# data[].attributes.body
Cuatro cooperativas artesanales con productos sostenibles y trazables en mercados preferenciales con un sobre precio promedio de 43%

# data[].attributes.headline
Implementación de ocho proyectos de mejoramiento pesquero (FIP).

# data[].attributes.subject
Implementación de ocho proyectos de mejoramiento pesquero (FIP).

# data[].attributes.body
Desarrollamos la capacidad técnica requerida para apoyar la implementación de programas de mejoramiento pesquero (FIP) en ocho pesquerías de pequeña escala en el noroeste de México, generando experiencia y avances concretos en cada una de ellas.

# data[].attributes.headline
Identificación de oportunidades para mejorar la administración pesquera en México, a los efectos de favorecer la sostenibilidad.

# data[].attributes.subject
Identificación de oportunidades para mejorar la administración pesquera en México, a los efectos de favorecer la sostenibilidad.

# data[].attributes.body
A partir del análisis comparativo de los problemas que enfrentan los FIPs en desarrollo en México en el presente, identificamos los aspectos del sistema de administración pesquera que pudieran mejorarse para conducir las pesquerías hacia la sostenibilidad.

# data[].attributes.headline
Publicamos un proyecto de mejora pesquera 

# data[].attributes.subject
Publicamos un proyecto de mejora pesquera 

# data[].attributes.body
(1ro en Mx de carácter multiespecífico). Trabajamos con plan de trabajo formalizado entre varios actores.

# data[].attributes.headline
Generamos un diagnóstico nacional que guía actualmente  la construcción de un Programa Nacional de Fortalecimiento de Organizaciones Pesqueras 

# data[].attributes.subject
Generamos un diagnóstico nacional que guía actualmente  la construcción de un Programa Nacional de Fortalecimiento de Organizaciones Pesqueras 

# data[].attributes.headline
Renovación y modificación de la red de zonas de refugios en el litoral de Baja California Sur (69.66 km2) . Continuamos trabajando por mejorar el manejo del PNAES (incluye zonas núcleo) 

# data[].attributes.subject
Renovación y modificación de la red de zonas de refugios en el litoral de Baja California Sur (69.66 km2) . Continuamos trabajando por mejorar el manejo del PNAES (incluye zonas núcleo) 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Niparajá es una organización de Baja California Sur dedicada a la conservación del patrimonio natural y al desarrollo sustentable de la región

# data[].attributes.headline
Avanzamos en aspectos técnicos para promover concesiones pesqueras multiespecificas en MX

# data[].attributes.subject
Avanzamos en aspectos técnicos para promover concesiones pesqueras multiespecificas en MX

# data[].attributes.headline
+ 40 personas de comunidades costeras capacitadas para generar información pesquera

# data[].attributes.subject
+ 40 personas de comunidades costeras capacitadas para generar información pesquera

# data[].attributes.body
1) Técnicos pesqueros (25) 2) Buzos monitores (13)  > nivel avanzado e iniciaron su formalización como grupo     3) Técnicos de vigilancia (4) * La información que se genera es de el Corredor y PNAES (BCS)

# data[].attributes.headline
Llevar a cabo un proceso de profesionalización, haciendo un diagnostico al interior de nuestras organizaciones, reconociendo fortalezas y debilidades, derivando esto en una necesidad de tomar acciones, donde la capacitación, la sustentabilidad y la comercialización  justa y responsable sean objetivos primordiales del Sector. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Llevar a cabo un proceso de profesionalización, haciendo un diagnostico al interior de nuestras organizaciones, reconociendo fortalezas y debilidades, derivando esto en una necesidad de tomar acciones, donde la capacitación, la sustentabilidad y la comercialización  justa y responsable sean objetivos primordiales del Sector. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Hemos establecido alianzas con diferentes actores que intervienen en la actividad pesquera, como Autoridades Gubernamentales, ONG'S y otros, desde donde se ha impulsado y promovido la creación de espacios de participación social como los Consejos Estatales y Comités Consultivos de las diferentes pesquerías del país.

# data[].attributes.subject
Hemos establecido alianzas con diferentes actores que intervienen en la actividad pesquera, como Autoridades Gubernamentales, ONG'S y otros, desde donde se ha impulsado y promovido la creación de espacios de participación social como los Consejos Estatales y Comités Consultivos de las diferentes pesquerías del país.

# data[].attributes.headline
El que nuestra Organización Nacional tenga presencia en 16 estados costeros del país, conlleva a fortalecer nuestros liderazgos regionales mediante la comercialización de productos bandera, que cumplen con los lineamientos de sustentabilidad, entre otros, las certificaciones, FIP'S y procesos de mejora pesquera. Siendo nosotros, los pescadores el primer eslabón de la cadena productiva, no perdemos de vista la esencia de la pesca como un tema de seguridad alimentaria. 

# data[].attributes.subject
El que nuestra Organización Nacional tenga presencia en 16 estados costeros del país, conlleva a fortalecer nuestros liderazgos regionales mediante la comercialización de productos bandera, que cumplen con los lineamientos de sustentabilidad, entre otros, las certificaciones, FIP'S y procesos de mejora pesquera. Siendo nosotros, los pescadores el primer eslabón de la cadena productiva, no perdemos de vista la esencia de la pesca como un tema de seguridad alimentaria. 

# data[].attributes.headline
Hemos desarrollado un proceso constante para mejorar el acceso a la información gubernamental de la pesca, esto con esfuerzos desde sociedad civil o en colaboración con el gobierno federal.

# data[].attributes.subject
Hemos desarrollado un proceso constante para mejorar el acceso a la información gubernamental de la pesca, esto con esfuerzos desde sociedad civil o en colaboración con el gobierno federal.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Cuarto plan de acción de Gobierto Abierto

# data[].attributes.headline
Hemos involucrado al Consejo Nacional de Pesca y Acuacultura en el proceso que sigue el gobierno federal junto con sociedad civil para la mejora de los consejos consultivos nacionales del medio rural, dentro de los trabajos de México en la Alianza de Gobierno Abierto.  

# data[].attributes.subject
Hemos involucrado al Consejo Nacional de Pesca y Acuacultura en el proceso que sigue el gobierno federal junto con sociedad civil para la mejora de los consejos consultivos nacionales del medio rural, dentro de los trabajos de México en la Alianza de Gobierno Abierto.  

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Cuarto plan de acción de Gobierto Abierto

# data[].attributes.headline
Estudio “Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México”

# data[].attributes.subject
Estudio “Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México”

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

# data[].attributes.headline
Voceros comparten y promueven ideas sobre pesca sostenible

# data[].attributes.subject
Voceros comparten y promueven ideas sobre pesca sostenible

# data[].attributes.headline
Identificar tres oportunidades para desarrollar un proyecto de inversión de impacto.

# data[].attributes.subject
Identificar tres oportunidades para desarrollar un proyecto de inversión de impacto.

# data[].attributes.body
Vinculación con socios locales en el sector pesquero, proveedores de servicios, OSC, autoridades y otras partes interesadas para desarrollar tres oportunidades de inversión de impacto para catalizar la transición de la pesquerías hacia la sostenibilidad.

# data[].attributes.body
Trabajamos en la publicación de la modificación de la Norma para el diseño, solicitud, evaluación y renovación de las zonas de refugio.

# data[].attributes.headline
Plan de Manejo establecido para multiples especies en Altata, Sinaloa.

# data[].attributes.subject
Plan de Manejo establecido para multiples especies en Altata, Sinaloa.

# data[].attributes.headline
Monitoreo de refugios pesqueros demuestran su efectividad para recuperar especies

# data[].attributes.subject
Monitoreo de refugios pesqueros demuestran su efectividad para recuperar especies

# data[].attributes.body
Apoyo y orientación para el desarrollo de un programa nacional de enlace empresarial que contribuya a transformación del mercado domestico.

# data[].attributes.body
540 personas capacitadas en mejores practicas de captura, manejo abordo, manejo post-captura, procesamiento, trazabilidad, administración y lógistica.

# data[].attributes.headline
116,312 kg de pescado con ával de sostenibilidad de cooperativas artesanales vendio en mercados preferenciales

# data[].attributes.subject
116,312 kg de pescado con ával de sostenibilidad de cooperativas artesanales vendio en mercados preferenciales

# data[].attributes.headline
71 mujeres capacitadas en actividades post-captura remuneradas

# data[].attributes.subject
71 mujeres capacitadas en actividades post-captura remuneradas

# data[].attributes.headline
Un sistema de trazabilidad mexicano para pesquerías artesanales desarrollado

# data[].attributes.subject
Un sistema de trazabilidad mexicano para pesquerías artesanales desarrollado

# data[].attributes.body
Primera certificación FairTrade en pesquería artesanal Mexicana de camarón

# data[].attributes.body
Apoyo del mercado internacional para la puesta en marcha del FIP del Pulpo de Yucatán

# data[].attributes.headline
Crear capacidades para el manejo pesquero, transfiriendo metodología como FishPath y facilitando el acceso a expertos globales para el personal de INAPESCA y CONAPESCA.

# data[].attributes.subject
Crear capacidades para el manejo pesquero, transfiriendo metodología como FishPath y facilitando el acceso a expertos globales para el personal de INAPESCA y CONAPESCA.

# data[].attributes.headline
Desarrollo de ipescado como una plataforma de vincular pescadores y productores con mercados y viceversa.

# data[].attributes.subject
Desarrollo de ipescado como una plataforma de vincular pescadores y productores con mercados y viceversa.

# data[].attributes.body
apoyo a la comercialización de productos pesqueros mexicanos, legales, trazables y sostenibles o en proceso.

# data[].attributes.body
Colectivos de chefs #pescaconfuturo
Colectivo Maya
Colectivo de mujeres cocineras , influencers gastronómicas y chefs que promueven la sustentabilidad pesquera y acuicola a través de mensajes y compras responsables de la pesca y acuacultura sostenible

# data[].attributes.body
Posicionamiento del mapa de pescaconfuturo como referente de guia de compra de productos pesqueros y plataforma de comunicacion e incentivo para todos los actores de la cadena que vivimos de esta actividad

# data[].attributes.body
25% delos desembarques en México han certificado la sostenibilidad ambiental de su manejo pesquero bajo el estándar del MSC.

# data[].attributes.headline
EDF --CURVINA: Cuenta con captura anual permisible, permisos específicos de curvina, asignación de cuotas por embarcación, programa comunitario de monitoreo de capturas con seguimiento digital, NOM y un plan de manejo, grupo técnico liderado con INAPESCA y un comité consultivo. Es importante destacar que la complejidad del Alto Golfo (totoaba-vaquita marina) ha generado impactos importantes en el manejo de la pesquería y los propios pescadores. MERLUZA: Cuenta con ficha técnica de la Carta Nacional Pesquera (CNP) que incluye un límite de captura, permisos específicos, un límite de esfuerzo basados en evidencia científica, límites de tamaño, temporadas y zonas de pesca; recomienda el desarrollo de la norma oficial mexicana (NOM) y un plan de manejo pesquero (PMP). Esta pesquería además cuenta con un FIP, comité consultivo y un grupo técnico. BIVALVOS EN SINALOA:  Se publicó el plan de manejo multi-específico del sistema lagunar Altata-Ensenada del Pabellón, que recomienda manejo basado en derechos para algunas de las especies. El FIP de almeja de chocolata recibió una calificación de progreso de B, la calificación más alta para un FIP básico. Se instaló el comité consultivo a nivel sistema lagunar. YUCATÁN: Finalizando el plan de recuperación de mero. Respondimos a las demandas del sector y organizamos un simposio en línea sobre manejo basado en derechos de pulpo.

