# data[].attributes.body
-Modes of reproduction (Internal vs. External Fertilization and/or Development)
-Animal call structure---no cell wall, small vacuoles, no plastids, centrioles (cell division)

Stem Cells
Unspecialized-------- Differentiated Cells (Expression of different proteins)
Human Anatomy
*Neurons
*Heart
*Kidneys
Animal Behavior- responses that allow an organism to respond to stimuli
1)Innate Behavior- instincts, inherited, inborn behaviors
ex)circadian rhythms-daily patterns ac activity-including feeding behaviors-nocturnal
ex)annual rhythms- yearly patterns of activity-including courtship, estivation, hibernation, migration
2)Learned Behavior- based on experiance
ex)Imprinting- recognition of parents
ex)Operant Conditioning(trial and error learning)
ex) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's dog) - learning by association
3)Social Behavior- division of labor as in a termite or ant colony

# data[].attributes.body
-Plant cell structure---cell walls, large vacuole, chloroplasts
-Photosynthesis
-Classification- 4 groups
1) Nonvascular- no true roots/stems/leaves- Mosses (Bryphytes)...height challenged due to no vascular tissues
2)seedless vascular plants -ferns
3)Vascular with seeds in cones- Gmnosperms (pines, fir, spruce)
4)Vascular with seeds in fruits- Angiosperms -flowering plants
~Types of Vascular Tissue (Vascular= tubesor vessels)
A) Xylem- transports water from roots to leaves
B) Phloem- transports sugars from leaves to roots
Reproductive Life Cycle- called Alternation of Generations

Tropisms- growth reponses to stimuli- often controlled by hormones like auxins and gibberillins

# data[].attributes.body
How are organism placed into their kingdom?
1)Cell type, complex or simple
2)Their ability to obtain food
3)The number of cells in their body
Six Kingdom System
doglycan in cell wall
Archaebacteria- NO Peptidoglycan in cell wall, extremists that live in hot, acidic, saline, or other harsh enviroments
Protista- most are unicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs that act as decomposers
Plantae- all eukaryotic autotrophs
Animalia- all eukaryotic heterotrophs that must eat other organisms for food

Eubacteria are "true" bacteria that come in 3 shapes
1) round (occurs)
2) rod (bacillus)
3) spiral (spirillus)

# data[].attributes.body
~Adaptive radiation- an ancestrial species radiates or diverges into many species. Ex) Galapagos Finches
-Origin Ideas
Urey and MIller simulated Earth's early enviroment and created organic compounds like amino acid

Endosymbiont theory- eukaryotic cells formed when prokaryotic cells began to live together permanently

# data[].attributes.body
- Carolus Linnaeus---developed 7 categories of classification
-Also developed binomial nomenclature--- naming using the genus and species names to refer to an organism
-The first classification system was based on physical characteristics. The modern classification system is based on evidence of evolution (esp. DNA) and the advancements in technology.
- Classifications tools include dichotomous keys- a series of paired statements that lead to the name of an organism.

# data[].attributes.body
-Charles Darwin--- proposed that organisms (species or populations) change over time
-Occurs by Natural Selection---"survival of the fittest"
-Lines of evidence
1)fossils (geologic time)
2)Homologous Structures- same basic structure formed from same embryonic tissue. Used as Evidence of Evolution of Evolution...Common Ancestor
3)Analogous Structures- same basic functions due to same enviromental pressures...Not used as Evidence of Evolution
4)Vestigial Structures- structures that have lost function ex) appendix
5)Embryology- embryos of various species appear identical
6) DNAand protein amino acid sequence comparisons

# data[].attributes.body
4) Sequences DNA- this process alows scientist to determine the sequence of N-bases in DNA
5) Recombinant DNA- scientist can cut DNA fromtwo sources with the same restriction enzymeand combine them. This is used in genetic engineering. This process has been used to create human proteins used to treat disease, create pest-resisant crops, and for many other purposes.
6) Copying DNA- polymersase chain reaction (PCR) has been developed that makes many copies of a small amount of DNA.

