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The alliances will be formed and break within weeks, laws will last about the same time, and while all this chaos is happening, a revolt is forming.

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The Haitian Revolution - The Long Fuse - Extra History - Part 2

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The failed revolutions in 1848 in Italy resulted in the paradigm shift from Manzini's romantic republican nationalism to a more pragmatic and successful nationalism

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Revolutions of 1848 in Italy (Part 4 of 5)

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German Revolution of 1918/1919 and how the spartacists under Liebknecht and Luxemburg tried to take power.

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New Wars and Revolutions - Demobilisation I THE GREAT WAR January 1919

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Emperor Wilhelm II

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The table provides a chronological list of the leaders of Germany from 1871.
Kaisers of the German Empire

*Upon Hindenburg's death in 1934, the powers of the presidency were merged with those of the chancellor.

**Chancellor from 1933 and Führer ("Leader") from 1934.

***East Germany was governed by interim administrations from December 1989 until the two Germanys were reunited in October 1990.

Presidents of the Weimar Republic Leaders of the Third Reich (National Socialist regime) Chancellors of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) First (or General) Secretaries of the Socialist Unity Party of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) Chancellors of the Federal Republic of Germany (reunited Germany)

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Germany - Leaders, Politics, History: The table provides a chronological list of the leaders of Germany from 1871.

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Realism

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Romanticism

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Impressionism

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Lead by Giuseppe Mazzini

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Let's find out more about The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy!

The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were part of the widespread revolutionary wave that swept across Europe. With the rise of new ideas that influenced the reforms in the Papal States, the organised revolts broke out in other parts of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily.

A few small victories were achieved during the revolutions in Italy, but these were outweighed by the general failure to gain independence from foreign rule and drive out the Austrians. Nevertheless, the revolutions paved the way for an Italian unification that would materialise in the succeeding decades.

Overview of the Revolutions of 1848

In 1848 and early 1849, Europe witnessed its most widespread revolutionary wave now often referred to as the Springtime of Nations or the Year of Revolution. The increasingly radical widespread protests affected more than fifty countries with France, the states of the German Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire having the most important revolutions. Whilst the uprisings had no significant coordination among their respective revolutionaries, they were brought about by similar contributing factors such as dissatisfaction with the poor governance and the negligence of the European monarchs towards the people, the emergence of new ideas such as nationalism, liberalism, and socialism in Europe, and the shared desire for reform of the middle and working classes. Most of the revolutions of 1848 generally failed and led to the conservatives regaining power. Nevertheless, they effectively catalysed significant reforms in various European states.

Features of the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy

At the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848, Italy had separate kingdoms, duchies and states and was fragmented under foreign dominance: the Austrians in the north and the Bourbons in the south. In central Italy, the Pope personally controlled the Papal States. Like the rest of Europe, Italy suffered from economic depression brought about by crop failures and widespread unemployment. The desire to unify Italy was fueled by new ideas that emerged during the period. These conditions led to the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy.

Aims of the revolutions in Italy

Break away from the conservative leadership of the Austrians

Create a united and independent state

Significant figures of the revolutions

Giuseppe Mazzini: A native of Genoa, he was a key supporter of the Italian unification. He was a writer who founded a republican group known as the Young Italy that helped spread liberalism.

Pope Pius IX: He replaced his conservative predecessor in 1846. He declared amnesty to political prisoners and exiles of the Papal States and presented himself as a liberal pope.

Charles Albert: He was the liberal monarch of Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia, Nice and Savoy. He had the potential and resources to build a strong army to stand up to the Austrians.

Klemens von Metternich: He was the Austrian foreign minister who saw Italian nationalism and liberalism as a threat to the Austrian Empire.

Joseph Radetzky von Radetz: He was the Austrian general commissioned to lead the army against the revolutionaries in Italy.

The upsurge of uprisings in Italy

Inspired by the liberal changes effected in Rome with the election of the new pope, the Revolutions of 1848 in Italy began in Sicily and affected other parts of Italy, particularly the Lombardy-Venetia, Piedmont, Tuscany and the Papal States.

