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Early Classification Of Nature (1680-1800)

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Early Classification Of Nature (1680-1800)

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Building upon Linnaeus's groundwork, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach developed a race-based classification system in "On the Natural Variety of Mankind," categorizing humans into five groups based on physical traits rather than geography: Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and American. This shift from geographical to physical classification marked a significant change in how human diversity was conceptualized. The Enlightenment era provided a backdrop for these theories, with philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau shaping European thought with ideals of reason and rationality. However, Europeans' understanding of other races was often limited and shaped by indirect sources like the slave trade and missionary accounts, leading to ethnocentric descriptions. Despite the interchangeability of terms like "race" and "species" in European discourse, the ideological components of race found in North America were less prevalent in eighteenth-century Europe.

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Slavery And The Invention Of Race (1770-1830)

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Slavery And The Invention Of Race (1770-1830)

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The transatlantic slave trade surged during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, peaking with the growth of large plantations in the Americas. Slave ships like the Henrietta Marie exemplified the horrific conditions, carrying hundreds of slaves with high mortality rates. By the late eighteenth century, slavery in the U.S. had become entrenched, especially with the invention of the cotton gin in 1793, which dramatically increased the demand for slaves in cotton-growing regions. Despite growing unease with slavery in Europe and the U.S., fueled by abolitionist movements and publications like Phillis Wheatley's poetry and Olaudah Equiano's autobiography, the slave trade persisted even after Britain banned it in 1807. The ban faced challenges from Spanish and Portuguese traders, illustrating the ongoing struggle against the inhumane institution.

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The Paradox Of Freedom And Slavery (1776-1800)

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The Paradox Of Freedom And Slavery (1776-1800)

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Crispus Attucks, a runaway slave of African and Indian descent, became the first casualty of the American Revolution in 1770 during the Boston Massacre. The Revolutionary War saw the irony of fighting for liberty while slavery persisted, as highlighted by John Jay's acknowledgment of inconsistency. The British recruited slaves, offering freedom to those who fought, while George Washington initially prohibited black soldiers despite their prior involvement. After the war, many black soldiers were abandoned or recaptured as slaves, although some found freedom in New York. Vermont became the first colony to abolish slavery in 1777. Post-war, maroon colonies formed, resisting plantation owners and militias, and the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 reinforced slaveholders' rights. The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 restricted immigration and naturalization, and the first U.S. Census in 1790 counted slaves as three-fifths of a person. Despite growing opposition, the Underground Railroad and congressional actions gradually challenged and restricted slavery.

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Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," published in 1852, exposed the brutality of slavery and garnered widespread attention, even from President Lincoln, who credited the novel with influencing the Civil War. The book depicted the cruel slave owner Simon Legree and the Christ-like figure of Uncle Tom, illustrating the moral contradictions of slavery. The abolitionist movement gained momentum in the North, fueled by slave uprisings and the Underground Railroad, while tensions between North and South escalated. The South, where slave populations equaled or exceeded whites in some areas, faced increasing resistance, including organized revolts like Gabriel Prosser's in 1800 and Nat Turner's in 1831. Despite efforts like the American Colonization Society's attempt to repatriate freed slaves to Africa, resistance to slavery grew, with figures like Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman becoming prominent voices against the institution. John Brown's failed raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 further fueled the divide, ultimately hastening the outbreak of the Civil War.

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The exploitation of individuals like the Hottentot Venus (Saartjie Baartman), showcased in carnival-like exhibitions, exemplified the dehumanizing racial attitudes prevalent in the 19th century. These exhibitions, purportedly scientific, categorized people based on racial hierarchies, reinforcing the notion of racial inferiority among non-Europeans. International fairs like London's Great Exhibition and Paris' Exposition Universelle showcased human exhibits as spectacles, contrasting colonized peoples with European advancements. Figures like Millie and Christine McCoy, conjoined twins exploited for profit, and Ota Benga, displayed in a zoo alongside animals, endured similar degrading treatment. These exhibitions perpetuated racial stereotypes and fueled controversies, reflecting the pervasive racism of the era.

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Immigration, Black Migration, And U.S. Colonialism (1840-1890)

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Immigration, Black Migration, And U.S. Colonialism (1840-1890)

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D.W. Griffith's film "The Birth of a Nation" depicted the Civil War and Reconstruction through the lens of two families, perpetuating racist narratives blaming Reconstruction and African Americans for post-war problems. This film, based on Ku Klux Klan propaganda, fueled racial tensions and was met with strong opposition from organizations like the NAACP. Concurrently, immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe faced discrimination upon arriving in the U.S., experiencing segregation and housing discrimination. The Great Migration saw African Americans move from the rural South to urban centers in the North, facing violence and discrimination there as well. Race riots erupted across the country during World War I and afterwards, highlighting racial tensions and systemic racism. Despite progress in literature and sociology, racist attitudes persisted, exemplified by events like the Tulsa race riots and the popularity of blackface entertainment.

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In the mid-19th century, significant advancements in human biology led to the popularization of theories on race and heredity. Josiah Clark Nott and George Robins Gliddon's "Types of Mankind" promoted the polygenist theory of separate human race origins, later refuted by Charles Darwin in "The Descent of Man" in 1871. Darwin's work on evolution and Mendel's experiments on heredity laid the foundation for genetics. However, Southern doctors like Samuel Cartwright and James Marion Sims used race science to legitimize the exploitation of slaves, conducting unethical experiments on black subjects. French pathologist Paul Broca and British anthropologist Sir Francis Galton furthered racial classification and eugenics, contributing to the development of discriminatory practices.