Genetic Engineering... has current and potential applications in argriculture (Genetically engineered crops), industry (Oil consuming bacteria), medicine (production of human insulin), and forensis (DNA  Fingerprints)

# data[].attributes.body
- Today, DNA techniques include:
1) DNA Extraction- the opening of cells to seperate/isolate DNA from other cell parts
2) Cutting DNA- large DNA molecules are enzymes. These enzymes recognize and cut DNA at specific sequences. Sticky Ends.
3) Separating DNA- DNA fragments can be separated and analyzed using gel electrophoresis. This process allows scientist to compare genomes of different organisms, separate genes, and create DNA "fingerprints"

# data[].attributes.body
-Sex Linkage--- genes carried on sex chromosomes Ex) hemophilia, color blindness Cross shows a carrier female and a normal male. Fora female to inherit the trait the father must have it and the mother mus be at least be a carrier

Polygenic Inheritance--- traits controlled by many genes Ex) Height, hair color

Aneuploidy- condition caused by having abnormal chromosome number ) Non-Disjunction). Ex) Down's Syndrome aka Triomy 21.

# data[].attributes.body
Incomplete Dominance- intermediate/blended phenotype Ex) snap dragons--- Red (RR) X White (R`R`)--- all pink

Codominance- both parential phenotypes show up in offspring Ex)Chickens---Black x White --- Black and White feathers

Multiple Allelism- traie with 3+ alleles
ex) A, B, O blood types

# data[].attributes.body
-mutations can occur in Mitosis and Meiosis
-crossing over and Idependent Assortment only occurs in Meiosis

# data[].attributes.body
-Gregor Mendal worked with pea plants to learn the basic patterns of inheritance
-Phentype---what the organism looks like
-Genotype---the gene combination-either Homozygous (TT or Tt) or Heterozygous (Tt)

Monohybrid Cross- follows 1 trait through several generations P(parental)
TT x tt

Dihybrid cross- follows two traits

Enviromental Influence on Gene Expression- pH for hydrangea, temperature fo Artic fox or Himalayan rabbit

# data[].attributes.body
Metaphase I- Pairs line up
Anaphase- Pairs are separated
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis
Genetic Variation

# data[].attributes.body
Meiosis- cell division that creates 4 haploid cells called gametes- aka- reduction division
-Meiosis involves 2 divisions- Meiosis I and Meiosis II
-Meiosis I has some special events:
In Prophase I Homologous chromosomes pair up and crossing over occurs. This recombination increases genetic variation for the species

# data[].attributes.body
Haploid- having one set of chromosomes (n) gametes-sperm/egg
Diploid- having two sets of chromosomes (2n)-body cells-one set is maternal an done is paternal
Mitosis creates diploid cells and is for the purpose of tissue repair and growth in animals
-DNA coils to form chromosomes during cell division
-Stages of the cell cycle
~~~Interphase- growth and synthesis, Mitosis ( Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)- Cell Division Cytokinesis (cleavage Furrow, Cell Plate)

# data[].attributes.body
Asexual Strategies
1)binary fission
2)budding
3)regeneration/fragmentation

# data[].attributes.body
Asexual                                                         Sexual
-1 parent                                                       -2 parents (usually)
-no gametes                                                 -fusion of gametes
-offspring are genetically identical           -Offspring genetically unique to the
- fast, efficient, less energy                        parent (clones)
-slower, less efficient, more energy
-huge amounts of variation
-changing environment

# data[].attributes.body
-Reproduction is a fundamental characteristics of life
-Propagates for species
-2-form: asexual and sexual

# data[].attributes.body
Transcription- the process of making RNA from DNA

Ex) TACGGAC (template DNA strand) AUGCCUG (RNA built)
-3 types of RNA have a role in protein synthesis
1)mRNA- messenger- blueprint for how to build protein
2)tRNA- transfer- transfer- carries amino acids to ribosome
3)rRNA- ribosomal- mkaes up a ribosome

Translation- the process of building a protein by matching codons in mRNA to anticodons of tRNA (use codon chart)

All functions are controlled  by the nucleus

# data[].attributes.body
First step of replication or transcription is unzipping (using the enzyme Helicase) the Weak Hydrogen Bonds
~~~~~~~~~~~
Replication- the process used by the cells to copy DNA-enzyme unzips DNA and each side of the ladder
Use the N-base pairing rules: A-T; C-G
---The pairs % or amounts must be equal (ex. 36% Adenine; therefore, 36% Thymine)