# data[].attributes.subject
EDF --CURVINA: Cuenta con captura anual permisible, permisos específicos de curvina, asignación de cuotas por embarcación, programa comunitario de monitoreo de capturas con seguimiento digital, NOM y un plan de manejo, grupo técnico liderado con INAPESCA y un comité consultivo. Es importante destacar que la complejidad del Alto Golfo (totoaba-vaquita marina) ha generado impactos importantes en el manejo de la pesquería y los propios pescadores. MERLUZA: Cuenta con ficha técnica de la Carta Nacional Pesquera (CNP) que incluye un límite de captura, permisos específicos, un límite de esfuerzo basados en evidencia científica, límites de tamaño, temporadas y zonas de pesca; recomienda el desarrollo de la norma oficial mexicana (NOM) y un plan de manejo pesquero (PMP). Esta pesquería además cuenta con un FIP, comité consultivo y un grupo técnico. BIVALVOS EN SINALOA:  Se publicó el plan de manejo multi-específico del sistema lagunar Altata-Ensenada del Pabellón, que recomienda manejo basado en derechos para algunas de las especies. El FIP de almeja de chocolata recibió una calificación de progreso de B, la calificación más alta para un FIP básico. Se instaló el comité consultivo a nivel sistema lagunar. YUCATÁN: Finalizando el plan de recuperación de mero. Respondimos a las demandas del sector y organizamos un simposio en línea sobre manejo basado en derechos de pulpo.

# data[].attributes.body
Programa colaborativo con pescadores artesanales a través del cual se genera información relacionada a las pesquerías y las especies objetivo. Incluye datos de captura, costos, tipos de artes de pesca, biología de la especie, así como datos espaciales.

# data[].attributes.headline
Summit de Sustentabilidad Pesquera y Acuícola-México y Latinoamérica

# data[].attributes.subject
Summit de Sustentabilidad Pesquera y Acuícola-México y Latinoamérica

# data[].attributes.body
Se organizaron con gran éxito dos summit 2019 y 2020 donde se compartieron experiencias, se intercambiaron conocimientos y se establecieron vínculos entre los participantes, que ayudan al avance del movimiento de sustentabilidad de productos pesqueros en nuestro país y otros de Latinoamérica.

# data[].attributes.body
Capacitación a los principales grupos de interés en el uso del estándar de certificación del MSC y aplicación de herramientas desarrolladas por MSC en los FIPs

# data[].attributes.body
Hemos compilado y estandarizado los datos de capturas pesqueras y producción acuícola de CONAPESCA en una base de datos que abarca del 2001 al 2019; además, anuarios estadísticos digitalizados con datos de 1980-2017. Bases de datos disponibles en dataMares.

# data[].attributes.headline
Se tienen redes de colaboración y experiencia en  OSC y sector pesquero para demandar rendición de cuentas y la mejora en las políticas y programas para la pesca responsable.

# data[].attributes.subject
Se tienen redes de colaboración y experiencia en  OSC y sector pesquero para demandar rendición de cuentas y la mejora en las políticas y programas para la pesca responsable.

# data[].attributes.headline
EDF -- Capacitamos a + de 40 vocerxs de la pesca sostenible, y algunxs de ellxs crearon la iniciativa Trazando el Rumbo. En los últimos 5 años, organizamos 4 Encuentros de Manejo Pesquero, en donde se han gestado diversas colaboraciones. Además, hemos realizado diferentes talleres sobre manejo basado en derechos, comités consultivos y cambio climático con actores clave y BC y Yucatán son aliados en la promoción de la pesca sostenible. 

# data[].attributes.subject
EDF -- Capacitamos a + de 40 vocerxs de la pesca sostenible, y algunxs de ellxs crearon la iniciativa Trazando el Rumbo. En los últimos 5 años, organizamos 4 Encuentros de Manejo Pesquero, en donde se han gestado diversas colaboraciones. Además, hemos realizado diferentes talleres sobre manejo basado en derechos, comités consultivos y cambio climático con actores clave y BC y Yucatán son aliados en la promoción de la pesca sostenible. 

# data[].attributes.headline
EDF -- Elaboramos, con socios, el estudio de Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México, con el cuál abrimos puertas para dialogar con la actual administración.

# data[].attributes.subject
EDF -- Elaboramos, con socios, el estudio de Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México, con el cuál abrimos puertas para dialogar con la actual administración.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
El estudio "Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México" analiza y visibiliza los principales impactos socioeconómicos y socioculturales que la pesca ribereña tiene sobre las familias, las comunidades y las regiones dedicadas a esta actividad económica. Desde el ámbito de los derechos humanos, identifica áreas de oportunidad en las políticas públicas de los últimos 30 años para realizar una serie de propuestas que contribuyan al diseño de una política pública integral que coloque en el centro de la discusión y de las soluciones al pescador ribereño.

El estudio fue elaborado por el equipo de Inteligencia Pública, a solicitud de EDF de México, gracias al apoyo, conocimientos, opiniones y sugerencias de productores, expertos, académicos y miembros de organizaciones sociales, conocedores del impacto e importancia de la actividad pesquera ribereña en el país.
Recomendaciones de política pública del estudio
Las recomendaciones de política pública han sido clasificadas en cuatro ejes, uno transversal y tres estratégicos, que han sido construidos alrededor de los derechos fundamentales del pescador:

El Eje Transversal consiste en la creación de una política pesquera con enfoque regional e intersectorial que considere las diferencias sociales, económicas, culturales y ecológicas entre las principales regiones pesqueras del país, por su diversidad y variación.

El Eje Socioeconómico se enfoca en incrementar las capacidades productivas, financieras, de desarrollo humano y la integración más horizontal en las cadenas de valor de la pesca, mediante el acceso a tecnologías, infraestructura, capacitación y servicios básicos (agua, luz, caminos).

El Eje Sociocultural busca reconocer la importancia de los valores sociales y culturales de la actividad pesquera más que como una mera actividad económica, como una forma de vida alrededor de la cual giran numerosas comunidades costeras. Esto es, colocar al pescador en el centro de la política pública, a través de espacios de participación social desde una perspectiva que considere su conocimiento empírico en la actividad.

El Eje Organizacional se centra en fortalecer la organización y la integración de las comunidades en torno a la pesca, mediante el acompañamiento y desarrollo de capacidades organizativas para las cooperativas pesqueras, por medio de capacitación técnica y tecnológica en diversos temas de utilidad práctica.

Estas propuestas de política pública se orientan a empoderar a las comunidades pesqueras, garantizar el acceso a sus derechos económicos, sociales y culturales, y lograr que tengan un mayor impacto sobre las condiciones que determinan su bienestar como actores fundamentales para la economía, la alimentación y la conservación de los ecosistemas marinos de todo el país.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Estudio Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
El estudio "Impacto Social de la Pesca Ribereña en México" analiza y visibiliza los principales impactos socioeconómicos y socioculturales que la pesca ribereña tiene sobre las familias, las comunidades y las regiones dedicadas a esta actividad económica.

# data[].attributes.headline
EDF -- CURVINA: Hay un monitoreo biológico de la pesquería que se coordina a través del grupo técnico y en el que participan instituciones de investigación y gobierno. MERLUZA: El programa de técnicos a bordo ha generado información científica para la pesquería que el INAPESCA tomó en cuenta para la elaboración de la ficha técnica de la Carta Nacional Pesquera. INAPESCA realiza cruceros de investigación para estimar biomasa. Hay un grupo técnico conformado por especialistas, INAPESCA y EDF que se reúne periódicamente para compartir datos y discutir/construir sobre instrumentos de gestión (como la NOM y el Plan de Manejo). BIVALVOS EN SINALOA: INAPESCA completó las primeras evaluaciones de stock de las especies de bivalvos más importantes para los pescadores (almeja chocolata, almeja chione, almeja pata de mula y ostra de manglar) y hay un grupo de pescadoras y pescadores que monitorean algunas de estas especies.

# data[].attributes.subject
EDF -- CURVINA: Hay un monitoreo biológico de la pesquería que se coordina a través del grupo técnico y en el que participan instituciones de investigación y gobierno. MERLUZA: El programa de técnicos a bordo ha generado información científica para la pesquería que el INAPESCA tomó en cuenta para la elaboración de la ficha técnica de la Carta Nacional Pesquera. INAPESCA realiza cruceros de investigación para estimar biomasa. Hay un grupo técnico conformado por especialistas, INAPESCA y EDF que se reúne periódicamente para compartir datos y discutir/construir sobre instrumentos de gestión (como la NOM y el Plan de Manejo). BIVALVOS EN SINALOA: INAPESCA completó las primeras evaluaciones de stock de las especies de bivalvos más importantes para los pescadores (almeja chocolata, almeja chione, almeja pata de mula y ostra de manglar) y hay un grupo de pescadoras y pescadores que monitorean algunas de estas especies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
Boats and boating--Equipment and supplies

# data[].attributes.body
La generación y compilación sistemática de datos pesqueros ha permitido ejercicios de análisis -para pesquerías particulares así como a nivel de ecosistema- resultando en al menos 10 publicaciones científicas en los últimos 3 años. Estos ejercicios permiten una mejor comprensión de las dinámicas pesqueras y su impacto en el ambiente (datos disponibles en dataMares).

# data[].attributes.headline
Completamos la primera fase del Programa de Fortalecimiento de Capacidades Pesqueras dirigido a CONAPESCA e INAPESCA

# data[].attributes.subject
Completamos la primera fase del Programa de Fortalecimiento de Capacidades Pesqueras dirigido a CONAPESCA e INAPESCA

# data[].attributes.body
+ 200 personal de INAPESCA y CONAPESCA capacitado en temas como: enfoque basado en ecosistemas, manejo pesquero, inspección y vigilancia, monitoreo y evaluación de recursos pesqueros, etc.

# data[].attributes.body
Lanzado un proyecto piloto para promover la presencia de pescados y mariscos mexicanos certificados en las principales cadenas de supermercados del país.

# data[].attributes.headline
COBI. 10 pesquerías en camino a la sostenibilidad a través de FIPs (almejas, callos,  calamar, escama).

# data[].attributes.subject
COBI. 10 pesquerías en camino a la sostenibilidad a través de FIPs (almejas, callos,  calamar, escama).

# data[].attributes.headline
30,000 hectáreas protegidas a través de refugios pesqueros, zonas núcleo y voluntarias. Todas diseñadas y evaluadas por pescadoras y pescadores.

