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La neurona es un tipo de célula que representa la unidad estructural y funcional del sistema nervioso. Su función consiste en transmitir información a través de impulsos nerviosos, desde un lugar del cuerpo hacia otro. Estos impulsos nerviosos son impulsos químicos y eléctricos.

Impulso nervioso: Las neuronas transmiten señales eléctricas y químicas entre ellas para comunicar con precisión, rapidez y a larga distancia con otras células, ya sean nerviosas, musculares o glandulares.

En las neuronas más grandes las velocidades de conducción del impulso nervioso (velocidad de conducción axonal) pueden alcanzar hasta 120 m/s.

¿Cómo funciona?

Las neuronas forman una extensa red en el cuerpo por donde circula el impulso nervioso en forma de mensaje químico y eléctrico. Este impulso viaja siempre en el mismo sentido, es decir, llega a la neurona a través de las dendritas, se procesa en el soma y posteriormente se transmite al axón, el cual se comunica con las dendritas de la contigua.

https://ambientech.org/la-neurona

https://www.tiposde.com/neuronas_unipolares.html

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Espacio entre el extremo de una neurona y otra célula. Los impulsos nerviosos se transmiten habitualmente a la célula vecina por medio de sustancias químicas que se llaman neurotransmisores.

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Se conoce como neurona (del griego neûron, “cuerva” o “nervio”) a un tipo altamente especializado de célula, que compone el sistema nervioso, encargado de controlar las funciones voluntarias e involuntarias del organismo.

Las neuronas se caracterizan por su excitabilidad eléctrica, lo cual se traduce en la capacidad para conducir impulsos nerviosos a lo largo de la inmensa red del sistema nervioso, transmitiéndolos además a otras células, como las musculares.

Son particularmente abundantes en el cerebro, alcanzando en el ser humano la cifra de 86 x 109 células, lo cual puede variar de acuerdo a la especie animal (las moscas de la fruta poseen 300.000, ciertos gusanos nematodos apenas 300).

Fuente: https://concepto.de/neurona/#ixzz6sa5voLJT
https://multimedia.uned.ac.cr/pem/anatomia_especies_silvestres/pant/nervioso/neurona.html

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Neuronas
httpd://es.slideshare.net/mobile/newromero/la-neurona - 4687160

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QUE ES LA NEURONA?

Son celulas que transmiten el impulso nervioso y es mas larga que los demas.

https://www.fundacionbankinter.org/ftf/tendencias/neurociencia/que-estudia-la-neurociencia/conexiones-neuronales/neuronas-de-concepto

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son celulas nerviosas individuales que no llegan a tocarse por el espacio sináptico, pero se comuncan entre si mediante impulsos eléctricos que luego se convertiran en impulsos químicos llevando el mensaje.

fuente:
https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/616430267745729713/
https://www.cognifit.com/es/neuronas

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La forma en que una neurona procesa la información nunca es la misma

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Se estima que el cerebro tiene más de 100 millones de neuronas
http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-47052004000100008

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Las neuronas, junto con las células gliales, forman los sistemas nerviosos central y periférico. Mediante estos sistemas los animales pueden comunicarse con el exterior ,tanto captando estímulos como emitiendo señales, conocer cómo está el interior de su propio cuerpo, 

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Las neuronas, junto con las células gliales, forman los sistemas nerviosos central y periférico. Mediante estos sistemas los animales pueden comunicarse con el exterior ,tanto captando estímulos como emitiendo señales, conocer cómo está el interior de su propio cuerpo, 

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SHANY MIKSUE CASTILLO CASTILLO (scastilloca01)

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See all the wonderful things SHANY MIKSUE CASTILLO CASTILLO has made

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Si quisieras unir todas tus neuronas para saber qué tan larga es la cadena que éstas forman, podrías construir una línea de mil kilómetros. Tomando en cuenta que el ser humano posee 100 billones de neuronas aproximadamente, las cuales miden alrededor de 10 micras, al unirlas todas su longitud sería muy extensa.

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Si quisieras unir todas tus neuronas para saber qué tan larga es la cadena que éstas forman, podrías construir una línea de mil kilómetros. Tomando en cuenta que el ser humano posee 100 billones de neuronas aproximadamente, las cuales miden alrededor de 10 micras, al unirlas todas su longitud sería muy extensa.

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Datos curiosos que no sabías de las neuronas - Tecnología - Tecnología (culturacolectiva.com)

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Las neuronas son las principales células del sistema nervioso, cuya función es encaminar y procesar la información en el organismo. Hay millones de ellas en nuestro cuerpo.https://salud.ccm.net/faq/10110-neurona-definicion

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Las neuronas son las principales células del sistema nervioso, cuya función es encaminar y procesar la información en el organismo. Hay millones de ellas en nuestro cuerpo.https://salud.ccm.net/faq/10110-neurona-definicion

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La neurona puede medir de 5-135 mcm de diámetro mayor

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❓ QUÉ es una NEURONA [🧠] y Cuál es su FUNCIÓN ✅ (2021) | Partes de la Neurona | Neuroaprendizaje

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3. PPT BASES BIOLÓGICAS DE LA CONDUCTA : LA NEURONA TRANSMISIÓN NERVIOSA
Y SINAPSIS. NEUROTRANSMISORES

PSICOLOGA EDUCACIONAL DOCENTE UNIVERSITARIO

1. 1. FANNY JEM WONG 1

2. 2. CONTENIDO  La neurona, transmisión nerviosa y sinapsis  Neurotransmisores. http://cuadrocomparativo.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/11/neuronaMorfologia-de-la- neurona.jpg http://www.2ti.es/wp-content/uploads/Neuronas-de- dopamina.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 2

3. 3. COMPETENCIA Describe la localización y funciones del sistema nervioso https://encrypted- tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRMOCVD8_clxB3NZSY Edd8Zi_j-73cmglAQOQ9rVSXsR6kEOjRZTw FANNY JEM WONG 3

4. 4. LOGRO  Describe la localización y funciones del sistema nervioso  Trabajo práctico (Maqueta del Sistema Nervioso y sus estructuras)  Selección del caso a estudiar http://www.colegiosanagustin- madrid.org/colegio/img/logros.png FANNY JEM WONG 4

5. 5. CÉLULAS DEL SISTEMA NERVIOSO Los órganos nerviosos están estructurados por dos tipos de células: la glía y la neurona. Recuperado de http://www.genomasur.com/BCH/BCH_libro/capitulo_09.htm FANNY JEM WONG 5

6. 6. GLIAS  Son células accesorias del sistema nervioso, que se caracterizan por los siguiente:  Se reproducen  Cumplen funciones accesorias y no conducen impulsos nerviosos. https://encrypted- tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSPDL- gcTX6Vonbvj6s4srTTtX3PIBrIUmaeRJnfTZIEgw5I8Je http://mena.nom.es/blog/wp- content/uploads/2015/05/neurona.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 6