Ex. TACGGC (old strand) Semi- Conservative ATGCCTG (new strand)

# data[].attributes.body
~DNA and RNA are composed of nucleotides ~
DNA                                            RNA
Deoxyribose                             Ribose
A, C, G                                      A, C, G
Thymine                                    Uracil
Double Helix  Single helix
Codes for proteins/ RNA  Copy of DNA info

# data[].attributes.body
---Glycolysis is the first step of both
----If no oxygen is present after glycolysis, then fermentation occurs
----If oxygen is present, then the Krebs cycle and e-transport occurs in the mitochondria

# data[].attributes.body
Respiration can be aerobic or anaerobic

Aerobic                                                      Anaerobic
~O2 required most are aerobes ~no O2 required few anaerobes
~38 ATP  (yeast/bacteria)
~3 steps  ~2 ATP
-glycolysis ~2 steps
-Krebs cycle  -glycolysis, fermentation
-Electron Transport Chain   (alcoholic and lactic acid)

# data[].attributes.body
Three parts to ATP
1)adenine (Nitrogen base)
2)ribose (5-C sugar)
3)3 phosphates (high energy)

ATP/ADP cycle--- when energy is needed for cell work ATP loses a phosphate to become ADP

Overall equations:::
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP

# data[].attributes.body
-Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms break down food to release its energy. This energy is then stored in ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

# data[].attributes.body
Input                            Output
Light Reaction  light, water O2, ATP, NADPH
Dark Reaction    NADPH, ATP, CO2      Glucose

# data[].attributes.body
- The process used by producers to convert sunlight to chemical energy in glucose
- Overall equation: 6CO2 + 6H2) + Sunlight = C6H12O6  + 6O2
- Chloroplast are the cellular site of photosynthesis. The light reaction (aka Light Dependent Reaction) of photosynthesis occurs on the inner membrane called the thylakoid. The drak reaction (aka Light Independent Reaction, Calvin Cycle) occurs in the stroma
- Plants use Carbon Dioxide give off Oxygen during Photosynthesis
- Pigments absorb light energy
- Chlorophyll/ carotenoids

# data[].attributes.body
Active Transport- requires energy ATP- moves substances against the concentration gradient from high to low concentrations

# data[].attributes.body
Ex) cell in salt water- shrivels
Ex) cell in fresh water swells
3) Facilitated diffusion- movement of a substance down its concentration through a transport protein channel

# data[].attributes.body
Types of Passive Transport- no energy required
1) Diffusion- moves substances from high to low concentrations down their concentration gradient
2) Osmosis- the diffusion of water from high to lower concentration down its concentration gradient
Water always goes to the Salt/Sugar.