# data[].attributes.subject
30,000 hectáreas protegidas a través de refugios pesqueros, zonas núcleo y voluntarias. Todas diseñadas y evaluadas por pescadoras y pescadores.

# data[].attributes.headline
Promover la igualad de genero en el mar y visualización de la mujer en la pesca

# data[].attributes.subject
Promover la igualad de genero en el mar y visualización de la mujer en la pesca

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Comunidad y Biodiversidad, A.C., Guaymas, Mexico

The contributions of women to fisheries are often invisible, ignored, and unrecognized even though they represent 47% of the global fisheries workforce, especially in pre- and post-production activities. Poor data systems lead to incorrect assumptions about the gender division of labor in fisheries. This causes the role of women in fisheries to be overlooked. To evaluate the contribution of women in the value chain, a participatory methodology was implemented in three small-scale, fisheries in Mexico: California spiny lobster ( Panulirus interruptus) fishery from the northern Mexican Pacific, penshell ( Atrina maura) fishery from the Gulf of California, and Caribbean spiny lobster ( Panulirus argus) fishery from the Mesoamerican Reef region. This study shows an unequal inclusion of men and women as members of the fishing cooperatives where only 4%, 5%, and 20% are women in spiny lobster, red lobster, and penshell, respectively, and in the distribution of direct jobs (1 out of 6.7 jobs was held by a woman). These results indicate limited opportunities for women to access leadership positions. However, the participation percentages increased dramatically when we considered the fishery system (i.e., both direct and indirect jobs), with women accounting for 43%, 21%, and 37% of the California spiny lobster, penshell, and Caribbean spiny lobster fishery workforce, respectively. Women represented 39% of the workforce in pre-production activities, 2% in production, 29% in post-production, and 56% in complementary to production. Women tended to participate in two or more activities at the same time, generally combining work, household, and community activities. The participation of women in fisheries could be equivalent to a second working day, and even when this effort is present in similarly in three fisheries, their contribution is yet to be acknowledged in order to incorporate women in decision-making. The analysis of the value chain and the fishery system provided a more realistic picture of the contribution of women to fisheries than an analysis focused solely on extraction. This work further analyzed the importance and degree of participation of women in fishing cooperatives and the decision-making process. Strategies to reduce gender disparity are needed to encourage inclusion of women in fisheries decision-making.

Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), approximately 60 million people indirectly or directly work, either full or part time, in the primary sector of capture fisheries and aquaculture worldwide, and 14% of the global population of individuals are directly involved in the fisheries and aquaculture sector are women ( FAO, 2020). However, when fisheries have been evaluated in their entirety [i.e., including processing and commercialization, ca. 260 million ( Teh and Sumaila, 2013)], women have been found to constitute half of the global fisheries workforce when post-production activities are included ( World Bank, 2012; FAO, 2020). In addition to participating in pre- and post-production activities, women are primarily responsible for running households and raising children. When harvesting, women mostly engage in shore gleaning ( Harper et al., 2013; Kleiber et al., 2014; Torre et al., 2019), although they also participate in boat-based fishing activities. Most of the catch that is obtained by women is intended for feeding their families or sold locally, whereas the majority of the catch that is obtained by men enters the market ( Harper et al., 2013).

Despite the substantial presence of women in fisheries, national fishery data collection systems hide their real contributions to small-scale fisheries (SSF) and aquaculture with regard to employment, production, and commercialization ( FAO, 2013). Non-inclusive statistics based on catch and production data fail to reflect the actual participation of women in fisheries, resulting in a quantitative data gap ( Kleiber et al., 2014; Torre et al., 2019). This results in the contributions of women remaining Invisible, Ignored, and Unrecognized (IIU; WSI, 2020). The collection of sex-disaggregated data and the integration of a gender perspective in SSF statistics by quantitatively and qualitatively describing the activities carried out by women as well as the characteristics of these activities (e.g., pay, benefits, and access to healthcare) are especially important in developing countries ( FAO, 2020).

During the last decade, the contributions of women to fisheries are becoming more visible, which has been fostered by the publication of an increasing number of studies. However, only a few studies have specifically described how women come to obtain direct jobs in pre-harvest (e.g., repairing fishing gear, obtaining bait, and preparing fishing trips), harvest (e.g., fishing or farming), and post-harvest (e.g., size and weight sorting, preparation, cleaning, canning, distribution, and commercialization) activities ( Germain et al., 2015; Perea-Blazquez and Flores-Palacios, 2016; Harper et al., 2017; Hernández-Félix et al., 2017; Pedroza-Gutiérrez, 2019; Torre et al., 2019).

When examining management entities and the decision-making arenas, it is clear that women also face discrimination with regard to access. In Mexico, SSF organize themselves into cooperatives. In a cooperative, when a fisher passes away, his membership is preferably inherited by his sons instead of by his wife or daughters. This is a reflection of the cultural construct that fishing is an activity for men. Moreover, in order to become a member of a fishing cooperative without having inherited a legacy membership, a candidate must work exclusively for several years performing extractive activities ( Castañeda et al., 2020). As women usually contribute to either pre- or post-production activities that are not extractive and thus do not accrue time in extractive activities, they are excluded from becoming formal members of cooperatives and the decision-making process.

According to FAO (2014) fisheries value chain traditionally include the production (fishing or farming), aggregation (sorting by size, species, etc.), processing (cleaning, canning, packing, etc.), and distribution (wholesale and retail). The participation of women in indirect fishing activities, such as parenting, running the household, surveilling and patrolling the community, and participating in conservation and monitoring efforts, has not yet been fully considered in the fisheries value chain ( Fulton et al., 2019a; Torre et al., 2019). Thus, these activities are not being monetarily compensated ( Germain et al., 2015; Perea-Blazquez and Flores-Palacios, 2016; Espinosa-Romero et al., 2017; Hernández-Félix et al., 2017), and some activities are seen as extensions of the domestic work to which women have traditionally been culturally bound ( Siegert, 2017).

This study researched about women's roles in three high-economic value fisheries whose access rights through fishing concessions can be similar to those on TURFs. In Mexico, SSF' effort is regulated through fishing permits and concessions granted by the national fishing authority, the Comisión Nacional de Acuacultura y Pesca (CONAPESCA). The selected fisheries operate according to fishing concession, granted only to one fishing organization in a limited area, which guarantee long-term (5-20 years) fishing rights to harvest species which are usually of high economic value (like penshell and lobster) and low mobility ( Afflerbach et al., 2014; DOF, 2018b).

The three studied fisheries were red lobster ( Panulirus interruptus) from the Pacific, penshell ( Atrina maura) in the Gulf of California, and spiny lobster ( Panulirus argus) in the Caribbean. As well as limiting the fishing effort (concessions), they are regulated by catch size (only adults or sub-adults), season closures during the reproductive season of each species, and fishing gear (wire traps for red lobster, hookah and beach gleaning for penshell, free diving and " casitas" for spiny lobster) ( DOF, 2012, 2018a). Fishing quotas are not stablished for these fisheries.

According to the Mexican law that regulates the operation of cooperatives ( Ley General de Sociedades Cooperativas) ( DOF, 1994), cooperatives must be constituted by at least five members with equally distributed benefits, obligations, and responsibilities. All members must have a voice and vote in the cooperative. Mandatory requirements include having a general assembly which democratically elects an administrative and supervisory council (i.e., board of directors).

Being a member of a fishing cooperative implies holding rights as convened in the permit or concession, as well as reporting obligations. Members of fishing cooperatives share the management of fishing resources, and access to relatively secure job and salary. They have voice and vote in the decision-making of the cooperative, since this system is one of the fairest forms of social organization as its principles are based on solidarity and common good, which is achieved through collaboration and a shared goal: to professionally use and manage common resources, and benefit derived from them ( DOF, 1994).

The mechanism for becoming a member of the cooperative is defined in its internal statutes, which are agreed upon by the general assembly. The number of members may vary in each cooperative, and membership can be inherited by another family member. In the cooperatives with which we collaborated in this study, potential members engaged in paid work until good performance was demonstrated and an opportunity opened to become a member of the cooperative; for the purposes of this study, we categorized them as temporary employees. Both the members (i.e., the general assembly) and the board of directors participate in the decision-making process. The temporary employees, on the other hand, do not have a voice or vote. However, some cooperatives invite them into the general assembly as observers.

The study was conducted with two fishing cooperatives, Buzos y Pescadores de la Baja California and Cozumel, and the Organización de Pescadores Rescatando la Ensenada rural production society. The Buzos y Pescadores de la Baja California cooperative is based on Natividad Island (Northern Mexican Pacific) and principally extracts California spiny lobster ( Panulirus interruptus) with wire traps in the northern Mexican Pacific. The Cozumel cooperative mainly extracts Caribbean spiny lobster ( Panulirus argus) in the Mesoamerican Reef region of Cozumel Island and the Maria Elena fishing camp (Mexican Caribbean) via free diving and lobster " casitas" (artificial shelters). The Organización de Pescadores Rescatando la Ensenada rural production society encompasses several fishing cooperatives based in La Paz, Baja California Sur, that extract penshell ( Atrina maura) in the Gulf of California ( Figure 1).

Figure 1. Location of the case studies assessed in this study.

It also comparatively analyzed fishing and fishery system data to understand how narrative can influence and bias participation in fisheries and thus contribute to the gender-data gap. We suggest that broadening the understanding of the fishery system throughout the value chain by incorporating elements of gender studies is the key to charting a course toward inclusive and socially equitable fisheries.

The objectives of this research were to (1) determine the identities of the participants of three high-value SSF in Mexico, focusing on a gender-division of labor along the value chain; (2) generate information on the contributions of men and women to fisheries; and (3) raise awareness among fishing communities about the importance of gender equality for marine conservation and sustainable fisheries management.

Materials and Methods

To generate a broader understanding of the fishing and social dynamics of coastal communities, a reconstruction of the value chains of three SSF in Mexico was conducted. A participatory methodology was designed and implemented, including qualitative and quantitative data collection. Participants aged over 18, from three fishing organizations ( Buzos y Pescadores de la Baja California cooperative, Cozumel cooperative, and the Organización de Pescadores Rescatando la Ensenada rural production society) provided written informed consent to engage in this study.

Co-creation of the Fishery Value Chain

Two sets of participatory workshops were held for each fishery. The first was a 2-day workshop to co-create the fishery value chain at the community level and quantify with fishers and community members how many people, accessed leadership positions, cooperative membership, temporary employment, and participated in activities complementary to production (community patrolling and monitoring, family support). Data was disaggregated by gender. As fishing cooperative members are mainly men, inclusive community participation was essential to ensure that the co-creation process included all voices from both direct and indirect jobs related to the fishery. A maximum of 35 participants were invited to each workshop, including women and men of different ages, diverse occupations, and different social positions in the community ( Table 1). Participants did not need to be members of the fishing cooperatives, but they were required to have knowledge of the selected fishery.

Table 1. Individuals involved in the participatory assessment.

None of the studied fisheries had built their value chain with a gender perspective. To achieve this, the first workshop used participatory facilitation dynamics to foster co-creation of knowledge and defy gender-based roles in fisheries. Groups of five to seven men and women identified the steps of the fishery value chain including categorization of complementary to production activities, identified paid and unpaid jobs, and described how members access decision-making in their cooperatives. The results and reflections were shared in a plenary session. As a result of shared reflections, a fisherman said, " Equality is not a race to see who earns more or less, is participation of both (men and women) in fisheries so that we can provide a better life to our families. "

The second 1-day workshop explored the conditions in which women have historically become involved in fisheries. A historical monography comparing historic and recent photographs was collectively assembled and used as a visual tool to discuss the history of the fisheries and communities. Attention was drawn to the division of labor based on gender and to environmental and fisheries conditions. A diagram of the value chain that was co-created during the first workshop, was validated with the participants.

Fishery Value Chain Framework

Together with the participants, we rebuilt the value chains according to the particularities of the three case studies, adjusting the original design. Different activities were identified and categorized as either direct or indirect work and as either paid or unpaid labor ( Figure 2).

Figure 2. Adapted value chain for the fishery system based on the FAO (2014) model.

Direct work refers to the functions located at the core of the value chain that are contractually, permanently, or periodically accounted for in the cooperative. Indirect work refers to activities that do not have a direct impact on the sector but that are necessary for the operation of the fishery, in addition to other activities that are complementary to harvest that were identified due to the incorporation of the gender division of labor from Aguilar and Castañeda (2001). Indirect work may be either paid or unpaid.

Productive activities were classified into four stages: pre-production, production, post-production, and complementary to production ( Figure 2). As production is generally considered to encompass extractive activities ( FAO, 2014), we included the pre-production and complementary to production stages to incorporate activities that have not been previously considered in the traditional value chain and that are mostly unpaid. These were identified by the participants of the fisheries. Activities were also classified considering productive, community and reproductive work. Participants were quantified collectively with the fishers and attention was brought when people were found to perform more than one task.

Considering all the above, 18 activities were identified across the four stages of the value chain: pre-production (supplies, bait fishing), production (shipment, harvest), post-production (landing, aggregation and storage, processing, transport, wholesale and retail, administration), and complementary to production (maintenance, services, social commission, surveillance, monitoring, beach gleaning, transport and family support) ( Figure 2). Ten activities were identified as productive work, seven activities were identified as community level work, and one activity was identified as reproductive work.

Historical Monography

The monography was constructed through a participatory process, in which the experiences and memories of the members of the three fishing communities were shared among the participants. Old family photographs were presented by participants to foster a dialogue about the changing roles that women have held throughout the history of the fisheries. To facilitate this dialogue, we proposed triggering questions: (1) How was the fishery established? (2) What activities where historically related with either women or men? (3) Have their roles changed? (4) If so, how did this change occur and what is the current fishing dynamic? This historical monography was used to understand and complement the quantitative data in this research to shed a light on the conditions that enabled the inclusion of women in SSF. All the information was compared with available literature ( Cochrane and Chakalall, 2002; Basurto et al., 2012; DOF, 2018a) and validated with the participants.

Results

A total of 57 people participated in the workshops (some people attended both workshops but were counted only once), which is equivalent to 17% of the total number of people registered in the three cooperatives ( n = 347). Overall, 47% of the workshop attendees were women and 53% were men.

Leadership Positions, Cooperative Membership, and Temporary Employees

This research identified 347 people that were directly involved in the three fishing cooperatives: cooperative members (196, 10.2% women, 89.8% men) and temporary employees (130, 15.4% women, 84.6% men; Table 3). When looking at the compositions of the boards of directors (21), the average representation of women was much smaller (9.5%) compared to that of men (90.5%). In the three analyzed fisheries, the percentage of female members varied from 4 to 20%, with substantially higher participation of women in the penshell fishery, where 14 women are members, as opposed to only two women in the spiny lobster fishery, and four women in the red lobster fishery.

Table 3. Participation of women (W) and men (M) as cooperative members, temporary employees, and members of the board of directors in the fishing communities.

The California spiny lobster fishery generated the largest number of temporary jobs for women (21%) compared to that of the two other fisheries. Whereas 10% of temporary jobs in the Caribbean spiny lobster fishery were occupied by women, the penshell fishery did not employ women in any temporary job. In contrast, the penshell fishery was the only fishery with a board of directors with 20% representation by women. This suggests that the penshell fishery is more inclusive compared to the other two fisheries, employing all its members with a minimal temporary workforce.

Direct and Indirect Jobs

The three fisheries contribute to social wellbeing by generating direct and indirect employment for 607 people (180 women, 427 men). Direct jobs employed 6.7 men per woman (35 women, 237 men). When evaluating indirect jobs, participation was more equitable compared to that of direct jobs, with one woman for every 1.3 men (145 women and 190 men).

The penshell fishery employed 100 people (43 women and 57 men). In this fishery, similar participation by women was observed in direct (35%) and indirect jobs (50%). The Caribbean spiny lobster fishery provided jobs for 232 people (83 women and 164 men). This fishery showed the lowest participation of women in direct jobs (6.5%), whereas 68% of women held indirect jobs. On the other hand, the red lobster fishery had the highest number of workers (260, 21% women, 79% men), with one in ten direct employees being a woman. Women held 26% of the indirect jobs in this workforce.

Participation of Women in the Different Stages of the Value Chain

Women and men in the three fisheries participated in 18 activities identified across the value chain: pre-harvest (two), harvest (two), post-harvest (six), and complementary to harvest (eight) ( Figure 2). Ten activities were identified as productive work, seven activities were identified as community level work, and one activity was identified as reproductive work. Some people performed more than one task. Overall, we found that these fisheries provided 724 jobs (250 and 474 jobs occupied by women and men, respectively) ( Table 4).

Table 4. Participation at the different steps of the value chains.

Women showed the highest participation in activities that were complementary to production (145 jobs), while men participated to a greater extent in production activities (169 jobs). For the three combined study cases, 39%, 2%, 29%, and 56% of women participated in pre-harvest, harvest, post-harvest, and complementary to harvest activities, respectively ( Figure 3). The overlapping percentages indicate that women participated in more than one activity.

Figure 3. Participation in value chain, with the three fisheries combined (A), and specific to California spiny lobster (B), penshell (C), spiny lobster (D) fisheries.

In the penshell fishery, we found 12 activities within the value chain, with only one pre-harvest activity (supplying) and two complementary to harvest activities (surveillance and family support). Women who worked in this fishery system did not participate in other pre-harvest or production activities. However, women did show a high degree of participation in post-harvest (processing) and complementary to harvest activities (biological monitoring, surveillance, and family support). The historical monograph revealed that men and women had carried out penshell fishing together since the fishery was founded, although no one remembered the date. This was facilitated by the fact that the penshell fishery operated within an urban context in the city of La Paz, which promoted a work-life balance.

In the California spiny lobster fishery, 17 activities were identified as part of the value chain, with beach cleaning as the only non-related activity. Women showed the greatest participation in the value chain as suppliers and providers of family support. The monographic study revealed that Natividad Island used to be a fishing camp with limited infrastructure. While men traveled to the island during the fishing season, the women and children remained in their homes in the coastal towns of Ensenada, Baja California, or La Paz, Baja California Sur, due to the lack of facilities for families on the island. Specifically, the island did not have its own water supply, electricity, schools, or access to medical care. After establishing the fishing cooperative in 1942, the community has invested and attracted public investment to build a desalting plant, school, medical facilities, and a processing plant that provides employment to the men and women of the island. Starting in 1957, some fishermen brought their wives to help them prepare food on the island. Occasionally, these women also sold food to other fishermen who had to travel to the island alone. This was the foundation of the Natividad Island community.

The dynamics of the penshell fishery were simple at its inception, with the men fishing from boats to harvest penshell and women processing the catch. During the low tide, women also harvested penshell along the shore. Penshell production was a family occupation with everyone contributing equally. After years of uncontrolled overfishing, the fishery collapsed, which deeply affected the wellbeing of the community as the penshell was the only resource that supported the local economy. Hence, the penshell fishers were forced to develop collective strategies to reduce the fishing effort. One of those strategies was to remove women from this activity to ensure that the small incomes generated from penshell fishing were only directed to men. In addition, the organization unanimously decided to only allow one member of each family to access the fishery to allow it to recover, and membership within the organization was only open to men. However, with the passage of time and with the support of the non-governmental organization Noroeste Sustentable (NOS), the penshell fishers developed different strategies, such as seeding, penshell fattening, and the terrestrial and marine surveillance and protection of their fishing areas, in which women actively participated. The history of the fishery, which was based on the perception of fishing as a family activity, has allowed for women and men in the community to participate more equally when compared to that of the other fishing communities.

In the Caribbean spiny lobster value chain, we categorized 16 activities. Bait was not needed for this fishery, and product transportation was not carried out by the fishing organization. Women in this fishery system showed high participation in pre-production (supplies) and complementary to production activities (family support and, to some extent, monitoring). Compared with the other case studies, this is the only fishery in which women participate in harvesting (three active fisherwomen). The fishery began in 1960, when the cooperative was founded, and the dynamics of its development are similar to those of Natividad Island. Men traveled from Cozumel Island to the Maria Elena fishing camp (located in the Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve) for the season and occasionally brought their families for short periods of time. Some women have become more involved in the fishery over the past 5 years, working as fishing technicians, underwater monitors, and cooperative administrators.

Double Shift and Economic Remuneration

Both women and men were involved in two or more activities within their fisheries. This phenomenon occurred most in the Caribbean spiny lobster fishery, where the lobster fishery occurs in a temporary fishing camp (in Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve) which is separated from the cooperative's main office (Cozumel Island), where families remain. At least one woman participated in more than one of the eight activities carried out by women, tripling the workday. In the penshell fishery, this occurred with men participating in six of 11 activities (with at least one man in each activity). In the California spiny lobster fishery, fewer activities involved the same man (three out of 15), hence more people (mostly men) participate in it and there is less cases of double shifts ( Table 4). Men perform more than one activity when looking at the production stage, and when they participate in sustainability activities (monitoring and surveillance), though these activities are mostly paid-for. Women were found to perform more than one activity in every stage of the value chain, except for administration in the red lobster and penshell fisheries.

Revenue for women was provided in 13% of the job positions (52 out of 398 paid jobs), whereas 87% of the work done by men was paid (346 out of 398). Unpaid jobs were performed by women and men in 62% (198 out of 326 unpaid jobs) and 39% (128 out of 326) of the cases, respectively ( Table 5). Thus, men had better conditions to access economic stability than women due to paid employment.

Table 5. Paid and unpaid jobs disaggregated by gender in the three fisheries.

The Caribbean spiny lobster fishery accounted for the lowest paid jobs (eight) and the largest amount of unpaid jobs for women (106). This fishery employs men in most working areas (162 jobs). The penshell fishery offers the best economic and job conditions for women when compared to that of the other two fisheries. Women held 27 of the paid job positions and only 12 unpaid jobs. The California spiny lobster fishery showed the most equitable proportion of unpaid jobs occupied by women and men (1:1 ratio), although the paid jobs were unequally distributed with only 17 of 134 positions held by women ( Table 5).

Fishing vs. Fishery System

Fishing (only harvesting activities) involved 172 people (three women and 169 men) across the three fisheries. When only fishing was evaluated, women accounted for less than 2% of all people in this study. However, when expanding our evaluation to the fishery system, the total number of participants in the three fisheries increased from 172 to 607, with the participation of women reaching 30%. Nonetheless, women continued to have a lower presence overall than men given that the participation of men also increased. This increase in the participation of women when considering the fishery system was consistent in all the studied fisheries. For example, in the Caribbean spiny lobster fishery, the participation of women increased from three individuals (1%) involved in harvesting to 80 individuals (29%) involved in the fishery system, whereas the participation of men increased from 114 to 192 (71%). In the California spiny lobster and penshell fisheries, the participation of women in harvesting activities was not reported. Therefore, when considering the entire value chain, the participation of women increased from 0 to 85 individuals (33%) and from 0 to 15 individuals (19%), respectively. The participation of men in the California spiny lobster fishery increased from 40 to 171 people, corresponding to 67% of the total number of participants. In the penshell fishery, the participation of men increased from 15 to 64 (81%) individuals. Thus, evaluating the fishery system is a more inclusive and equitable approach to evaluate the participation of both men and women and is essential for highlighting the roles of women as community members and decision makers.

Discussion

Gender analysis in SSF is not new, although increasing interest has been shown over the last 15 years in a variety of reports and studies. These studies have highlighted the importance of understanding gender issues from different perspectives, taking into account the economy and norms and values of a society; productive, community, and reproductive roles; and paid and unpaid work ( Kleiber et al., 2014; de la Torre-Castro, 2019; Frangoudes et al., 2019; Harper et al., 2020). Most of the research has focused on gender studies of fisheries in Asia, Europe, and the United States ( Chapman, 1987; Frangoudes et al., 2008; Kleiber et al., 2014), with regional gaps with regard to research in Latin America, Africa, and Oceania. Globally, the participation of women as members of organized groups or in decision-making bodies has been limited in fisheries ( Harper et al., 2017) and this gender division of labor represents a means to control the incomes of women ( Alsop et al., 2006), hindering their free agency. This trend can be observed in developing countries in Latin America ( de Oliveira Leis et al., 2019), although in the last two decades, it has begun to change due to national ( Torre et al., 2019) and international efforts (such as the #MeToo movement in 2006 or the #HeForShe movement driven by the United Nations in 2014). This has led to increasing attention to women in fisheries and a timid opening from the fishing sector to integrate a gender perspective, encouraged by the creation of women cooperatives ( Salas et al., 2006; Navarro-Smith, 2008; Perea-Blazquez and Flores-Palacios, 2016; Torre et al., 2019).

Although women in Mexico are already members of fishing cooperatives, they are very rarely able to access the decision-making realms of the fishing cooperatives, except in some indigenous cooperatives, such as Cucapa ( Navarro-Smith, 2008), or in women-exclusive organizations. The Mexican federal government has recently set women inclusion as a qualifying element for subsidies (e.g., conservation and development subsidies from protected area programs), with higher scores awarded if women are included in the fishing organization. However, many of these women face paper representation, as they do not receive benefits, nor can they occupy leadership positions. Furthermore, their participation in the implementation of projects may be restricted.

Mexican cooperatives operate under a gender-unbalanced process for selecting members. In addition to the application itself, common membership requirements include making economic contributions (application fees) and/or working for a certain period of time as an apprentice until being elected a member. This period of time is usually 5 years but varies within a wide range, and only direct jobs are considered, which are mostly performed by men. Each cooperative has the right to establish in its internal regulations the requirements for becoming a member, and these requirements prevent women from having voice or vote, as only members can make decisions or become part of the board of directors ( DOF, 1994). For example, one of the analyzed fisheries in this study stipulated that in order to become a member of the organization, a potential member has to participate in fishing activities for a period of time, considering only production.

In this analysis, women participated to a lower extent than men as both members of cooperatives and as temporary employees given that the majority of temporary jobs were in harvesting (fisher apprentices). Other jobs, (e.g., processing or administrating), do not count toward the mandatory training time. This fact is ignored in many fishing cooperatives, which are influenced by social and cultural constructions of gender divisions in labor. Consistently, gender studies have indicated that gender imbalances in fishing communities are heightened by a limited access to paid employment, training, credits, subsidies, benefits, and access rights by women who are not members of a cooperative ( Abwao and Awuor, 2019).

In general, in the three fisheries evaluated in this study, women showed low participation in direct jobs (production and post-production). When evaluating the participation of women in indirect jobs (pre-production and complementary activities), a very similar ratio was found between men and women. This increase in the participation of women in indirect vs. direct jobs is very similar to what has been reported in other fishing value chain studies in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America ( EMEDO, 2017; Sornkliang et al., 2018; de Oliveira Leis et al., 2019), including in commercial and subsistence fishing reported in other regions of Mexico ( Vázquez-García and Montes-Estrada, 2006; Navarro-Smith, 2008; Uc-Espadas et al., 2017). This suggest that a more inclusive approach to fisheries is needed to correctly estimate overall human pressure on the environment ( Kleiber et al., 2014), as well as socio-economic impact.

In indirect jobs, women participate in activities related to the preparation of provisions and family support ( Rajaratnam et al., 2016), which are unpaid in most fisheries. For example, in Natividad Island, according to the testimonies of the participants, wives of members and temporary employees have been involved in the pre-production activities of preparing food and processing and repairing fishing gear, traps, or buoys. According to what was reported when constructing the historical monography, this type of participation by women has occurred since the early stages of the fishery, constituting some of the first roles that women have traditionally held on the island.

In addition to productive work (e.g., processing, sales, or administration), women carry out a series of tasks that are necessary for the proper functioning of fishery systems, the conservation of natural resources, and the development and welfare of coastal communities ( Westermann and Benbow, 2013; Gustavsson and Riley, 2018; Gopal et al., 2020). On the other hand, this study identified that women tended to participate in two or more activities at the same time, generally combining productive, reproductive, and community activities, both paid and unpaid. Although men were also found to participate in two or more activities, these activities belonged to their paid productive (e.g., boarding, fishing, and disembarking) and community work (e.g., monitoring and surveillance). Only one fishery identified men involved in reproductive tasks ( Table 5). Therefore, when considering the efforts of women in productive and community work, in addition to reproductive work, women often doubled or even tripled their workday, as described in other studies ( Soares et al., 2011; Sabater, 2014; Perea-Blazquez and Flores-Palacios, 2016).

Jobs performed by women have generally been related to activities on land, except for monitoring, which entails working for days at sea and diving ( Table 4). Overall, the participation of women in the value chain of the fisheries in this study was mainly linked to complementary to production activities, such as monitoring, which is an activity of increasing importance for women to get involved in the fishery and get paid for it ( Torre et al., 2019). Women contribute to citizen science by generating biological, acoustic, and oceanographic data of their fishing resources in concessions and no-take fishing areas. This information is used in management and to improve decision making, but women are still prevented from having a voice in assemblies and meetings. Women are of paramount importance for ensuring the continuity of activities related to scientific monitoring and the development of key technical capacities that are usually allocated to men. This has also been reported for several other coastal communities in Mexico ( Fulton et al., 2019b).

In most regions, women are less involved in offshore fishing ( FAO, 2020), which is partially related to the difficulties associated with balancing extractive activities with household work ( Perea-Blazquez and Flores-Palacios, 2016).

This explains the preference of the women in this study to work in pre- and post-harvest activities. The majority of the people who dedicated themselves to penshell processing were women. The same was also true of the people who surveilled and monitored the fishing and non-fishing areas (complementary to production activities). Both of these activities took place on the beach and could be accomplished within a few hours, can be carried out in the company of children, allow easy access to related facilities (e.g., schools and healthcare centers), and require relatively little and flexible time investments without the need for expensive fishing equipment, which is consistent with studies that indicate that women often work in aquaculture or in fishery activities adjacent to the coast since they are carried out near their homes ( Tekanene, 2005; Arce-Ibarra and Charles, 2008; Siegert, 2017). This situation was brought about through the support of an NGO (NOS) who empowered and trained the women on the governance and management of fisheries resources, systemic thinking, collaborative dialogue, negotiation and conflict resolution, and the particularities of the fishery. Throughout the history of the community, penshell fishing was considered a family activity, in which men and women participated equally. Not surprisingly, the penshell fishery is the only fishery in this study to have included women in its board of directors. Compared to that of the other fishery systems, women in the penshell fishery system have had greater opportunities to participate and to establish the value of their contributions.

The paradigm that the fishing sector is synonymous with extractive activities entails that women in fishing communities are not considered to be part of that sector. Information on where and how women participate in fisheries is not sex-disaggregated in fisheries statistics because data is collected by only considering extractive activities ( FAO, 2016). This narrow understanding of the scope of fisheries characterizes the fishing sector as predominantly male ( Weeratunge et al., 2010) and does not acknowledge the benefits of generating statistical information that is disaggregated by gender, with regard of the fishery system. In addition, women who participate in other activities in the value chain generally do not step forward to apply as cooperative members because they do not participate in extractive activities.

The participation of women in fishing systems remains largely unstudied due to the difficulties associated with gathering enough data on a national scale. Although the methodology has allowed us to develop a closer view of the reality of the fishing sector, other similar studies to understand the challenges associated with the participation of women in coastal fishing in Mexico are needed. Gathering this set of experiences, learning, and knowledge from the women and men who contribute to the value chain, can provide interesting and new perspectives to address impacts in coastal fishing communities. Evaluating the fishery system instead of only extractive fishing activities provides a more realistic picture of the contributions of both women and men to the fishing sector. Similar studies that identify the participants of the SSF sector, and the conditions under which they participate, will contribute to generating the information that is needed to find strategies that reduce gender inequality and promote the inclusion of women in decision making processes. Women roles in SSF urgently need to be made visible, acknowledged, and correctly estimated, at scale, to ensure fair access to resource management and decision-making positions.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Comunidad y Biodiversidad (COBI). The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

JT and IL-E: conceptualization. NS and FF-RM: data curation and visualization. NS, IL-E, and FF-RM: formal analysis. JT: funding acquisition. NS and IL-E: investigation, methodology, and project administration. IL-E: supervision. FF-RM: validation. NS, IL-E, FF-RM, and JT: writing - original draft and writing - review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Funding

This study was supported by The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust (Grant Number 2017PG-CON013), the Walton Family Foundation (Grant Number 00101951), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation (Grant Number 2019-69961), the Sandler Supporting Family Foundation (Grant Number 20200404), and the Marisla Foundation (Grant Number 20200304).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This study would have not been possible without the efforts of the local partners in Natividad Island ( Buzos y Pescadores de la Baja California cooperative), Cozumel ( Cozumel cooperative), and La Paz ( Organización de Pescadores Rescatando la Ensenada). We also thank Sergio Marcos, Daniel Valdez, Jaime López, and Noroeste Sustentable (NOS) for their support and help in the field, and Imelda Amador for her support with the preparation of the maps.

References

Abwao, J., and Awuor, F. J. (2019). State of Women in the Fisheries and Aquaculture Value Chain in Homabay County, Kenya. Towards Enhancing Sustainable Livelihoods and Economic Empowerment. Livestock Research for Rural Development. Available online at: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd31/12/abwao31186.html (accessed December 23, 2020).
Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unveiling Women's Roles and Inclusion in Mexican Small-Scale Fisheries (SSF)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The contributions of women to fisheries are often invisible, ignored, and unrecognized even though they represent 47% of the global fisheries workforce, especially in pre- and post-production activities. Poor data systems lead to incorrect assumptions about the gender division of labor in fisheries. This causes the role of women in fisheries to be overlooked.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Comunidad y Biodiversidad A.C., Guaymas, Mexico

UCMEXUS, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States

Sociedad de Historia Natural Niparajá A.C., La Paz, Mexico

Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad, Mexico City, Mexico

Environmental Defense Fund de México A.C., La Paz, Mexico

Pronatura Noroeste, La Paz, Mexico

Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuacultura, Mexico City, Mexico

Citizen science is a rapidly growing field with well-designed and run citizen science projects providing substantial benefits for conservation and management. Marine citizen science presents a unique set of challenges and lags behind terrestrial citizen science, but also provides significant opportunities to work in data-poor fisheries. This paper analyses case studies of citizen science projects developed in collaboration with small-scale fishing communities in Mexico's Pacific Ocean, Gulf of California and Caribbean Sea. The design and performance of these projects were evaluated against the previously published Ten Principles of Citizen Science, and Scientific Stages of Inquiry. Our results suggest that fisheries monitoring, submarine monitoring of no take zones, oceanographic monitoring, and the use of species identification apps by fishers meet the requirements of the published guidelines and are effective tools for involving the small-scale fishing community in science. Translating effective citizen science projects in to effective fishery management, however, is still at an early stage. Whilst citizen science data have been used locally by communities to adapt fishing practices, calculate recommendations for total allowable catches, establish and evaluate no take zones and detect range extensions of species affected by climate change, challenges remain regarding how to garner official recognition for the data, incorporate these growing sources of data into national policy, and use the data for adaptive management regimes at the national level.

Introduction

Documenting fishers' local and traditional knowledge for the purpose of fisheries science has been commonplace for centuries ( Johannes, 1981; Murray et al., 2008); however, fishers have more often been the studied group rather than contributing scientists ( Hind, 2014). Despite fishers providing information to document species declines (e.g., Sáenz-Arroyo et al., 2005; Turvey et al., 2010; Azzurro et al., 2011) or contributing to understanding local ecological processes ( Silvano and Valbo-Jørgensen, 2008), fisheries management bodies and researchers have typically omitted fishers as a source of scientific knowledge ( Johannes, 2003; Hind, 2014).

In recent decades, citizen science has become a growing field ( Follett and Strezov, 2015; Hecker et al., 2018a) that has attracted international attention as a way of generating both large datasets and environmental awareness in target groups. It is increasingly becoming recognized as its own field of investigation ( Jordan et al., 2015), with citizen science agencies and associations being launched, both as government departments and non-profit organizations. Bonney et al. (2014) want " citizen science" to describe any project that produces reliable data and information that can be used by anyone (scientists, policy-makers, the public) under the same system of peer review that applies to conventional science. This makes citizen science a flexible concept that is often used synonymously with participatory science. It considers inclusive, participatory yet structured processes that engage non-scientists in data collection, monitoring and research.

Despite the ever-expanding role of the citizen scientist, scientific and policy impacts are likely suboptimal ( Follett and Strezov, 2015; Hecker et al., 2018a,b). In a study of 388 projects, only 12% produced peer reviewed articles ( Theobald et al., 2015) and there has been a lack of official adoption by government ( Hecker et al., 2018b). Marine citizen science projects are particularly underrepresented ( Roy et al., 2012; Theobald et al., 2015), reflecting the difficulty and expense of project implementation such as the cost of the equipment required, boat hire, safety and liability, or even unclear access and resource rights ( Roy et al., 2012; Cigliano et al., 2015). Successful examples from the marine realm include marine protected area monitoring ( Freiwald et al., 2018) reef system monitoring ( Pattengill-Semmens and Semmens, 2003), categorization of whale sounds ( Shamir et al., 2014), and tracking plastic residue in coastal ecosystems ( Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013). Citizen science's role as a tool for environmental awareness and education is also well documented ( Dickinson et al., 2010; Tulloch et al., 2013; Dean et al., 2018).

A key component of many citizen science projects is community-based monitoring (CBM) ( Conrad and Hilchey, 2011). CBM ensures that citizens participate as scientists, rather than solely data collectors ( Lakshminarayanan, 2007), and involves local stakeholders monitoring issues of local interest or concern. The United Nations Environment Programe, in partnership with several citizen science agencies, recently established the ambitious goal of engaging 1 billion global citizens in citizen science by 2020 ( UNEP, 2017). However, whilst developed countries are leading the way in the establishment of formal citizen science bodies, in Europe (European Citizen Science Association), the United States (Citizen Science Association) and Australia (Australian Citizen Science Association), large-scale national or regional projects in developing nations are still few on the ground. Most marine citizen science studies published to date, for example, are from high-income countries or popular SCUBA diving destinations ( Pattengill-Semmens and Semmens, 2003; Goffredo et al., 2004; Ward-Paige et al., 2010). Citizen science has been identified as a priority to help countries track progress toward, and meet, their Sustainable Development Goals ( Lu et al., 2015) and Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) targets. Indeed, mobilizing citizens can be a cost-effective way for countries to meet these needs. For example, the contribution of French volunteers to the CBD targets has been estimated at between €0.67 and €4.42 m per year, effectively providing in-kind support to the government ( Levrel et al., 2010). Benefits of CBM are also felt locally. Collaborative action, as part of citizen science projects, has been noted to promote buy-in, adaptive management, and resilience ( Aceves-Bueno et al., 2015). Indeed, benefits of collective action on common pool resources are well-documented ( Gardner et al., 1990; Ostrom, 1994, 2000) and citizen science by resource users is an extension of this. In developing countries with weak institutions and limited research funding, significant areas of opportunity exist for citizen science to play a role in common pool resource management. With this in mind, data-poor, multispecific fisheries, in areas where national fisheries agencies do not have the resources to adequately monitor resources, would seem ripe for citizen-led project development and data collection through collaborative, scientific processes between fishers, civil society organizations (CSOs) and researchers.

Mexico is a top 20 fish producing nation, with catches fluctuating around 1.2 million tons ( FAO, 2014), and with one of the longest coastlines in the world (11,000 km), data collection, management and enforcement proves challenging to the overstretched National Commission of Fisheries and Aquaculture (CONAPESCA) and National Institute for Fisheries and Aquaculture (INAPESCA). Small-scale fisheries are of considerable importance ( Espinosa-Romero et al., 2017), accounting for 40% of the total catch and involving an estimated 222,165 small-scale fishers ( Moreno-Báez et al., 2010). Official reports suggest that 70% of national fisheries are at the maximum sustainable yield and 17% are overexploited ( Diario Oficial de la Federación, 2012), however, Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2013) estimate that illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUU) fishing is considerable, with the actual catch potentially being twice as high as the official statistics. Management reform is necessary to move fisheries toward sustainability ( Mangin et al., 2018) but top-down policies have often disenfranchised small-scale fishers ( Finkbeiner and Basurto, 2015) or have not taken in to consideration the best available science for effective implementation. The Mexican legal system does not currently have a clear institutional setting for the promotion, implementation and use of citizen science. The fisheries sector is governed by the General Law for Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture of 2007 (LGPAS, in Spanish), the main legal instrument that " ordains, promotes and regulates the integral management and sustainable use of fishery and aquaculture resources " (LGPAS. art.1). This law stipulates that INAPESCA is the official institution responsible for fisheries research. Layperson participation in research activities and agenda setting is contemplated in two areas: the elaboration of the National Program of Scientific Research in Fisheries and Aquaculture, that INAPESCA must direct and coordinate, taking into account proposals made by research institutions (LGPAS art.29); and the integration of the National Information and Research Network (RNIIPA), where academic and civil society participate in order to present and share their respective research, which INAPESCA may validate and consider as relevant input for further management decisions.

This paper presents 12 citizen science case studies from Mexico's fisheries. We use two published citizen science frameworks to evaluate the participatory nature of the projects and their contributions to fisheries management and conservation. First, we define and describe the marine citizen science projects that are included in the review. We then evaluate the nature of each project against existing citizen science principles and the project stages in which citizens are involved, before discussing the scientific contributions, impacts of collective action, and challenges for wide scale adoption. National reviews of marine citizen science projects are not available in the literature, and citizen science is underrepresented in developing countries. As Mexico, along with neighboring Latin American countries, has yet to develop specific goals, regulations and guidelines for citizen science, we discuss the opportunities for further developing citizen science programs, their contributions to fisheries science and management, and the potential for policy change and scaling to improve fisheries management in data-poor, small-scale fisheries.

Materials and Methods

The document co-authors represent civil society and governmental organizations that implement citizen science projects related to Mexican fisheries. During two workshops (August 2018, February 2019) the co-authors developed a list of 12 fishery citizen science projects currently operating in Mexico. These projects were then grouped by theme to form case studies ( Figure 1). For example, all projects that involved fishers conducting underwater visual censuses were grouped in to one case study, irrespective of the target species or habitat type being surveyed. Other marine citizen science projects were discussed (e.g., turtle surveys, marine mammal surveys) but only those with a fisheries component were included in the review.

Figure 1. Location of case studies and case study categories.

Case-Study 1: Fishery Monitoring

Fishery monitoring programs have been established with fishers and community members to collect data on certain species or areas. Small-scale fishers from 14 communities in the Gulf of California, Pacific Ocean and Mexican Caribbean have been trained to collect data on invertebrates (incl. lobster, octopus, clam and penshell) and finfish (incl. corvina, yellowtail, snapper). Community members are trained to use different tools (traditional logbooks, e-logbooks, biometric measuring equipment, genetic sampling techniques etc.) by CSOs in collaboration with local Fisheries Research Centres of the National Institute for Fisheries and Aquaculture (CRIP-INAPESCA). The projects aim to improve the understanding of regional fisheries, fishery dynamics and to collect fishery-dependent and independent data in data-poor regions. We identified four principle types of fisheries monitoring: catch monitoring, spatio-temporal fisheries monitoring, morphometric data collection and stock assessments. Community members are generally not compensated for their participation but receive the necessary training and equipment to conduct the investigation.

Case-Study 2: Underwater Visual Censuses of Marine Resources and No-Take Zones

Over 215 small-scale fishers have been trained to SCUBA dive and evaluate marine resources in the Mexican Pacific, Gulf of California and Mexican Caribbean ( Karr et al., 2017; Fulton et al., 2019). These efforts have accompanied the bottom-up creation of 204 km ² of no-take marine reserves in 25 coastal communities as well as the evaluation of established marine protected areas. The fishers are trained to identify target species and conduct underwater visual censuses of marine resources to evaluate ecosystem recovery using standardized protocols (e.g., Hernández-Velasco et al., 2018). Fishers are paid a stipend during monitoring periods to compensate for missed fishing days.

Case-Study 3: Oceanographic Monitoring for Climate Change Adaptation

Climate change is affecting Mexican fisheries ( Micheli et al., 2012; Lluch-Cota et al., 2017). Forty-four oceanographic sensors have been installed offshore from 25 communities to collect temperature, DO ₂, current and sea level data. Twenty-five fishers have been trained to install, maintain and retrieve the sensors, before uploading the data to share with scientists from CSOs and Mexican and international universities. The long-term goal is to understand the impacts of climate change and co-create adaptation strategies for long-term viability of the small-scale fisheries in a changing climate. Sensors are provided by research centers and CSOs. Fishers receive training in the installation and use of the sensors, but are not compensated for their participation.

Case-Study 4: Naturalista

Naturalista is part of the global iNaturalist network and is hosted by Mexico's National Commission for Biodiversity (CONABIO). Launched in 2013 it now hosts 29,292 species, 1,356,030 individual sightings and has 31,760 users. Any member of the general public can upload information from their smartphone or computer and there are built-in photo-ID and user verification methods to increase data quality. In 2018, CONABIO conducted training courses for fishers in two coastal communities, donating photographic and computational equipment to the communities. In 6 months this resulted in 5,762 total new sightings as well as the identification of 22 species previously unreported in the database.

Evaluation Criteria

Each case study was evaluated using the two frameworks published in the literature and described below. Fisheries monitoring was subdivided in to catch-monitoring and effort and spatial monitoring to reflect the different approaches and methodologies used.

Principles of Citizen Science

In 2015 the European Citizen Science Association published the "Ten Principles of Citizen Science," based on inputs from members of the association ( Robinson et al., 2018). Now translated in to 26 languages, they aim to provide a framework against which citizen science initiatives should be assessed. Hecker et al. (2018a) recommended reflecting on and testing these principles. We formulated questions from each principle and used this to evaluate the magnitude as to which each case study met the requirements of the principle.

Stages of Scientific Inquiry

Wiggins and Crowston (2011) identified five types of citizen science projects (Action, Conservation, Investigation, Virtual and Education) and eleven stages of scientific inquiry for a citizen science project. The projects in this contribution are Conservation and Investigation projects and the involvement of the fishers in each case study example was evaluated against the eleven stages of scientific inquiry.

Results

Our review identified that most projects considered the majority of the ten principles of citizen science ( Table 1) and fishers were involved in many of the stages identified as part of a process of scientific inquiry ( Table 2).

Table 3. Direct impacts generated by the case study citizen science projects.

Fishers benefit from the projects through increased learning experiences, training, better understanding of their ecosystem, and in some cases, increased social standing, for example the " buzos-monitores" (survey divers) have become spokespeople for their communities ( Fulton et al., 2019). Scientists also benefit, as trust between both sectors increases during the co-design and operation of projects, opening the potential for new investigations with a sector that has traditionally been cautious of outsiders ( Mackinson and Wilson, 2014). The incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge in to research design also increases efficiency as fishers guide aspects such as site selection. Additionally, fisher-citizen scientists have begun to organize themselves, with examples of groups of fishers in the Corvina fishery, Bahía de Kino, and Banco Chinchorro forming civil society organizations to allow them to continue the citizen science schemes independently from the original project organizers. In the case of Bahía de Kino, nine fishers created the CSO " Grupo de Monitoreo Submarino y Análisis de Cambio Climático " (Submarine and Climate Change Analysis Team) in 2011 and have since been hired by the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) and larger CSOs to conduct monitoring in marine reserves and train other fishers as part of peer-to-peer learning exchanges.

Whilst meta-data is publically available for some of projects (e.g., Mascareñas-Osorio et al., 2017; Comunidad and Biodiversidad, 2018; Palacios-Abrantes et al., 2019) in public repositories, project data are not publically available in open access databases. The exception to this rule is Naturalista, where all information is immediately published online, can be consulted by anybody with internet access, and can be downloaded in full. For most projects, particularly in the fishery and marine reserve case studies, data were available to project participants upon request and were shared privately with participants and management bodies (i.e., CONANP, CONAPESCA and INAPESCA). Interestingly, the principle reason that data are not publically available stems from the fishing community itself and is related to the ethical consideration of the activities. Despite fishing a federal resource (a common good), fishers are cautious about publically sharing specific information about local stock health due to concerns about other fishers ("outsiders") using this information to their detriment. Specific examples of this include fishers requesting that coordinates of fish spawning aggregation sites or abundance data on high-value benthic resources (e.g., abalone) inside marine reserves are not shared. Their caution is understandable, examples of outsiders pilfering no-take zones once they hear about stock recovery are not uncommon ( Cudney-Bueno et al., 2009).

Formal data analysis is almost exclusively conducted by scientists affiliated with national and international universities, fisheries research centers (CRIP-INAPESCA) and CSOs. Most commonly, analyzed data are presented back to fishers during formal events such as community meetings and cooperative assemblies. During this participatory meetings fishers can discuss, draw their own conclusions, and ask new questions.

Whilst project design and data collection followed a consistent process in each of the project types, in some scenarios two parallel pathways emerged after data were collected. As Table 2 shows, fishers are not commonly involved in data analysis. This step typically involves researchers from CSOs and universities cleaning and processing the data before conducting statistical analyses, which are then interpreted before being disseminated within the fishing communities during formal events. Weeks to months may pass between the fishers collecting the data, seeing processed results and being able to draw conclusions and discuss. However, in some scenarios, such as marine reserve monitoring, a much more rapid feedback loop begins the moment the fisher-citizen scientist leaves the water after a survey ( Figure 2). As the supervising scientists are leaving the community, the fisher-citizen scientists are already analyzing the data they saw using the same traditional ecological knowledge system that they use to make daily decisions on where to fish. The fishers then communicate this interpretation to their community through the traditional channels. This process can be complete in hours to days, much faster than the scientific system employed by the citizen science project managers.

Figure 2. The emergence of parallel pathways by researchers and fishers after data collection.

Naturalista allows citizens from any part of Mexico to participate at any time, and currently has over 31,000 users. Marine projects can be created by any user to collect data on specific species or areas. Despite this, marine data are sparse, of the 1,356,030 data points, less than 1.4% are marine fish and invertebrates. In 2018, 21 coastal community members were trained to use the app, to pilot a project to increase marine data in priority areas. In 6 months, this resulted in 5,762 new data points of which 23% were marine fish and invertebrates. Users of the platform can also make their own projects, selecting target species and study areas. Due to the open science nature of the platform it is difficult to verify the impact in terms of scientific publications. It is, however, a powerful tool for documenting Mexican biodiversity through the participation of the general public although, at present, it favors terrestrial ecosystems.

Discussion

The marine citizen science projects in this review present similar advantages and difficulties to those highlighted in other research (e.g., Conrad and Hilchey, 2011; Roy et al., 2012; Theobald et al., 2015). The inherently collaborative nature of citizen science projects compensates for many of these difficulties. When fishers identify with the long term goals, and see what they too have to gain, they are willing to co-invest in the activities (with their time and equipment), helping drive project longevity. It also serves to incorporate traditional ecological knowledge in to mainstream science projects, build synergies, and helps develop and answer questions in a constantly changing environment. Most case studies meet the Ten Principles for Citizen Science and the majority of the eleven stages of scientific inquiry providing validation and legitimacy for the projects. The Ten Principles ( Robinson et al., 2018) are an effective framework against which projects can be assessed and should be part of the design of all future citizen science projects in Mexico, not just in fisheries.

As in other reviews ( Roy et al., 2012; Aceves-Bueno et al., 2015; Theobald et al., 2015) our marine citizen science case studies require considerable investment on the part of the project leaders (in this case CSOs and researchers) and participants, both in time and equipment. The projects have been successful because project leaders provide constant follow-up and invest heavily in creating capacity in each community. Equipment costs are not insignificant, with the purchase and maintenance of SCUBA gear, boat time and technology needing to be considered for the lifetime of the project. This is an important consideration that has yet to be fully resolved. None of the case study projects are designed to end, and all currently depend wholly or partially on philanthropy. Steps must be taken, in collaboration with the fishers, government agencies, philanthropic organizations and researchers to institutionalize and assure funding for the projects, if the goal is to maintain them indefinitely.

As a "top-down" national-level citizen science project, Naturalista, differs from the others. Its scientific contributions are significant with 19 species discoveries (although none are fish), 29 new sightings for Mexico and 747 reports of invasive species ( Tello, 2018). Challenges include significantly increasing the number of marine sightings (considering the difficulties discussed by Roy et al., 2012), increasing photo quality, and limited internet connectivity in remote regions ( Tello, 2018). The specific training in Naturalista for members of fishing communities has proved effective, significantly increasing the proportion of fish species reported and should be rolled out throughout coastal communities. Many fishers in Mexico have smartphones, using them daily for communication with family members, commercialization and social media ( Gastelum et al., 2015). There is considerable potential for scaling this model as it bypasses some of the pitfalls mentioned in the previous paragraph.

Whilst the goal of this paper is not a review of the quality of the data produced by citizen science, the body of peer-reviewed scientific literature produced from the projects (see Table 3) and periodic evaluations ( Fulton et al., 2019) show that scientists from leading research institutions are willing to use the information, putting these projects in the 12% of biodiversity citizen science projects that contribute to the scientific literature ( Theobald et al., 2015) and meet the targets of the principles. Involving fishers in citizen science also encourages interactions between stakeholders and has produced concrete conservation successes. Data from underwater visual census and landings, have been used to justify the creation of 39 no take zones (either as legally recognized "fish refuges" or voluntary marine reserves, see Karr et al., 2017 for an example) and evaluate eight federal marine protected areas. Fisheries data have contributed to fisheries management in several high-value and important fisheries such as corvina, yellowtail, lobster, octopus and clam. Some of these fisheries are currently in Fishery Improvement Projects on route to eco-certifications and continued data collection is a necessity. Trained fishers are able to act as early warning systems. Fishers have provided information to detect shifting fishing seasons and catch compositions, allowing science-based management decisions to be put in place quickly. These actions are often informal as changes to fisheries regulations can take considerable time. Two examples of this are fishers from Baja California using information from oceanographic sensors to informally shift their sea urchin fishing season to cooler periods when urchin gonads are undeveloped, and fishers in the northern Gulf of California identifying changes in catch composition and fishing grounds due to shifting seasons, and adapting their activities accordingly. Finally, participation in scientific processes and the creation of trust between fishers and researchers means that fishers report unusual events. Seven papers have been published on range extensions or first sightings due to information provided by fishers ( Martínez-Torres et al., 2014; Fernández-Rivera Melo et al., 2015a, b, 2018; Hernández-Velasco et al., 2016; Hernández et al., 2018; López-Fuerte et al., 2018) and fishers were the first to detect hypoxia events in the Pacific Ocean due to shifts in the California Current ( Micheli et al., 2012; Boch et al., 2018).

Fishers are not regularly involved in data analysis, but have found ways to overcome the time lag that traditionally occurs between data collection and feedback ( Robinson et al., 2018). The analysis in each of our case studies is conducted by researchers affiliated with universities or CSOs. This may take months and can cause disillusion amongst the fishers as they are used to working on short time frames with immediate results, and have become accustomed to researchers collecting data on their fishery and then never returning to feedback the information. The traditional networks that fishers use to transmit information about their daily catch, fishing grounds and seasonal patterns of productivity are appropriated to share information about the citizen science projects. Project leaders must adapt to this situation as it can have positive and negative consequences. If a fisher who conducts a visual census sees a positive change in a species in the marine reserve they can quickly become an effective proponent of reserves in their community. Conversely, fishers often expect to see rapid changes in the marine environment following a management or conservation action and this can sometimes lead to disillusion or frustration which then permeates through the community.

Despite the success of these case studies, the potential of citizen science in Mexico remains untapped. By 2030, Mexico's 150 coastal municipalities ( Diario Oficial de la Federación, 2018) will have a predicted population of 60 million ( Fuentes et al., 2017), many of whom will depend heavily on coastal resources. Mexico's small-scale multi-specific fisheries are data-poor and significant management reform is considered necessary ( Mangin et al., 2018). Current Mexican fisheries laws do not provide many formal opportunities for citizen science, and fisheries investigation remains the domain of INAPESCA. However, significant efforts have been made to broaden the national fisheries agenda, introducing cross-cutting issues related to the socioeconomic aspects of fisheries and an ecosystem approach to fisheries management ( INAPESCA, 2018). The Mexican legal framework regarding social participation remains limited. Under LGPAS, participation is mainly contemplated through RNIIPA and the law does not contemplate the formal inclusion of CSOs (beyond those registered as research organizations). In practice, social participation in research has occurred. INAPESCA regularly considers citizen-produced data during field studies, resource evaluations or for producing technical reports, and fishers often participate in investigations alongside INAPESCA researchers. However, the omission of citizen science from the national legislation does not credit the users who provide data, nor the institutions that use the data for resource management.

At a time when the ivory tower of scientists is threatened by an increasing distrust in experts ( Fairbrother, 2017; Lamberts, 2017), and crucial environmental topics such as climate change pass from the scientific to the political realm, citizen involvement in scientific research becomes ever more important. The stakeholders covered in this paper have made adaptive management decisions at the local level, as suggested by Aceves-Bueno et al. (2015), as fisheries science, generated in data-poor fishers, at the local scale and on topics of interest for the fishers, is trusted by the fishers. Scaling to cover regional fisheries, or include in the national agenda, however, remains a challenge: as Ostrom et al. (1999) documented, having higher numbers of participants increases complexity and potential for conflict between interlinked CPRs (for example, multispecific fisheries), both of which are affected by the uncertainty of climate change. CSOs have played a key role in facilitating this change in Mexico, acting as intermediators between fishing communities and fishery and conservation managers ( Espinosa-Romero et al., 2014), whilst producing considerable scientific output ( Lopez-Olmedo et al., 2019), but adoption of citizen science by Mexico-based researchers has been slow. The limited participation of Mexican academics in citizen science is a topic that needs to be further explored. Many of the publications generated by our case studies are published by researchers affiliated with CSOs or foreign research institutions. The vertical nature of research in Mexico likely plays a role, as does distrust in citizen science data, the reward system of the National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT) which critics say discourages collaboration ( Altbach, 2015), and established fisheries research priorities ( Espinoza-Tenorio and Espejel, 2012). For example, when 202 fisheries research projects financed by CONACYT between 2000 and 2009 were analyzed, most projects were found to focus on ecosystem and commercial species, without taking into account social aspects of fisheries, and there were no transdisciplinary projects that incorporated traditional ecological knowledge and fisher participation ( Espinoza-Tenorio and Espejel, 2012), or that developed research using a citizen science approach.

Incorporating citizen science in to policy is a further challenge. Environmental agencies and other government institutions can be hesitant about using citizen science data as it is deemed to be of lower quality than their traditional data sources ( Bonney et al., 2014; Owen and Parker, 2018). Hyder et al. (2015) identified several factors that have affected uptake in marine ecosystems, many of which are reflected in this study. Citizen science is not recognized by Mexican fisheries legislation as an official data source, and INAPESCA retains the sole responsibility for scientific decision making in fisheries. However, as we can see from many of the case studies, information from citizen science is used to inform management decisions (e.g., stock assessments, total allowable catches and no-take zones), it is just not formally recognized. Mexico should take note of the European Environment Agency (2011) and United Nations Environment Programe ( UNEP, 2017) who have both identified the contribution of citizen science data as key components in the drive toward sustainability. It would also be economically beneficial - the contribution of French volunteers to the CBD targets has been estimated at between €0.67 and €4.42 m per year, effectively presenting a saving to the government ( Levrel et al., 2010). Mexico's small contributions to fisheries research have been documented elsewhere ( Espinoza-Tenorio et al., 2011) and as such an increased focus on participatory research could provide significant opportunities and savings. Delayed fisheries reform has been predicted to cause significant losses in Mexican fisheries ( Mangin et al., 2018) and the inclusion of citizen science in management reforms aimed at improving fisheries sustainability could have considerable net benefits to the nation from a purely economic standpoint, without even considering the social benefits of participatory research.

The need to potentialize and formalize citizen science in Latin America as a whole is also apparent. The creation of the Citizen Science Global Partnership in 2017 supports this hypothesis. The Partnership aims to be a "network-of-networks" for citizen science at the global level. The steering committee consists of the United States, European and Australian Citizen Science Associations, with invited observers from the African Citizen Science Association and CitizenScience.Asia. Latin America is notable by its absence. Chandler et al. (2017) found the citizen science contributions to international biodiversity monitoring were mostly located in Europe, North America, South Africa, India and Australia. Only four of the 211 projects in North America take part in, or partially in, Mexico ( Chandler et al., 2017). Whilst Latin America has the highest number of "mega-diverse" countries of any region, and thus great potential for biodiversity citizen science, only Chile appears to have a formalized and active citizen science association. This situation may be slowly improving; representatives from >40 organizations conducting citizen science in Latin America met in Mexico City in September 2018 and identified the need for a regional network of practitioners ( Tello, 2018). This should continue and be supported by national governments. The legal frameworks adopted in the U.S., with the Crowdsourcing and Citizen Science Act of 2016, created in order to " to encourage and increase the use of crowdsourcing and citizen science methods within the Federal Government to advance and accelerate scientific research, literacy, and diplomacy, and for other purposes " (Crowdsource and Citizen Science Act of 2016), could provide a benchmark. As a result of this legal framework, the U.S government has developed three key components to promote citizen science and crowdsourcing; a catalog of federally supported projects, a toolkit to assist federal practitioners in citizen science projects, and online communities.

Open Science is a key part of citizen science and public participation in research ( Hecker et al., 2018b). In 2014 Mexico's president signed amendments to the Science and Technology Act, the General Education Act, and the Organic Law of the National Council for Science and Technology giving all Mexicans free access to scientific and academic production, which have been partially or fully financed by public funds. More recently, in 2017, an open science policy was published, formalizing these amendments. We consider these to be important steps that will potentialize both public access to data and encourage citizen participation in science in Mexico.

The combination of successful examples of citizen science, such as those discussed in this article, as well as the institutional and legal frameworks being put in place in Mexico, suggest that citizen science will play an ever-growing role in Mexican fisheries. Considerable barriers are still to be overcome to ensure that scaling and replication are made possible and that the participation of the fishers, along with the data generated, serve to improve fisheries sustainability, education, co-responsibility for resources and to protect livelihoods in coastal communities. Citizen science will continue to be a growing field and current and future projects should look to follow current examples, and evaluate themselves against existing frameworks such as the "Ten Principles of Citizen Science" ( Robinson et al., 2018) and the Stages of Scientific Inquiry ( Wiggins and Crowston, 2011) to ensure that they remain true to the goals of citizen science.

Conclusion

Structured citizen science programs in Mexico's small-scale fisheries provide a wealth of data and opportunities, for fishers, researchers and managers. Data generated have been used to evaluate stocks and habitat, detect the impacts of climate change and increase our knowledge on fisheries. It has also empowered a network of local leaders, who are now transmitting a message of environmental stewardship in their communities. Challenges, however, remain, particularly regarding how to incorporate these growing sources of data in to national policy, garner official recognition, and use the data for adaptive management. The institutionalization and adoption of citizen science by the government agencies responsible for managing fisheries and by researchers based at Mexico's universities could help these models scale in to national data collection networks supported by the resource users.

Data Availability

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

SF conceived the idea. SF, CL-S, AW, FF-C, CG, FF-RM, SY, MO-V, DF, and ET-B analyzed the data, discussed the results, and wrote and edited the manuscript. All authors provided valuable contributions.

Funding

SF, FF-RM, and FF-C received funding from the Walton Family Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Summit Foundation, Oceans 5, Sandler Foundation, MARFund, and Marisla Foundation. AW received funding from the Walton Family Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Fondo Mexicano para la Conservación de la Naturaleza, The Nature Conservancy, Alianza WWF-Fundación Carlos Slim, and CONAPESCA. CL-S received funding from the Walton Family Foundation, CONACyT, and Fondo Mexicano para la Conservación de la Naturaleza. SY received funding from the Walton Family Foundation. MO-V received funding from the Walton Family Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Sandler Foundation, and The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust. CG and ET-B appreciate the support provided to Naturalista by the Fundación Carlos Slim.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This study would have not been possible without the efforts of members of the fishing communities mentioned herein who are at the forefront of citizen science in Mexican fisheries. We also thank María José Espinosa, Jorge Torre, and Araceli Acevedo for assistance with launching this idea.

Footnotes

References

Hernández-Velasco, A., Fernández-Rivera Melo, F., Melo-Merino, S., and Villaseñor, J. C. (2016). Occurrence of Holacanthus clarionensis (Pomacanthidae), Stegastes leucorus and Stegastes acapulcoensis (Pomacentridae) at Magdalena Bay, B.C.S., Mexico. Mar. Biodivers. Rec. 9:49. doi: 10.1186/s41200-016-0062-1

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Untapped Potential of Citizen Science in Mexican Small-Scale Fisheries

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Citizen science is a rapidly growing field with well-designed and run citizen science projects providing substantial benefits for conservation and management. Marine citizen science presents a unique set of challenges and lags behind terrestrial citizen science, but also provides significant opportunities to work in data-poor fisheries.

# data[].attributes.headline
Premio de pesca y acuacultura sustentable (2019 y 2019)

# data[].attributes.subject
Premio de pesca y acuacultura sustentable (2019 y 2019)