On 12 January 1848, the people in Sicily demanded for a provisional government that was independent of the mainland.

The nobles called for the restoration of the constitution of 1812 including the principle of representative democracy and the centrality of Parliament in the government of the state. These changes were initially resisted by Ferdinand II of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies but were instituted eventually when revolts erupted in Salerno and Naples.

The king unwillingly granted a constitution that provided for an elected chamber of deputies, but placed no limits on the king's power and authority. Whilst the idea of creating a confederation of all the states of Italy was put forward by the Sicilian Parliament, it did not come to fruition that year.

Meanwhile, in the Lombardy city of Milan, an anti-Austrian campaign was launched in early January but was successfully dispersed by Austrian troops led by General Radetzky. With harsher taxes in effect in the region, the protests resurfaced on 18 March when news of the uprising in Vienna and the fall of Klemens von Metternich reached the city.

This became known as the Five Days of Milan. Backed by the clergymen, the people in the city took to the streets, raised barricades and urged the participation of the rural population. With the demonstration of Italian unity, a provisional government of Milan was formed.

Prior to the revolts in Milan, the other rulers in Italy followed in the footsteps of Ferdinand II in granting a constitution. Leopold II of Tuscany promulgated the Tuscan Constitution of 1848 on 17 February, Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia proclaimed the Statuto Albertino on 4 March, and Pope Pius IX conceded The Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church on 14 March.

On the contrary, the Austrian Empire refused to give in to popular pressure and instead, suppressed the opposition in Venice and Milan, as well as the student demonstrations in the university cities of Padua and Pavia. However, the Radetzky-led Austrian army lost nearly all of Lombardy-Venetia a few days after the Five Days of Milan and retreated into the Quadrilateral fortress.

Charles Albert grew popular as many regarded him as the liberal monarch willing to sacrifice power for the good of the people.

Although it was a risky decision, Albert declared war on Austria on 23 March. With many people on his side, he led the attack on Quadrilateral fortress from all sides. He gained more support from his fellow princes who pledged to send reinforcements.

Leopold II, Pope Pius IX and Ferdinand II sent troops to aid the Piedmontese army. This was instrumental in the Austrian defeat and the capture of Peschiera at the Battle of Goito. A few victories were won by the Piedmontese until the tide turned in favour of the Austrians.

Fearing a religious schism between Austria and Rome, the Pope withdrew his troops from the warfront. Tuscany and Naples followed suit. These damaged the position of the revolutionaries of Piedmont and Lombardy, as well as the popularity of Pope in the Papal States. On 9 August, Albert was forced to sign a truce with Austria known as the Salasco armistice. His army abandoned Lombardy, allowing the return of the Austrians to the region.

In the Papal States, Count Pellegrino Rossi was appointed by the Pope in September to oversee the government. His biased reforms cost him his life in November. His death was celebrated by the people in Rome. The Pope managed to flee to Gaeta in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Without a local government in Rome, the leaders called for an Assembly to be elected on universal manhood suffrage. One of the elected people, Giuseppe Mazzini seized upon the opportunity to help create a new Roman Republic and took the office that was offered him in February 1849.

Under Mazzini's influence, taxes were abolished throughout the Papal States, freedom of religion was established and a large contingent of troops were sent to aid Albert in his fight against the Austrian Empire. However, these actions turned out to be counterintuitive for the state: the major source of income was eliminated and Rome was left extremely vulnerable to attack with the lack of sufficient troops at home.

On 12 March 1849, Albert denouncedthe truce with Austria. Although supported by Roman troops, he failed to defend Piedmont against the Austrian army at the Battle of Novara. He abdicated in favour of his eldest son, but the Statuto was preserved.