# data[].attributes.body
Function- acts as a selectively permeable boundary around the cell

# data[].attributes.body
-plasma membrane controls homeostasis (balance)
-structure- composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins "gates"

# data[].attributes.body
Plant versus Animal

~~Plant~~
A) has no wall
B) has chloroplasts
C) has large vacuole
~~Animal~~
A) no cell wall
B) has no chloroplast
C) has small vacuoles

# data[].attributes.body
Organelles- compartments for carrying out specific jobs/ chemical reactions

1)chloroplasts- photosynthesis
2)mitochondria- cellular respiration
3)ribosomes- protein synthesis
4)vacuoles- storage
5)nucleus- contains DNA and controls cells actions
6)nucleolus- site of ribosome formation

# data[].attributes.body
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic

**Both have ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell membrane, DNA
~~Prokaryotic~~
A) simple
B)has no nucleus
C)has no MB organelles
D)includes bacteria
~~Eukaryotic~~
A)complex
B)has a MB nucleus
C)has MB organelles
D)includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals

# data[].attributes.body
Cell Theory-3 parts
1) cells are basic unit of life
2) cells come from existing cells
3) all organisms are composed of cells

# data[].attributes.body
Ecosystem Level- food chains and webs and matter recycling

# data[].attributes.body
Community Interactions
*Competition- intraspecific (same species) or interspecific (diff sp)
*Symbiosis- parasitism (+,-), commensalism (+,0), and mutualism (+,+)

# data[].attributes.body
Population growth- exponential (J-Shape) and logistic (S-Shape)
*Limited by factors like disease and competition that are density-dependent or by density-independent factors like natural disaster.
*Carrying capacity is seen in logistic growth- the maximum number the environment can support.

# data[].attributes.headline
Effects of the Human Population on the Environment 

# data[].attributes.subject
Effects of the Human Population on the Environment 

# data[].attributes.body
-Global Warming (Carbon Dioxide...burning of fossil fuels)
-Ozone Layer (CFCs)
-Acid Rain (Factories and Power Plants...nitric acid and sulfuric acid)
-Deforestation (Erosion, increase of Carbon Dioxide)

# data[].attributes.body
~We study and organisms habitat, niche, and trophic level
~Populations-are members of the same species living in the same place at the same time with the potential to interbreed

# data[].attributes.body
Biosphere
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Organism

# data[].attributes.body
is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment

# data[].attributes.body
---Enzymes are reusable and are not changed during a chemical reaction. They can be damaged at temperature and pH extremes.

# data[].attributes.body
---Enzymes are proteins that function to speed up chemical reactions in the cell. They gave a specific shape and interact with a specific substrate which binds at the active site.

# data[].attributes.body
is the chemistry of life- all metabolism is controlled by the action of enzymes

# data[].attributes.body
are composed of nucleotides- either DNA or RNA (Genetic Information)

# data[].attributes.body
composed of amino acids (20 different types)- do most of the work in organisms and are major structural components (transport, structure, communication)

# data[].attributes.body
composed of fatty acid tails, joined to glycerol, can also include the steroids (stores energy, insulation, water proofing)

# data[].attributes.body
compounds of monosaccharides primarily glucose (energy)

# data[].attributes.body
*Organisms are composed of organic compounds: carbon containing compounds that can be very large macromolecules
*Macromolecules are often built by dehydration synthesis and polymerization

# data[].attributes.body
*adaptations- structures, behaviors, or processes that aid in an organism survival are passed on from parent to offspring

# data[].attributes.body
*growth- increase in the amount of living matter either by cell division or cell enlargement
*development- any change from conception to death - embryonic, puberty, aging

# data[].attributes.body
*responding to the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment are key to survival

# data[].attributes.body
*DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid- is the genetic material that codes for proteins of all organisms. The genetic code is "universal"

# data[].attributes.body
*maintenance or regulation of body conditions such as body temperature, blood sugar level, water balance (osmoregulation via contractile vacuole)

# data[].attributes.body
*energy is required for life processes
*autotrophs make their own food (photosynthesis/chemosynthesis)
*heterotrophs eat other organisms for food

# data[].attributes.body
*asexual-offspring are genetic clones of parent

*sexual-offspring have genetic variation from parents

# data[].attributes.body
*unicellular-one celled
*multicellular-many called with levels of organization
(cells~tissues~organs~
systems~organism)

# data[].attributes.body
All living things exhibit several basic life characteristics: