward investigating "second-generation" forms of gender bias as the primary cause of women's persistent underrepresentation in leadership roles. This bias erects powerful but subtle and often invisible barriers for women that arise from cultural assumptions and organizational structures, practices, and patterns of interaction that inadvertently benefit men while putting women at a disadvantage. Among them are:

A paucity of role models for women.

Aspiring leaders need role models whose styles and behaviors they can experiment with and evaluate according to their own standards and others' reactions. Fewer female leaders means fewer role models and can suggest to young would-be leaders that being a woman is a liability-thus discouraging them from viewing senior women as credible sources of advice and support.

Gendered career paths and gendered work.

Many entrenched organizational structures and work practices were designed to fit men's lives and situations at a time when women made up only a very small portion of the workforce. For one example, formal rotations in sales or operations have traditionally been a key step on the path to senior leadership, and men are more likely than women to have held such jobs. Yet requirements like these may be outdated when it comes to the kinds of experience that best prepare a person to lead. For another, career- enhancing international posts often assume a "trailing spouse" who has no career and can easily move-a family situation much more common for men than for women. How work is valued may similarly give men an advantage: Research indicates that organizations tend to ignore or undervalue behind-the-scenes work (building a team, avoiding a crisis), which women are more likely to do, while rewarding heroic work, which is most often done by men. These practices were not designed to be discriminatory, but their cumulative effect disadvantages women. A vicious cycle ensues: Men appear to be best suited to leadership roles, and this perception propels more of them to seek and attain such positions, thus reinforcing the notion that they are simply better leaders.

Women's lack of access to networks and sponsors.

Informal networks are a precious resource for would-be leaders, yet differences in men's and women's organizational roles and career prospects, along with their proclivity to interact with others of the same gender, result in weaker networks for women. They cite as a major barrier to advancement their lack of access to influential colleagues. Moreover, the connections women do have tend to be less efficacious: Men's networks provide more informal help than women's do, and men are more likely to have mentors who help them get promoted. Meanwhile, men in positions of power tend to direct developmental opportunities to junior men, whom they view as more likely than women to succeed.

Double binds.

In most cultures masculinity and leadership are closely linked: The ideal leader, like the ideal man, is decisive, assertive, and independent. In contrast, women are expected to be nice, caretaking, and unselfish. The mismatch between conventionally feminine qualities and the qualities thought necessary for leadership puts female leaders in a double bind. Numerous studies have shown that women who excel in traditionally male domains are viewed as competent but less likable than their male counterparts. Behaviors that suggest self-confidence or assertiveness in men often appear arrogant or abrasive in women. Meanwhile, women in positions of authority who enact a conventionally feminine style may be liked but are not respected. They are deemed too emotional to make tough decisions and too soft to be strong leaders.

The three actions we suggest to support women's access to leadership positions are (1) educate women and men about second-generation gender bias, (2) create safe "identity workspaces" to support transitions to bigger roles, and (3) anchor women's development efforts in a sense of leadership purpose rather than in how women are perceived. These actions will give women insight into themselves and their organizations, enabling them to more effectively chart a course to leadership.

Educate Everyone About Second-Generation Gender Bias

For women.

More than 25 years ago the social psychologist Faye Crosby stumbled on a surprising phenomenon: Most women are unaware of having personally been victims of gender discrimination and deny it even when it is objectively true and they see that women in general experience it.

Many women have worked hard to take gender out of the equation-to simply be recognized for their skills and talents. Moreover, the existence of gender bias in organizational policies and practices may suggest that they have no power to determine their own success. When asked what might be holding women back in their organizations, they say:

"It's nothing overt. I just feel less of a connection, either positive or negative, with the guys I work with. So sometimes I seem to have difficulty getting traction for my ideas."

"I look around and see that my male colleagues have P&L responsibility and most of us are in staff roles. I was advised to make the move to a staff role after the birth of my second child. It would be easier, I was told. But now I recognize that there is no path back to the line."

"My firm has the very best intentions when it comes to women. But it seems every time a leadership role opens up, women are not on the slate. The claim is made that they just can't find women with the right skill set and experience."