Following Novara, the Austrians requested the Venetians to surrender. Venice refused and initially attempted to resist the attacks. On 22 August, the city surrendered after suffering from damages and famine. A couple of months before that, the Papal States fell under the power of the French who aimed to restore the Pope, effectively ending the Roman Republic.
Image sources:

1. https://www.kollectium.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/0010116-600x471.jpg

2. https://www.italyonthisday.com/2017/03/the-five-days-of-milan-Risorgimento.html

3. https://alchetron.com/cdn/battle-of-novara-1849-6b545e47-4fa7-479a-9cd2-e8eb04df218-resize-750.jpeg

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The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy Facts, Worksheets & Features

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The Revolutions of 1848 in Italy were part of the widespread revolutionary wave that swept across Europe. With the rise of new ideas that influenced the reforms in the Papal States, the organised revolts broke out in other parts of the Italian Peninsula and Sicily.

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Became the first country to be founded by former slaves. Main leaders: Henry Christophe, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Charles Leclerc

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What was the Haitian Revolution?

Why did the Haitian Revolution start?

How is the Haitian Revolution related to the French Revolution?

Who did the Haitian Revolution involve?

Why is the Haitian Revolution important?

This article was most recently revised and updated by

Haitian Revolution, series of conflicts between 1791 and 1804 between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.

Colonial rule and slavery

The Spanish began to enslave the native Taino and Ciboney people soon after December 1492, when Italian navigator Christopher Columbus sighted the island that he called La Isla Española ("The Spanish Island"; later Anglicized as Hispaniola.) The island's indigenous population, forced to mine for gold, was devastated by European diseases and brutal working conditions, and by the end of the 16th century the people had virtually vanished. Thousands of slaves imported from other Caribbean islands met the same fate.

After the main gold mines were exhausted, the Spanish were succeeded by the French, who established their own permanent settlements, including Port-de-Paix (1665) in the northwest, and the French West Indies Corporation took control of the area. Landowners in western Hispaniola imported increasing numbers of African slaves, who totaled about 5,000 in the late 17th century. By 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution, the estimated population of Saint-Domingue, as the French called their colony, was 556,000 and included roughly 500,000 African slaves, 32,000 European colonists, and 24,000 affranchis (free mulattoes [people of mixed African and European descent] or blacks).

Haitian society was deeply fragmented by skin colour, class, and gender. The affranchis, most of them mulattoes, were sometimes slave owners themselves and aspired to the economic and social levels of the Europeans. They feared and spurned the slave majority but were generally discriminated against by the white European colonists, who were merchants, landowners, overseers, craftsmen, and the like. The aspirations of the affranchis became a major factor in the colony's struggle for independence. A large part of the slave population was African-born, from a number of West African peoples. The vast majority worked in the fields; others were household servants, boilermen (at the sugar mills), and even slave drivers. Slaves endured long, backbreaking workdays and often died from injuries, infections, and tropical diseases. Malnutrition and starvation also were common. Some slaves managed to escape into the mountainous interior, where they became known as Maroons and fought guerrilla battles against colonial militia.

Factional conflict and the rise of Toussaint Louverture

Against this background arose a revolution, beginning as a series of conflicts from the early 1790s. Among the causes of the conflicts were the affranchis' frustrations with a racist society, turmoil created in the colony by the French Revolution, nationalistic rhetoric expressed during Vodou ceremonies, the continuing brutality of slave owners, and wars between European powers. Vincent Ogé, a mulatto who had lobbied the Parisian assembly for colonial reforms, led an uprising in late 1790 but was captured, tortured, and executed.

In May 1791 the French revolutionary government granted citizenship to the wealthier affranchis, but Haiti's European population disregarded the law. Within two months isolated fighting broke out between Europeans and affranchis, and in August thousands of slaves rose in rebellion. The Europeans attempted to appease the mulattoes in order to quell the slave revolt, and the French assembly granted citizenship to all affranchis in April 1792. The country was torn by rival factions, some of which were supported by Spanish colonists in Santo Domingo (on the eastern side of the island, which later became the Dominican Republic) or by British troops from Jamaica. In 1793 a commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, was sent from France to maintain order and offered freedom to slaves who joined his army; he soon abolished slavery altogether, a decision confirmed the following year by the French government.

In the late 1790s Toussaint Louverture, a military leader and former slave, gained control of several areas and earned the initial support of French agents. He gave nominal allegiance to France while pursuing his own political and military designs, which included negotiating with the British. In January 1801 Toussaint conquered Santo Domingo, and in May of that year, he had himself named "governor-general for life." He put the peasants back to work on the plantations under military rule and encouraged many of the French proprietors to return. In December 1801 Napoléon Bonaparte (later Napoleon I), wishing to maintain control of the island, attempted to restore the old regime (and European rule) by sending his brother-in-law, Gen. Charles Leclerc, with an experienced force from Saint-Domingue that included Alexandre Sabès Pétion and several other exiled mulatto officers. Toussaint struggled for several months against Leclerc's forces before agreeing to an armistice in May 1802; however, the French broke the agreement and imprisoned him in France. He died on April 7, 1803.

Independent Haiti

Some of Toussaint's lieutenants-most notably Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe- resumed the war against the French in 1802. They were soon joined by Pétion and other mulatto leaders, who were infuriated by the restoration of the restrictions on their caste. Both the blacks and the mulattoes were enraged by reports that France had reestablished slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique, and the struggle was carried on with great desperation. The French were weakened by an epidemic of yellow fever-Leclerc succumbed to the disease in November 1802-and the conclusion of the Louisiana Purchase in May 1803 signaled Napoleon's intention to withdraw from North America. Less than three weeks later, the French position in Haiti became truly hopeless with the renewal of hostilities between France and Britain on May 18, 1803.

On November 18 the Armée indigène (French: "Indigenous Army") under Dessalines defeated the French at the Battle of Vertières, and French Gen. Jean-Baptiste-Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, surrendered Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien), the last significant French stronghold. Under the terms of the surrender, the French were given 10 days to evacuate, but Rochambeau showed no haste in embarking his troops. Dessalines responded by threatening to turn his cannons on the French ships at anchor in Cap-Français harbour. Ironically, it would fall to the Royal Navy, which had been blockading Saint-Domingue since the resumption of the Napoleonic Wars, to carry out the evacuation. British Capt. John Bligh treated with both Rochambeau and Dessalines, and the French garrison finally departed Cap-Français as British prisoners. While this marked the end of French military action on Haiti, France continued to maintain a presence in the eastern part of the island until 1809.

On January 1, 1804, the entire island was declared independent under the Arawak-derived name of Haiti. Many European powers and their Caribbean surrogates ostracized Haiti, fearing the spread of slave revolts, whereas reaction in the United States was mixed; slave-owning states did all they could to suppress news of the rebellion, but merchants in the free states hoped to trade with Haiti rather than with European powers. More important, nearly the entire population was utterly destitute-a legacy of slavery that has continued to have a profound impact on Haitian history.

In October 1804 Dessalines assumed the title of Emperor Jacques I, but in October 1806 he was killed while trying to suppress a mulatto revolt, and Henry Christophe took control of the kingdom from his capital in the north. Civil war then broke out between Christophe and Sabès Pétion, who was based at Port-au-Prince in the south. Christophe, who declared himself King Henry I in 1811, managed to improve the country's economy but at the cost of forcing former slaves to return to work on the plantations. He built a spectacular palace (Sans Souci) as well as an imposing fortress (La Citadelle Laferrière) in the hills to the south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, where, with mutinous soldiers almost at his door, he committed suicide in 1820. It was not until 1825 that France recognized Haiti's independence, and then only in exchange for a large indemnity of 100 million francs, with a repayment period until 1887.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Michael Ray.

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Haitian Revolution | Causes, Summary, & Facts

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Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), series of conflicts between Haitian slaves, colonists, the armies of the British and French colonizers, and a number of other parties. Through the struggle, the Haitian people ultimately won independence from France and thereby became the first country to be founded by former slaves.