7. 7. GLIAS TIPOS:  *ASTROCITO: está al lado de los vasos sanguíneos, nutre a la neurona.  *OLIGOCITO: forma mielina en el sistema nervioso central.  *MICROCITO: protege el sistema nervioso mediante la fagocitosis  *EPENDIMOCITO: reviste los ventrículos  *CÉLULAS DE SCHWANN: rodean los axones del sistema nervioso periférico, forman mielina. * Recuperado de http://mural.uv.es/monavi/disco/segundo/histologia/Tema31.pdf http://blogdefarmacia.com/wp- content/uploads/Consejos-para-prevenir-la- degeneraci%C3%B3n-de-las-neuronas.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 7

8. 8. NEURONA * Según Bustamante (2007, pp. 53-57) una neurona tiene 4 regiones típicas: cuerpo, dendritas, axón y terminal presináptico. * El cuerpo contiene el núcleo y es el centro metabólico. De aquí salen proyecciones cortas (dendritas) y una larga (axón). * Del cuerpo al axón viaja el impulso nervioso a puntos específicos de otras neuronas. http://www.bsasinforma.com/wp- content/uploads/2015/03/neuronas-cerebro.jpg https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRLy_TIj- cMDrCPZMBUT7TwHkvPDYMfsmczjT1K4XEBgY2JT1MEmw FANNY JEM WONG 8

9. 9. NEURONA * Bustamante, E. (2007). El sistema nervioso: desde la neurona hasta el cerebro humano. 1° ed. Editorial Universidad de Antioquía: Colombia. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.pe/books? id=e- Mja7NYJj0C&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=caracter%C3%ADsticas +de+las+neuronas&source=bl&ots=DR0k6g0- 2N&sig=obgeDlMw3Yu5ZM3nEPnR6PV6TVU&hl=es&sa=X&ve d=0ahUKEwiPvo7i28_LAhWIbSYKHbmuCQk4ChDoAQhPMAk# v=onepage&q=caracter%C3%ADsticas%20de%20las%20neuro nas&f=false http://omicrono.elespanol.com/wp- content/uploads/2012/06/neuronas-e1340059220717.jpg http://www.bioblogia.com/wp- content/uploads/2013/11/Genomas-neuronas.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 9

10. 10. NEURONA Recuperado de http://www.youbioit.com/es/article/20070/estructura-de-una-neurona-tipica FANNY JEM WONG 10

11. 11. NEURONA  Neurona motora de rata marcada con fluorescencia verde.  Todas las neuronas tienen ramificaciones parecidas a las que se muestran en esta foto, por medio de las cuales la neurona puede contactar a otras neuronas o músculos.  La forma y tamaño de estas ramificaciones cambian de neurona a neurona, e incluso en la misma neurona, a lo largo de su vida. Foto tomada con microscopía laser confocal; tinción con anticuerpos contra tubulina en neuronas cultivadas in vitro. Foto: Natalia Kupferschmidt Recuperado de http://www.iibce.edu.uy/BNEURO/galeria.htm FANNY JEM WONG 11

12. 12. TRANSMISIÓN NERVIOSA Es la transmisión del impulso nervioso por una neurona y desde ella a otra neurona. Recuperado de http://tusistemanervioso.blogspot.pe/2008/02/transmisin-del-impulso-nervioso.html FANNY JEM WONG 12

13. 13. IMPULSO NERVIOSO * Es la "corriente eléctrica" o "despolarización" que viaja por la neurona. * Conceptos básicos: potencial de membrana, potencial de acción, polarización, despolarización y repolarización. * A.-POTENCIAL DE MEMBRANA: según Lamas (2005) es la "presencia de canales iónicos o poros que permiten el pasaje de iones en función de su concentración"* http://www.abc.es/Media/201510/09/neuronas-cell- 1%20copia--478x270.jpg https://encrypted- tbn3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQOB6nuaiv5YP4L 8_-Zy8NuaQWk3iGvCH9tLBJHpsE2zpehJyz4-g FANNY JEM WONG 13

14. 14. TRANSPORTE A TRAVÉS DE LA MEMBRANA Recuperado de http://membranascelulares.blogspot.pe/2011/04/tipo-de-transportes-de-la-membrana.html FANNY JEM WONG 14

15. 15. Lamas (2005) refiere también que hay gran cantidad de aniones en el intracelular: "Es también importante la gran cantidad de aniones orgánicos intracelulares que no pueden atravesar la membrana, principalmente proteínas con carga negativa atrapadas en el citoplasma". *Lamas, J. (2005). Evolución del concepto de potencial de reposo neuronal. Aspectos básicos y clínicos. Revista de Neurología. 41(9):538-549. Recuperado de http://www.neurologia.com/pdf/web/4109/t090538.pdf Imagen recuperada de http://biologia.cubaeduca.cu/medias/interactividades/membrana/co/modulo_Raiz_11.html FANNY JEM WONG 15

16. 16. IMPULSO NERVIOSO  Añade Lamas (2005), que las diferencias de concentración afectan aiones de gran importancia biológica como sodio, potasio, cloro y calcio.  Todos estos factores y algunos más hacen que las membranas de las células excitables funcionen como pequeñas pilas con unas decenas de milivoltios; el polo negativo sería el interior celular y el polo positivo el líquido extracelular. Lamas, J. (2005). Evolución del concepto de potencial de reposo neuronal. Aspectos básicos y clínicos. Revista de Neurología. 41(9):538-549. Recuperado de http://www.neurologia.com/pdf/web/4109/t090538.pdf http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_0tQgZRyZ44U/R67o41ue nbI/AAAAAAAAAA0/sqZrL0ECzTw/S760/TRANSMISI %C3%93N+DEL+IMPULSO+NERVIOSO.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 16

17. 17. MEMBRANA NEURONAL CON EL POLO POSITIVO Y NEGATIVO Recuperado de http://cienciasdejoseleg.blogspot.pe/2015/05/potenciales-electricos-neuronales.html FANNY JEM WONG 17

18. 18. POTENCIAL DE ACCIÓN: * Según Snell (2010, citado por Gutiérrez, Iparraguirre y Manrique, 2015, p. 63)**, es el impulso nervioso que se propaga a través de una fibra nerviosa. * *Ver el link: http://www.mhhe.com/sem/Spanish_Animations/sp_action_pot ential.swf * **Gutiérrez, A., Iparraguirre, N., Manrique, C. (2015). Bases biológicas del comportamiento humano. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad César Vallejo. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thum b/1/1c/Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_es.svg/300px- Complete_neuron_cell_diagram_es.svg.png FANNY JEM WONG 18

19. 19. IMPULSO NERVIOSO Estímulo que origina un potencial de acción o despolarización (impulso nervioso) y se propaga por la fibra nerviosa. Recuperado de http://www.genomasur.com/BCH/BCH_libro/capitulo_09.htm FANNY JEM WONG 19

20. 20. POLARIZACIÓN:  Es el estado de la membrana cuando la carga positiva es externa y la negativa, interna*. Otro concepto es: "...en el exterior de la membrana, la acumulación de iones positivos sea mayor que la de iones negativos .... Por lo tanto se genera a ambos lados de la membrana una distribución de cargas eléctricas, ... En este estado se dice que la neurona tiene un potencial de membrana o que está en reposo, inactiva o polarizada"** http://www.notimundo.com.mx/wp- content/uploads/2016/12/Neuronas.jpg https://lh3.ggpht.com/-krNjMMPwIhs/ULG0g8F- hLI/AAAAAAAAHqo/qNbeSQWyJfU/neuron_thumb%25 255B2%25255D.jpg?imgmax=800 FANNY JEM WONG 20

21. 21. DESPOLARIZACIÓN:  Ante un estímulo, las cargas se invierten; es decir, lo positivo entra y lo negativo sale. Esta inversión de cargas se propaga por la membrana*.  Otro concepto es: "Cuando actúa sobre una neurona un estímulo, éste provoca la permeabilización de la membrana neuronal al sodio, el cual penetra al interior, invirtiéndose la distribución de las cargas. En el lugar donde se invierte el potencial de membrana, se dice que la neurona se ha activado o despolarizado".** http://estaticos.muyinteresante.es/media/cache/320x240_thumb/u ploads/images/article/589481f05cafe823b28b45ac/neuronas.jpg http://cde.3.elcomercio.pe/ima/0/1/1/6/4/1164161/base _image.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 21

22. 22. REPOLARIZACIÓN:  Las cargas se distribuyen como antes; es decir, lo positivo que había entrado, ahora sale. Lo negativo que había salido, ahora entra*.  *Notas realizadas por el Profesor de la Asignatura 'Bases Biológicas del Comportamiento', Andrés Martín Gutiérrez Torres.  **Recuperado de http://www.efn.uncor.edu/departamentos/divbioeco/anatoco m/Biologia/Los%20Sistemas/Nervioso/fisiologianueronal.htm https://okdiario.com/img/2016/10/18/neuronas- muerte-cerebro-b.jpg https://curiosoando.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/11/neurona- corredor.jpg?w=640 FANNY JEM WONG 22

23. 23. SINAPSIS  Al contacto entre dos neuronas se le llama sinapsis.  El axón y la dendrita nunca se tocan.  Siempre hay un espacio o hendidura sináptica. *Recuperado de http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultades/Ciencias/neur obioquimica/libros/neurobioquimica/sinapsis.htm http://monicaivaldi.com/wp- content/uploads/2015/11/clipboard02fbasb.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 23

24. 24. SINAPSIS  Cuando la señal eléctrica llega a un terminal nervioso, hace que la neurona libere neurotransmisores.  Los neurotransmisores son agentes químicos que viajan una corta distancia hasta las dendritas mas próximas. *Recuperado de http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultades/Ciencias/neurobio quimica/libros/neurobioquimica/sinapsis.htm https://encrypted- tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRjOpuTsQ5srD59lfE U8SAzU0tEpG3PX3PgAZyXKY6qVSvilZLO FANNY JEM WONG 24

25. 25. SINAPSIS  A la neurona que libera el neurotransmisor se le llama neurona presináptica.  A la neurona receptora de la señal se le llama neurona postsináptica.  Dependiendo del tipo de neurotransmisor liberado, las neuronas postsinápticas son estimuladas (excitadas) o desestimuladas (inhibidas). * *Recuperado de http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultades/Ciencias/neurobioqu imica/libros/neurobioquimica/sinapsis.htm http://3.bp.blogspot.com/- 3nKnXkDkeRI/TsE68xrN5UI/AAAAAAAAABY/K1rTPvNZZx0/ s320/axooooooooooo.jpg https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTg- 4MGTAcqJ20Rq8py0kHT9ppgjXDOOgx1p3j5FlU6Ulh1pQ0afQ FANNY JEM WONG 25

26. 26. SINAPSIS Recuperado de http://fisiologiajmv-hilda.blogspot.pe/2011/02/sinapsis-quimica-transmisiones-quimicas.html FANNY JEM WONG 26

27. 27. SINAPSIS Comentario 1: sinapsis entre dos neuronas. La neurona presináptica A (parte final del axón A) y la neurona postsináptica B (parte inicial de la dendrita B) *Las tres imágenes son recuperadas de http://www.genomasur.com/BCH/BCH_libro/capitulo_09.htm **Los comentarios 1, 2 y 3 son realizados por el Profesor de la Asignatura 'Bases Biológicas del Comportamiento', Andrés Martín Gutiérrez Torres. FANNY JEM WONG 27

28. 28. SINAPSIS Comentario 2: La misma sinápsis en vista ampliada. El impulso ('esfera' amarilla) está por llegar a ella. Comentario 3: La misma sinápsis en vista ampliada. El impulso llegó y las vesículas se rompen, liberando (exocitosis) neurotransmisores (NT). *Las tres imágenes son recuperadas de http://www.genomasur.com/BCH/BCH_libro/capitulo_09.htm **Los comentarios 1, 2 y 3 son realizados por el Profesor de la Asignatura 'Bases Biológicas del Comportamiento', Andrés Martín Gutiérrez Torres. FANNY JEM WONG 28

29. 29. SINAPSIS Recuperado de http://anatompri.blogspot.pe/2015/11/tejido-nervioso-4.htm l FANNY JEM WONG 29

30. 30. NEUROTRANSMISORES * Según Snell (2010, citado por Gutiérrez et al, 2015, p. 64), los neurotransmisores son sustancias que actúan en la membrana postsináptica. Gutiérrez, A., Iparraguirre, N., Manrique, C. (2015). Bases biológicas del comportamiento humano. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad César Vallejo. https://psicologiaymente.net/media/wBWv/neurotransmis or/default.jpg http://3.bp.blogspot.com/- 9YqLcOq2Wb8/Tqyj8rT4oOI/AAAAAAAAA3Y/EA5cupyRMpk/s1600/neurotransmisor+1.JPG FANNY JEM WONG 30

31. 31. Tipos según Rains (2004, citado por Gutiérrez et al, 2015, pp. 64-65): ACETILCOLINA: entre las neuronas motoras y los músculos. NOREPINEFRINA: excita (estimula) el cuerpo DOPAMINA: se relaciona con el placer y con adicciones. El aumento puede originar síntomas esquizofrénicos. Su déficit puede originar Enfermedad de Parkinson. SEROTONINA: se relaciona con el ánimo y la depresión mental. FANNY JEM WONG 31

32. 32. MOLÉCULAS NEUROTRANSMISORAS En el sistema nervioso de los vertebrados se han identificado nueve pequeñas moléculas positivamente como neurotransmisores: 1. ACETILCOLINA (Ach): Se encontró en la unión entre las neuronas motoras y el músculo, y fue el primer neurotransmisor en ser identificado. 2.GABA (Ácido gama-aminobutírico): Se forma al remover el grupo carboxilo del glutamato. http://www.scielo.org.mx/img/revistas/sm/v35n5/a6f1.jp g FANNY JEM WONG 32

33. 33. MOLÉCULAS NEUROTRANSMISORAS MONOAMINAS: Moléculas que tienen una sola amina (NH2): 3. Dopamina. 4. Epinefrina (Adrenalina). 5. Norepinefrina (Noradrenalina). 6. Serotonina (5HT). https://static1.squarespace.com/static/51ba53a8e4b0 992f13a12a56/t/5305034be4b0fd95c365c511/139283 7452349/Sinapsis02.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 33

34. 34. MOLÉCULAS NEUROTRANSMISORAS AMINOÁCIDOS: 7. Glutamato. 8. Aspartato. 9. Glicina. http://www.psicomag.com/neurobiologia/imagenes/1/ima ge016.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 34

35. 35. 35 NEUROTRANSMISOR LOCALIZACIÓN FUNCIÓN TRANSMISORES PEQUEÑOS ACETILCOLINA Sinapsis con músculos y glándulas; muchas partes del sistema nervioso central (SNC). Excitatorio o inhibitorio. Envuelto en la memoria. AMINAS SEROTONINA Varias regiones del SNC. Mayormente inhibitorio; sueño, envuelto en estados de ánimo y emociones. HISTAMINA Encéfalo. Mayormente excitatorio; envuelto en emociones, regulación de la temperatura y balance de agua. DOPAMINA Encéfalo; sistema nervioso autónomo (SNA). Mayormente inhibitorio; envuelto en emociones/ánimo; regulación del control motor. EPINEFRINA Areas del SNC y división simpática del SNA. Excitatorio o inhibitorio; hormona cuando es producido por la glándula adrenal. NOREPINEFRINA Áreas del SNC y división simpática del SNA. Excitatorio o inhibitorio; regula efectores simpáticos; en el encéfalo envuelve respuestas emocionales. FANNY JEM WONG

36. 36. 36 AMINOÁCIDOS GLUTAMATO SNC. El neurotransmisor excitatorio más abundante (75%) del SNC. GABA Encéfalo. El neurotransmisor inhibitorio más abundante del encéfalo. GLICINA Médula espinal. El neurotransmisor inhibitorio más común de la médula espinal. OTRAS PEQUEÑAS MOLÉCULAS ÓXIDO NÍTRICO Incierto. Pudiera ser una señal de la membrana postsináptica para la presináptica. FANNY JEM WONG

37. 37. BIBLIOGRAFÍA LIBROS: 1.-Bustamante, E. (2007). El sistema nervioso: desde la neurona hasta el cerebro humano. 1° ed. Colombia: Editorial Universidad de Antioquía. Recuperado de https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=e- Mja7NYJj0C&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=caracter%C3%ADsticas+de+las+neuronas&source=bl&ots=DR0k6g0- 2N&sig=obgeDlMw3Yu5ZM3nEPnR6PV6TVU&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiPvo7i28_LAhWIbSYKHbmuCQk4ChDoAQhP MAk#v=onepage&q=caracter%C3%ADsticas%20de%20las%20neuronas&f=false 2.-En la biblioteca de la UCV: Gutiérrez, A., Iparraguirre, N., Manrique, C. (2015). Bases biológicas del comportamiento humano. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad César Vallejo. 3.-Código en biblioteca UCV: 612.8P65. Libro: Pinel, J. (2007). Biopsicología. Madrid, España: Editorial Pearson PÁGINAS ELECTRÓNICAS: 1.-Lamas, J. (2005). Evolución del concepto de potencial de reposo neuronal. Aspectos básicos y clínicos. Revista de Neurología. 41(9):538-549. Recuperado de http://www.neurologia.com/pdf/web/4109/t090538.pdf 2.-http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultades/Ciencias/neurobioquimica/libros/neurobioquimica/sinapsis.htm 3.-http://mural.uv.es/monavi/disco/segundo/histologia/Tema31.pdf 4.-Video de sistema nervioso y neurona. En https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZtbKrdNQGo FANNY JEM WONG 37

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3 BASES BIOLÓGICAS DE LA CONDUCTA : LA NEURONA SINAPSIS

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3. PPT BASES BIOLÓGICAS DE LA CONDUCTA : LA NEURONA TRANSMISIÓN NERVIOSA Y SINAPSIS. NEUROTRANSMISORES PSICOLOGA EDUCACIONAL DOCENTE UNIVERSITARIO 1. FANNY JEM WONG 1 2. CONTENIDO  La neurona, transmisión nerviosa y sinapsis  Neurotransmisores. http://cuadrocomparativo.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/11/neuronaMorfologia-de-la- neurona.jpg http://www.2ti.es/wp-content/uploads/Neuronas-de- dopamina.jpg FANNY JEM WONG 2 3.

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La neurona es un tipo de célula que representa la unidad estructural y funcional del sistema nervioso.
Fuente: ambientech

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LA NEURONA
Célula del sistema nervioso formada por un núcleo y una serie de prolongaciones, una de las cuales es más larga que las demás.
https://www.significados.com/neurona/
Xiomara Mantilla Leyva

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Within a nervous system, a , neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap.

Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and Placozoa. Non-animals like plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the Tonian period. Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system.

Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to the spinal cord or brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to control everything from muscle contractions to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are functionally connected together, they form what is called a neural circuit.

Neurons are special cells which are made up of some structures that are common to all other eukaryotic cells such as the cell body (soma), a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other cellular components. Additionally, neurons have other unique structures such as dendrites, and a single axon. The soma is a compact structure, and the axon and dendrites are filaments extruding from the soma. Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock and travels for as far as 1 meter in humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant diameter. At the farthest tip of the axon's branches are axon terminals, where the neuron can transmit a signal across the synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the cell is undifferentiated.

Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.

The signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes. If the voltage changes by a large enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an all-or-nothing electrochemical pulse called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon and activates synaptic connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, increasing or reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.

In most cases, neurons are generated by neural stem cells during brain development and childhood. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain.

Neurons are the primary components of the nervous system, along with the glial cells that give them structural and metabolic support. The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes the autonomic, enteric and somatic nervous systems. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons belong to the central nervous system, but some reside in peripheral ganglia, and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the retina and cochlea.

Axons may bundle into fascicles that make up the nerves in the peripheral nervous system (like strands of wire make up cables). Bundles of axons in the central nervous system are called tracts.

The is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.

The of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. This is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine.

The is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may-and usually will-undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological terms, it has the most negative threshold potential.
While the axon and axon hillock are generally involved in information outflow, this region can also receive input from other neurons.

The axon terminal is found at the end of the axon farthest from the soma and contains synapses. Synaptic boutons are specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are released to communicate with target neurons. In addition to synaptic boutons at the axon terminal, a neuron may have en passant boutons, which are located along the length of the axon.

The accepted view of the neuron attributes dedicated functions to its various anatomical components; however, dendrites and axons often act in ways contrary to their so-called main function.

Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system are typically only about one micrometer thick, while some in the peripheral nervous system are much thicker. The soma is usually about 10-25 micrometers in diameter and often is not much larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest axon of a human motor neuron can be over a meter long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes.

Sensory neurons can have axons that run from the toes to the posterior column of the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5-1 millimeter thick, several centimeters long).

Fully differentiated neurons are permanently postmitotic however, stem cells present in the adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism (see neurogenesis). Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells. They have been observed to turn into neurons by virtue of their stem cell-like characteristic of pluripotency.

Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipid molecules with many types of protein structures embedded in it. A lipid bilayer is a powerful electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of the membrane to the other. Most ion channels are permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the extracellular fluid. The ion materials include sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. The interactions between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically a bit less than 1/10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power source for an assortment of voltage-dependent protein machinery that is embedded in the membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of the membrane.

Numerous microscopic clumps called Nissl bodies (or Nissl substance) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with a basophilic ("base-loving") dye. These structures consist of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal RNA. Named after German psychiatrist and neuropathologist Franz Nissl (1860-1919), they are involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically active. Basophilic dyes such as aniline or (weakly) haematoxylin highlight negatively charged components, and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal RNA.

The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which together with neurotubules (neuronal microtubules) are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Class III β-tubulin is found almost exclusively in neurons. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule.

There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons almost never contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts as the distance from the cell body increases.

Image of pyramidal neurons in mouse cerebral cortex expressing green fluorescent protein. The red staining indicates GABAergic interneurons.[17]

SMI32-stained pyramidal neurons in cerebral cortex

Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.[citation needed ]

Different kinds of neurons:
1 Unipolar neuron
2 Bipolar neuron
3 Multipolar neuron
4 Pseudounipolar neuron

Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:

Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites are receiving sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in a ganglion. The axon projects from the dendrite endings, past the cell body in a ganglion, and into the central nervous system.

Bipolar: 1 axon and 1 dendrite. They are found mainly in the olfactory epithelium, and as part of the retina.

Multipolar: 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites

Golgi I: neurons with long-projecting axonal processes; examples are pyramidal cells, Purkinje cells, and anterior horn cells

Golgi II: neurons whose axonal process projects locally; the best example is the granule cell

Anaxonic: where the axon cannot be distinguished from the dendrite(s)

Pseudounipolar: 1 process which then serves as both an axon and a dendrite

Some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system and distinct shape. Some examples are:[citation needed ]

Basket cells, interneurons that form a dense plexus of terminals around the soma of target cells, found in the cortex and cerebellum

Betz cells, large motor neurons

Lugaro cells, interneurons of the cerebellum

Medium spiny neurons, most neurons in the corpus striatum

Purkinje cells, huge neurons in the cerebellum, a type of Golgi I multipolar neuron

Pyramidal cells, neurons with triangular soma, a type of Golgi I

Rosehip cells, unique human inhibitory neurons that interconnect with Pyramidal cells

Renshaw cells, neurons with both ends linked to alpha motor neurons

Unipolar brush cells, interneurons with unique dendrite ending in a brush-like tuft

Granule cells, a type of Golgi II neuron

Anterior horn cells, motoneurons located in the spinal cord

Spindle cells, interneurons that connect widely separated areas of the brain

Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system and are also called sensory neurons.

Efferent neurons (motor neurons) transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells.

Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system.

Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that, respectively, bring information to or send information from the brain.

A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors. The effect upon the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the type of receptor that is activated, not by the presynaptic neuron or by the neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter can be thought of as a key, and a receptor as a lock: the same neurotransmitter can activate multiple types of receptors. Receptors can be classified broadly as excitatory (causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a decrease in firing rate), or modulatory (causing long-lasting effects not directly related to firing rate).[citation needed ]

The two most common (90%+) neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate and GABA, have largely consistent actions. Glutamate acts on several types of receptors, and has effects that are excitatory at ionotropic receptors and a modulatory effect at metabotropic receptors. Similarly, GABA acts on several types of receptors, but all of them have inhibitory effects (in adult animals, at least). Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to refer to cells that release glutamate as "excitatory neurons", and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons". Some other types of neurons have consistent effects, for example, "excitatory" motor neurons in the spinal cord that release acetylcholine, and "inhibitory" spinal neurons that release glycine.[citation needed ]

The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute. Rather, it depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets, inhibitory effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example, photoreceptor cells in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So-called OFF bipolar cells are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However, neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because they lack typical ionotropic glutamate receptors and instead express a class of inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors. When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them.[citation needed ]

It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron will have on a postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic neuron expresses. Parvalbumin-expressing neurons typically dampen the output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the visual cortex, whereas somatostatin-expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the postsynaptic neuron.

Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic transmembrane voltage oscillatory patterns. So neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological characteristics:

Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (tonically) active, typically firing at a constant frequency. Example: interneurons in neurostriatum.

Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.

Fast-spiking. Some neurons are notable for their high firing rates, for example some types of cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus pallidus, retinal ganglion cells.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers passed from one neuron to another neuron or to a muscle cell or gland cell.

Cholinergic neurons - acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing influx of depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A.

Adrenergic neurons - noradrenaline. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is released from most postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system onto two sets of GPCRs: alpha adrenoceptors and beta adrenoceptors. Noradrenaline is one of the three common catecholamine neurotransmitter, and the most prevalent of them in the peripheral nervous system; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesised from tyrosine.

GABAergic neurons - gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an action potential firing as the voltage becomes more negative (for an action potential to fire, a positive voltage threshold must be reached). GABA is synthesized from glutamate neurotransmitters by the enzyme glutamate decarboxylase.

Glutamatergic neurons - glutamate. Glutamate is one of two primary excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters, along with aspartate. Glutamate receptors are one of four categories, three of which are ligand-gated ion channels and one of which is a G-protein coupled receptor (often referred to as GPCR).

1. AMPA and Kainate receptors function as cation channels permeable to Na⁺ cation channels mediating fast excitatory synaptic transmission.

2. NMDA receptors are another cation channel that is more permeable to . The function of NMDA receptors depend on glycine receptor binding as a co-agonist within the channel pore. NMDA receptors do not function without both ligands present.

3. Metabotropic receptors, GPCRs modulate synaptic transmission and postsynaptic excitability.

Glutamate can cause excitotoxicity when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, resulting in brain damage. When blood flow is suppressed, glutamate is released from presynaptic neurons, causing greater NMDA and AMPA receptor activation than normal outside of stress conditions, leading to elevated Ca²⁺ and Na⁺ entering the post synaptic neuron and cell damage. Glutamate is synthesized from the amino acid glutamine by the enzyme glutamate synthase.

Dopaminergic neurons-dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that acts on D1 type (D1 and D5) Gs-coupled receptors, which increase cAMP and PKA, and D2 type (D2, D3, and D4) receptors, which activate Gi-coupled receptors that decrease cAMP and PKA. Dopamine is connected to mood and behavior and modulates both pre- and post-synaptic neurotransmission. Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra has been linked to Parkinson's disease. Dopamine is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyrosine is catalyzed into levodopa (or L-DOPA) by tyrosine hydroxlase, and levodopa is then converted into dopamine by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase.

Serotonergic neurons-serotonin. Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) can act as excitatory or inhibitory. Of its four 5-HT receptor classes, 3 are GPCR and 1 is a ligand-gated cation channel. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase, and then further by decarboxylase. A lack of 5-HT at postsynaptic neurons has been linked to depression. Drugs that block the presynaptic serotonin transporter are used for treatment, such as Prozac and Zoloft.

Purinergic neurons-ATP. ATP is a neurotransmitter acting at both ligand-gated ion channels (P2X receptors) and GPCRs (P2Y) receptors. ATP is, however, best known as a cotransmitter. Such purinergic signalling can also be mediated by other purines like adenosine, which particularly acts at P2Y receptors.

Histaminergic neurons-histamine. Histamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. Histamine-producing neurons are found in the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus. Histamine is involved in arousal and regulating sleep/wake behaviors.

Since 2012 there has been a push from the cellular and computational neuroscience community to come up with a universal classification of neurons that will apply to all neurons in the brain as well as across species. This is done by considering the three essential qualities of all neurons: electrophysiology, morphology, and the individual transcriptome of the cells. Besides being universal this classification has the advantage of being able to classify astrocytes as well. A method called patch-sequencing in which all three qualities can be measured at once is used extensively by the Allen Institute for Brain Science. In 2023, a comprehensive cell atlas of the adult, and developing human brain at the transcriptional, epigenetic, and functional levels was created through an international collaboration of researchers using the most cutting-edge molecular biology approaches.

Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where either the axon terminal of one cell contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses.

When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support continuous neurotransmission.

An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its own dendrites.

The human brain has some 8.6 x 10 ¹⁰ (eighty six billion) neurons. Each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a three-year-old child has about 10 ¹⁵ synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 10 ¹⁴ to 5 x 10 ¹⁴ synapses (100 to 500 trillion).

Beyond electrical and chemical signaling, studies suggest neurons in healthy human brains can also communicate through:

force generated by the enlargement of dendritic spines

the transfer of proteins - transneuronally transported proteins (TNTPs)

They can also get modulated by input from the environment and hormones released from other parts of the organism, which could be influenced more or less directly by neurons. This also applies to neurotrophins such as BDNF. The gut microbiome is also connected with the brain. Neurons also communicate with microglia, the brain's main immune cells via specialised contact sites, called "somatic junctions". These connections enable microglia to constantly monitor and regulate neuronal functions, and exert neuroprotection, when needed.

In 1937 John Zachary Young suggested that the squid giant axon could be used to study neuronal electrical properties. It is larger than but similar to human neurons, making it easier to study. By inserting electrodes into the squid giant axons, accurate measurements were made of the membrane potential.

The cell membrane of the axon and soma contain voltage-gated ion channels that allow the neuron to generate and propagate an electrical signal (an action potential). Some neurons also generate subthreshold membrane potential oscillations. These signals are generated and propagated by charge-carrying ions including sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), chloride (Cl −), and calcium (Ca²⁺).

Several stimuli can activate a neuron leading to electrical activity, including pressure, stretch, chemical transmitters, and changes of the electric potential across the cell membrane. Stimuli cause specific ion-channels within the cell membrane to open, leading to a flow of ions through the cell membrane, changing the membrane potential. Neurons must maintain the specific electrical properties that define their neuron type.

Thin neurons and axons require less metabolic expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel faster than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed nodes of Ranvier, which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels. Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system.

Some neurons do not generate action potentials, but instead generate a graded electrical signal, which in turn causes graded neurotransmitter release. Such non-spiking neurons tend to be sensory neurons or interneurons, because they cannot carry signals long distances.

Neural coding is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses, and the relationships among the electrical activities of the neurons within the ensemble. It is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information.

As long as the stimulus reaches the threshold, the full response would be given. Larger stimulus does not result in a larger response, vice versa.[44]: 31

The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a stronger signal, but can increase firing frequency. Receptors respond in different ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors most often respond to increased intensity of stimulus by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires more photons, as the photons can not become "stronger" for a specific frequency.

Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with steady stimulus; examples include skin which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function.

The German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer introduced the term neuron in 1891, based on the ancient Greek νεῦρον neuron 'sinew, cord, nerve'.

The word was adopted in French with the spelling neurone. That spelling was also used by many writers in English, but has now become rare in American usage and uncommon in British usage.

Drawing by Camillo Golgi of a hippocampus stained using the silver nitrate method

Drawing of a Purkinje cell in the cerebellar cortex done by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, demonstrating the ability of Golgi's staining method to reveal fine detail

To make the structure of individual neurons visible, Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process that had been developed by Camillo Golgi. The improved process involves a technique called "double impregnation" and is still in use.

In 1888 Ramón y Cajal published a paper about the bird cerebellum. In this paper, he stated that he could not find evidence for anastomosis between axons and dendrites and called each nervous element "an absolutely autonomous canton." This became known as the neuron doctrine, one of the central tenets of modern neuroscience.

In 1891, the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer wrote a highly influential review of the neuron doctrine in which he introduced the term neuron to describe the anatomical and physiological unit of the nervous system.

Drawing of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum, by Spanish neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1899. (A) denotes Purkinje cells and (B) denotes granule cells, both of which are multipolar.

The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting as metabolically distinct units.

Later discoveries yielded refinements to the doctrine. For example, glial cells, which are non-neuronal, play an essential role in information processing. Also, electrical synapses are more common than previously thought, comprising direct, cytoplasmic connections between neurons. In fact, neurons can form even tighter couplings: the squid giant axon arises from the fusion of multiple axons.

Ramón y Cajal also postulated the Law of Dynamic Polarization, which states that a neuron receives signals at its dendrites and cell body and transmits them, as action potentials, along the axon in one direction: away from the cell body. The Law of Dynamic Polarization has important exceptions; dendrites can serve as synaptic output sites of neurons and axons can receive synaptic inputs.

Although neurons are often described of as "fundamental units" of the brain, they perform internal computations. Neurons integrate input within dendrites, and this complexity is lost in models that assume neurons to be a fundamental unit. Dendritic branches can be modeled as spatial compartments, whose activity is related due to passive membrane properties, but may also be different depending on input from synapses. Compartmental modelling of dendrites is especially helpful for understanding the behavior of neurons that are too small to record with electrodes, as is the case for Drosophila melanogaster.

The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10-20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55-70 billion neurons in the cerebellum. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves ( neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, affecting 36 in 100,000 people.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes. The most striking early symptom is loss of short-term memory ( amnesia), which usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that becomes steadily more pronounced with illness progression, with relative preservation of older memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains of language ( aphasia), skilled movements ( apraxia), and recognition ( agnosia), and functions such as decision-making and planning become impaired.

Parkinson's disease (PD), also known as Parkinsons, is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs motor skills and speech. Parkinson's disease belongs to a group of conditions called movement disorders. It is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, a slowing of physical movement ( bradykinesia), and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement ( akinesia). The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by the basal ganglia, normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which is produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain. Secondary symptoms may include high level cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. PD is both chronic and progressive.

Myasthenia gravis is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigability during simple activities. Weakness is typically caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the post-synaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated with immunosuppressants, cholinesterase inhibitors and, in selected cases, thymectomy.

Guillain-Barré syndrome - demyelination

Demyelination is a process characterized by the gradual loss of the myelin sheath enveloping nerve fibers. When myelin deteriorates, signal conduction along nerves can be significantly impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. Demyelination may affect both central and peripheral nervous systems, contributing to various neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. Although demyelination is often caused by an autoimmune reaction, it may also be caused by viral infections, metabolic disorders, trauma, and some medications.

Although most injury responses include a calcium influx signaling to promote resealing of severed parts, axonal injuries initially lead to acute axonal degeneration, which is the rapid separation of the proximal and distal ends, occurring within 30 minutes of injury. Degeneration follows with swelling of the axolemma, and eventually leads to bead-like formation. Granular disintegration of the axonal cytoskeleton and inner organelles occurs after axolemma degradation. Early changes include accumulation of mitochondria in the paranodal regions at the site of injury. Endoplasmic reticulum degrades and mitochondria swell up and eventually disintegrate. The disintegration is dependent on ubiquitin and calpain proteases (caused by the influx of calcium ion), suggesting that axonal degeneration is an active process that produces complete fragmentation. The process takes about roughly 24 hours in the PNS and longer in the CNS. The signaling pathways leading to axolemma degeneration are unknown.

Neurons are born through the process of neurogenesis, in which neural stem cells divide to produce differentiated neurons. Once fully differentiated neurons are formed, they are no longer capable of undergoing mitosis. Neurogenesis primarily occurs in the embryo of most organisms.

Adult neurogenesis can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells, and that the vast majority of neurons in the neocortex forms before birth and persists without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis exists in humans, and its contribution to cognition are controversial, with conflicting reports published in 2018.

During neurogenesis in the mammalian brain, progenitor and stem cells progress from proliferative divisions to differentiative divisions. This progression leads to the neurons and glia that populate cortical layers. Epigenetic modifications play a key role in regulating gene expression in differentiating neural stem cells, and are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain. Epigenetic modifications include DNA cytosine methylation to form 5-methylcytosine and 5-methylcytosine demethylation. These modifications are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain. DNA cytosine methylation is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Methylcytosine demethylation is catalyzed in several stages by TET enzymes that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g. 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine) and enzymes of the DNA base excision repair (BER) pathway.

At different stages of mammalian nervous system development two DNA repair processes are employed in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. These pathways are homologous recombinational repair used in proliferating neural precursor cells, and non-homologous end joining used mainly at later developmental stages

Peripheral axons can regrow if they are severed, but one neuron cannot be functionally replaced by one of another type ( Llinás' law).

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28. ^ "Whonamedit - dictionary of medical eponyms". www.whonamedit.com. Today, Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz is remembered as the founder of the neurone theory, coining the term "neurone" to describe the cellular function unit of the nervous system and enunciating and clarifying that concept in 1891.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Within a nervous system, a , neurone, or nerve cell is an electrically excitable cell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap.

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El cerebro está formado por neuronas y células gliales, las relacion entre estos dos tipos de células es fundamental para mantener la homeostasis cerebral.

http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-47052004000100008

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http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-47052004000100008

# data[].attributes.body
Son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Qué son las neuronas - El diccionario del cerebro

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Las neuronas cumplen el rol de mensajeras y comunicadoras del organismo. Son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos a otras células del cuerpo, como las musculares, y generar el movimiento; de percibir y comunicar estímulos externos y convertirlos en una reacción organizada, como ante el frío, el calor, el peligro, etc.; o de mantener un mensaje andando en una red neuronal, permitiendo así el almacenamiento de información en la memoria. https://concepto.de/neurona/#ixzz6sa4MS54Y 

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas cumplen el rol de mensajeras y comunicadoras del organismo. Son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos a otras células del cuerpo, como las musculares, y generar el movimiento; de percibir y comunicar estímulos externos y convertirlos en una reacción organizada, como ante el frío, el calor, el peligro, etc.; o de mantener un mensaje andando en una red neuronal, permitiendo así el almacenamiento de información en la memoria. https://concepto.de/neurona/#ixzz6sa4MS54Y 

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(Mario Alberto Muñoz Caycho)

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Las neuronas comunican información desde el cuerpo hacia otras parte

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Pixelon - Vídeo recreación de Neuronas - 3D

# data[].attributes.headline
Las neuronas son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo. 

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Existen varias tipologías de neuronas, dependiendo de:
pueden ser poliédricas, fusiformes, entrilladlas, esféricas o piramidales.
su función, como motoras, sensoriales, interneuronales
su polaridad, es decir, del número y disposición de sus terminaciones eléctricas.

# data[].attributes.headline
Las neuronas son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo.

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo.

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Daphne Solano Arroyo

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Las neuronas son células altamente especializadas y morfológicamente pueden ser divididas en cuatro regiones: el cuerpo celular o soma que es el centro metabólico de la célula; las dendritas, estructuras ramificadas que reciben señales de otras células; el axón, que se extiende a partir del soma de la célula nerviosa y que conduce la información a otras neuronas, por último las terminales presinápticas que constituyen la región de la neurona que permite la comunicación con otras neuronas a través de estructuras especializadas llamadas sinápsis.

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INTERACCIÓN ENTRE LAS CÉLULAS GLIALES Y NEURONALES Y SU PAPEL EN LA MUERTE Y SOBREVIVENCIA NEURONAL

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Similares en SciELO Arch Neurocien 2004; Vol. 9(1):39-46 ARTICULO DE REVISIÓN INTERACCIÓN ENTRE LAS CÉLULAS GLIALES Y NEURONALES Y SU PAPEL EN LA MUERTE Y SOBREVIVENCIA NEURONAL Departamento de Neurociencias, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Correspondencia: Octavio García. Instituto de Fisiología Celular, UNAM. AP. 70253, 04510 México, D.F.

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Tienen la capacidad de realizar las tres funciones vitales: nutrición, relación y reproducción

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Tienen la capacidad de realizar las tres funciones vitales: nutrición, relación y reproducción

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https://www.hiru.eus/es/biologia/la-celula-estructura-y-funcion

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¿Qué son las neuronas? | Barcelona Brain Health Initiative (BBHI)

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Las neuronas tienen la capacidad de comunicarse con precisión, rapidez y a larga distancia con otras células, ya sean nerviosas, musculares o glandulares. A través de las neuronas se transmiten señales eléctricas denominadas impulsos nerviosos.

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas tienen la capacidad de comunicarse con precisión, rapidez y a larga distancia con otras células, ya sean nerviosas, musculares o glandulares. A través de las neuronas se transmiten señales eléctricas denominadas impulsos nerviosos.

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La neurona es la célula fundamental se encarga de prosesar y transmitir información a través de todo el sistema nervioso

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Las neuronas son las células más importantes, ya que son responsables de la transmisión de impulsos eléctricos a través del proceso de sinapsis, lo que constituye el principio del funcionamiento del cerebro. Neurona viene del griego "neûron", que significa nervio.

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas son las células más importantes, ya que son responsables de la transmisión de impulsos eléctricos a través del proceso de sinapsis, lo que constituye el principio del funcionamiento del cerebro. Neurona viene del griego "neûron", que significa nervio.

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son celulas nerviosas individuales que no llegan a tocarse por el espacio sináptico, pero se comuncan entre si mediante impulsos eléctricos que luego se convertiran en impulsos químicos llevando el mensaje.

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La neurona es la célula principal del sistema nervioso. Tiene la capacidad de responder a los estímulos generando un impulso nervioso que se transmite a otra neurona, a un músculo o a una glándula.  Existen multitud de tipos de neuronas, que se diferencian por su forma o tamaño.
La base celular y físico-química del impulso y transmisión de la señal nerviosa.

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Las neuronas tienen la capacidad de comunicarse con precisión, rapidez y a larga distancia con otras células, ya sean nerviosas, musculares o glandulares.

# data[].attributes.subject
Las neuronas tienen la capacidad de comunicarse con precisión, rapidez y a larga distancia con otras células, ya sean nerviosas, musculares o glandulares.

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El cerebro de los mamíferos está constituido principalmente por dos clases de células: las neuronas y las células gliales. Se estima que el cerebro humano contiene más de 100 mil millones de neuronas mientras que el número de células gliales supera entre 5 y 10 veces a la población neuronal¹ . Durante mucho tiempo se pensó que el papel de las células gliales estaba limitado al mantenimiento de la citoarquitectura del cerebro. Sin embargo, en las últimas décadas se ha demostrado que las células gliales establecen una estrecha relación con las neuronas a través de sistemas denominados neurogliales, que se encargan de mantener la homeostasis cerebral.

http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0187-47052004000100008

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Las neuronas pueden ser sensoriales, motoras o interneuronas

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Las neuronas pueden ser sensoriales, motoras o interneuronas

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Motoras: Son las encargadas de producir la contracción de la musculatura.

Sensoriales: Reciben información del exterior, ej. tacto, gusto, visión y la trasladan al sistema nervioso central.

Interneuronas: Se encargan de conectar entre las dos diferentes neuronas

Neurona - Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre

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Taringa! - Inteligencia Colectiva en Taringa!

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¡Bienvenido a la comunidad de Taringa! Descubrí y compartí información, videos, imágenes y memes en nuestra plataforma ¡Te esperamos!

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Sinapsis y funcionamiento de las neuronas

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Sinapsis y funcionamiento de las neuronas

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Las dos primeras funciones neuronales, recibir y procesar la información recibida, generalmente ocurren en las dendritas y el cuerpo celular. Reciben muchas señales en todas sus ramificaciones dendríticas. Una sola neurona puede tener más de un conjunto de dendritas y puede recibir varios miles de señales.

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Las dos primeras funciones neuronales, recibir y procesar la información recibida, generalmente ocurren en las dendritas y el cuerpo celular. Reciben muchas señales en todas sus ramificaciones dendríticas. Una sola neurona puede tener más de un conjunto de dendritas y puede recibir varios miles de señales.

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https://es.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/overview-of-neuron-structure-and-function

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Es la celula que compone el sistema nerviosos

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Es la celula que compone el sistema nerviosos

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ESTRUCTURA DE UNA NEURONA
https://www.significados.com/neurona/

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Son las células funcionales del tejido nervioso. Ellas se interconectan formando redes de comunicación que transmiten señales por zonas definidas del sistema nervioso .
http://depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/NEURONASYNEUROTRANSMISORES_1118.pdf

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Núcleo
Cuerpo celular
Dendritas

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Su función consiste en transmitir información a través de impulsos nerviosos, desde un lugar del cuerpo hacia otro. Estos impulsos nerviosos son impulsos químicos y eléctricos.

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Su función consiste en transmitir información a través de impulsos nerviosos, desde un lugar del cuerpo hacia otro. Estos impulsos nerviosos son impulsos químicos y eléctricos.

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Tipo de neurona: neuronas motoras, neuronas sensoriales, neuronas interneuronales

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Son diminutas células encargadas de participar en las funciones relacionadas con el sistema nervioso.
https://www.cognifit.com/es/neuronas

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son las células más características y estudiadas del sistema nervioso. Se componen de tres partes: las dendritas, situadas en torno al citoplasma; el cuerpo celular o soma, y el axón.
http://www3.uah.es/bioquimica/Tejedor/bioquimica_ambiental/tema12/tema%2012-estructura-neurona.htm

# data[].attributes.body
Las neuronas son las células más características y estudiadas del sistema nervioso. Se componen de tres partes: las dendritas, situadas en torno al citoplasma; el cuerpo celular o soma, y el axón.

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Se conoce como neurona (del griego neûron, “cuerva” o “nervio”) a un tipo altamente especializado de célula, que compone el sistema nervioso, encargado de controlar las funciones voluntarias e involuntarias del organismo.

Fuente: https://concepto.de/neurona/#ixzz6sa3wCle2

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Son células especiales del sistema nervioso .
Pueden percibir estímulos (irritabilidad)  y trasmisión al sistema nervioso para producir una respuesta (en un musculo o en una glándula) Casi ninguna puede dividirse.

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La función principal de la neurona es la transmisión de mensajes en forma de impulsos nerviosos hacia otras células, lo cual se traduce en “instrucciones” para el organismo.

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La neurona  se caracterizan por su excitabilidad eléctrica, lo cual se traduce en la capacidad para conducir impulsos nerviosos a lo largo de la inmensa red del sistema nervioso, transmitiéndolos además a otras células, como las musculares.

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La neurona  se caracterizan por su excitabilidad eléctrica, lo cual se traduce en la capacidad para conducir impulsos nerviosos a lo largo de la inmensa red del sistema nervioso, transmitiéndolos además a otras células, como las musculares.

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Neurona - Concepto, funciones, tipos y estructura

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La neurona

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Componente principal del sistema nervioso

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PARTES DE LA NEURONA La neurona está formada por una estructura cuyas partes principales son el núcleo, el cuerpo celular y las dendritas. Entre estas existen numerosas conexiones gracias a sus axones, es decir sus pequeñas ramificaciones. 

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PARTES DE LA NEURONA La neurona está formada por una estructura cuyas partes principales son el núcleo, el cuerpo celular y las dendritas. Entre estas existen numerosas conexiones gracias a sus axones, es decir sus pequeñas ramificaciones. 

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Las neuronas son las células específicas del sistema nervioso, que son capaces de transmitir impulsos nerviosos o las demás células del cuerpo.

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La neurona es la unidad mas básica  también es la base del todo el sistema nervioso.

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La neurona es la unidad mas básica  también es la base del todo el sistema nervioso.

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Son diminutas células encargadas de participar en las funciones relacionadas con el sistema nervioso.
A lo largo del día, perdemos y regeneramos neuronas constantemente. Mediante los procesos de regeneración que lleva una neurona, se generan nuevas conexiones, y esto provoca el proceso llamado neurogénesis, que da lugar al nacimiento de nuevas a lo largo de la vida de la persona.
https://www.cognifit.com/es/neuronas

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Es la unidad de función del cerebro.

Alumno: Jesús Edman Quesquén Huamán

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La neurona es la célula fundamental del Sistema Nervioso y transmite impulsos nerviosos, captando y transmitiendo información a nuestro cuerpo. Una parte de este espacio que separa a las neuronas son llamados espacios sinápticos, que son los puntos por los que estas células nerviosas se pasan información mediante unas sustancias llamadas neurotransmisores.

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La neurona es la célula fundamental del Sistema Nervioso y transmite impulsos nerviosos, captando y transmitiendo información a nuestro cuerpo. Una parte de este espacio que separa a las neuronas son llamados espacios sinápticos, que son los puntos por los que estas células nerviosas se pasan información mediante unas sustancias llamadas neurotransmisores.

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Tiene la primordial capacidad de comunicarse con rapidez a largas distancias. 

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Tiene la primordial capacidad de comunicarse con rapidez a largas distancias. 

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Mandan señales nerviosas que se le denomina impulsos nerviosos

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LA NEURONA: Clasificación, estructura y funciones

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LA NEURONA: Clasificación, estructura y funciones

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LA NEURONA: Clasificación, estructura y funciones