These statements belie the notion that gender bias is absent from these women's work lives. Second-generation bias does not require an intent to exclude; nor does it necessarily produce direct, immediate harm to any individual. Rather, it creates a context-akin to "something in the water"-in which women fail to thrive or reach their full potential. Feeling less connected to one's male colleagues, being advised to take a staff role to accommodate family, finding oneself excluded from consideration for key positions-all these situations reflect work structures and practices that put women at a disadvantage.

In Practice

Leadership Interview

An interview with Facebook's Sheryl Sandberg.

Without an understanding of second-generation bias, people are left with stereotypes to explain why women as a group have failed to achieve parity with men: If they can't reach the top, it is because they "don't ask," are "too nice," or simply "opt out." These messages tell women who have managed to succeed that they are exceptions and women who have experienced setbacks that it is their own fault for failing to be sufficiently aggressive or committed to the job.

We find that when women recognize the subtle and pervasive effects of second-generation bias, they feel empowered, not victimized, because they can take action to counter those effects. They can put themselves forward for leadership roles when they are qualified but have been overlooked. They can seek out sponsors and others to support and develop them in those roles. They can negotiate for work arrangements that fit both their lives and their organizations' performance requirements. Such understanding makes it easier for women to "lean in."

For women and men.

Second-generation bias is embedded in stereotypes and organizational practices that can be hard to detect, but when people are made aware of it, they see possibilities for change. In our work with leadership development programs, we focus on a "small wins" approach to change. In one manufacturing company, a task force learned that leaders tended to hire and promote people, mainly men, whose backgrounds and careers resembled their own. They had good reasons for this behavior: Experienced engineers were hard to find, and time constraints pressured leaders to fill roles quickly. But after recognizing some of the hidden costs of this practice-high turnover, difficulty attracting women to the company, and a lack of diversity to match that of customers-the company began to experiment with small wins. For example, some executives made a commitment to review the job criteria for leadership roles. One male leader said, "We write the job descriptions-the list of capabilities-for our ideal candidates. We know that the men will nominate themselves even if they don't meet all the requirements; the women would hold back. Now we look for the capabilities that are needed in the role, not some unrealistic ideal. We have hired more women in these roles, and our quality has not suffered in the least."

In another case, participants in a leadership development program noticed that men seemed to be given more strategic roles, whereas women were assigned more operational ones, signaling that they had lower potential. The participants proposed that the company provide clear criteria for developmental assignments, be transparent about how high potential was evaluated, and give direction as to what experiences best increased a person's potential. Those actions put more women in leadership roles.

Create Safe "Identity Workspaces"

In the upper tiers of organizations, women become increasingly scarce, which heightens the visibility and scrutiny of those near the top, who may become risk-averse and overly focused on details and lose their sense of purpose. (In general, people are less apt to try out unfamiliar behaviors or roles if they feel threatened.) Thus a safe space for learning, experimentation, and community is critical in leadership development programs for women.

Consider performance feedback, which is necessary for growth and advancement but full of trip wires for women. In many organizations 360-degree feedback is a basic tool for deepening self-knowledge and increasing awareness of one's impact on others-skills that are part and parcel of leadership development. But gender stereotypes may color evaluators' perceptions, subjecting women to double binds and double standards. Research has amply demonstrated that accomplished, high-potential women who are evaluated as competent managers often fail the likability test, whereas competence and likability tend to go hand in hand for similarly accomplished men. We see this phenomenon in our own research and practice. Supervisors routinely give high-performing women some version of the message "You need to trim your sharp elbows." Likewise, we find that participants in women's leadership development programs often receive high ratings on task-related dimensions, such as "exceeds goals," "acts decisively in the face of uncertainty," and "is not afraid to make decisions that may be unpopular," but low ratings on relational ones, such as "takes others' viewpoints into account" and "uses feedback to learn from her mistakes." We also frequently encounter women whose performance feedback seems contradictory: Some are told they need to "be tougher and hold people accountable" but also to "not set expectations so high," to "say no more often" but also to "be more visible," to "be more decisive" but also to "be more collaborative."

Creating a safe setting-a coaching relationship, a women's leadership program, a support group of peers-in which women can interpret these messages is critical to their leadership identity development. Companies should encourage them to build communities in which similarly positioned women can discuss their feedback, compare notes, and emotionally support one another's learning. Identifying common experiences increases women's willingness to talk openly, take risks, and be vulnerable without fearing that others will misunderstand or judge them. These connections are especially important when women are discussing sensitive topics such as gender bias or reflecting on their personal leadership challenges, which can easily threaten identity and prompt them to resist any critical feedback they may receive. When they are grounded in candid assessments of the cultural, organizational, and individual factors shaping them, women can construct coherent narratives about who they are and who they want to become.

The Importance of Leadership Purpose

In a recent interview with members of Hillary Clinton's press corps, a veteran reporter noted, "The story is never what she says, as much as we want it to be. The story is always how she looked when she said it." Clinton says she doesn't fight it anymore; she just focuses on getting the job done.

How women are perceived-how they dress, how they talk, their "executive presence," their capacity to "fill a room," and their leadership style-has been the focus of many efforts to get more of them to the top. Voice coaches, image consultants, public-speaking instructors, and branding experts find the demand for their services growing. The premise is that women have not been socialized to compete successfully in the world of men, so they must be taught the skills and styles their male counterparts acquire as a matter of course.

To manage the competence-likability trade-off-the seeming choice between being respected and being liked-women are taught to downplay femininity, or to soften a hard-charging style, or to try to strike a perfect balance between the two. But the time and energy spent on managing these perceptions can ultimately be self-defeating. Overinvestment in one's image diminishes the emotional and motivational resources available for larger purposes. People who focus on how others perceive them are less clear about their goals, less open to learning from failure, and less capable of self-regulation.

Anchoring in purpose enables women to redirect their attention toward shared goals and to consider who they need to be and what they need to learn in order to achieve those goals. Instead of defining themselves in relation to gender stereotypes-whether rejecting stereotypically masculine approaches because they feel inauthentic or rejecting stereotypically feminine ones for fear that they convey incompetence-female leaders can focus on behaving in ways that advance the purposes for which they stand.

Focusing on purpose can also lead women to take up activities that are critical to their success, such as networking. Connections rarely come to them as a matter of course, so they have to be proactive in developing ties; but we also find that many women avoid networking because they see it as inauthentic-as developing relationships that are merely transactional and feel too instrumental-or because it brings to mind activities (the proverbial golf game, for example) in which they have no interest or for which they have no time, given their responsibilities beyond work. Yet when they see it as a means to a larger purpose, such as developing new business to advance their vision for the company, they are more comfortable engaging in it. Learning how to be an effective leader is like learning any complex skill: It rarely comes naturally and usually takes a lot of practice. Successful transitions into senior management roles involve shedding previously effective professional identities and developing new, more fitting ones. Yet people often feel ambivalent about leaving the comfort of roles in which they have excelled, because doing so means moving toward an uncertain outcome.

Second-generation gender bias can make these transitions more challenging for women, and focusing exclusively on acquiring new skills isn't sufficient; the learning must be accompanied by a growing sense of identity as a leader. That's why greater understanding of second-generation bias, safe spaces for leadership identity development, and encouraging women to anchor in their leadership purpose will get better results than the paths most organizations currently pursue.

A version of this article appeared in the September 2013 issue of Harvard Business Review.

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Reprint: R1309C Even when CEOs make gender diversity a priority-by setting aspirational goals for the proportion of women in leadership roles, insisting on diverse slates of candidates for senior positions, and developing mentoring and training programs-they are often frustrated by a lack of results.

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The relationships among career stages, life stages and performance

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Management Skills Continuum

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Managerial effectiveness & managerial efficiency

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Steve Jobs - What we can learn from his life and career

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The Real Leadership Lessons of Steve Jobs

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Six months after Jobs’s death, the author of his best-selling biography identifies the practices that every CEO can try to emulate.