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Emancipation And The Backlash (1860-1870)

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Emancipation And The Backlash (1860-1870)

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In 1863, race riots erupted in New York, Philadelphia, and Detroit, with Irish immigrants targeting the black population due to resentment over conscription laws. The Civil War was inevitable by 1860, driven by anti-slavery forces and southern states' fear of losing power. Abraham Lincoln's election led to South Carolina's secession from the Union. Meanwhile, Harriet Jacobs' "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" exposed the horrors of slavery, and the Emancipation Proclamation of 1862 freed slaves in Confederate states. The formation of the first black regiment and Confederate attacks on Lawrence, Kansas, marked significant events. In 1866, race riots continued in Memphis and New Orleans, leading to the formation of the Ku Klux Klan. Congress responded with the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 to curb white resistance to African American political progress during Reconstruction.

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U.S. Control Of American Indians (1870-1890)

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U.S. Control Of American Indians (1870-1890)

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In the late 19th century, ethnologists like Alice Fletcher and Frank Hamilton Cushing significantly influenced U.S. policies towards Native Americans. Fletcher advocated for allotments, while Cushing immersed himself in Native cultures for documentation. Meanwhile, "The Friends of the Indian" strategized assimilation, leading to policies that nearly obliterated Native cultures. Legislative acts, such as the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 and the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887, stripped sovereignty and land from tribes, imposing private ownership and the "blood quantum" standard. Violence persisted, evidenced by the Wounded Knee Massacre and white settler rushes into Native lands. Despite resistance, U.S. citizenship was conferred upon Native Americans in Oklahoma in 1901. The Dawes Act's effects endured until its 1934 repeal, continuing to undermine tribal integrity and impact Native communities nationwide.

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Eugenics And Physical Anthropology (1890-1930)

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Eugenics And Physical Anthropology (1890-1930)

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In 1910, Harry H. Laughlin assumed leadership at the Eugenics Record Office (ERO) in Cold Spring Harbor, New York, vigorously advancing eugenic principles through lectures and legislative advocacy, notably supporting the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act of 1924. Collaborating with Charles Davenport, Laughlin capitalized on their positions to promote eugenics. Meanwhile, Madison Grant's racialist advocacy, emphasizing elimination of "undesirables," influenced immigration policy. This movement, rooted in social Darwinism and essentialist views of race, had far-reaching implications, shaping policies and societal attitudes towards immigration, miscegenation, and marginalized groups.

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European Immigration And Defining Whiteness (1910-1920)

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European Immigration And Defining Whiteness (1910-1920)

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Between 1880 and 1924, significant waves of immigration to the U.S. saw over two million Eastern Europeans, notably Polish Catholics, and roughly two million Jews seeking refuge from political turmoil in Eastern Europe. Italian immigration peaked between 1910 and 1920, exceeding two million. However, discriminatory immigration policies of the 1920s favored Northern Europeans, driven by eugenicists like Madison Grant and Charles Davenport who deemed immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe as "inferior stock." The Immigration Act of 1924, heavily influenced by eugenic arguments, imposed strict quotas and strengthened anti-miscegenation laws. Meanwhile, legal battles like Ozawa v. United States and United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind highlighted racial restrictions on citizenship, impacting Asian immigrants. The Asiatic Barred Zone Act of 1917 and Virginia's Racial Integrity Act of 1924 further entrenched racial discrimination, while Congress granted Native Americans voting rights in 1924.

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The Great Depression And World War II (1930-1940)

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The Great Depression And World War II (1930-1940)

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The Works Projects Administration (WPA), established in 1935 as part of the New Deal, played a significant role in the economic recovery from the Great Depression, employing millions of Americans. However, despite its efforts, the WPA disproportionately benefited black families, who were among the hardest hit by the Depression. Similarly, the Social Security Act of 1935 initially excluded certain groups, including blacks and Latinos, from eligibility for benefits. The GI Bill of Rights in 1944 aimed to uplift returning World War II veterans, but discriminatory practices limited opportunities for non-white veterans in accessing education, housing, and business loans. These discriminatory legacies perpetuated wealth disparities between whites and non-whites, evident in rates of homeownership and economic assets. Additionally, the census racial categories evolved over time, reflecting changing societal attitudes towards race and ethnicity. The U.S. entry into World War II following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 marked a pivotal moment in history.

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The Beginning And The End Of Affirmative Action (1950-200)

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The Beginning And The End Of Affirmative Action (1950-200)

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In Michigan, protests erupted against an anti-affirmative action measure proposed by African American advocate Ward Connerly, successfully passed in November 2006. The history of affirmative action dates back to President Kennedy's 1961 executive order, followed by President Johnson's 1965 order establishing enforcement guidelines. However, over time, affirmative action became synonymous with "reverse discrimination," facing legal challenges in the late 1970s for alleged quotas. The evolution of affirmative action shifted legal focus from statistical patterns to intent of discrimination, affecting various minority groups' lawsuits based on racial proportionality. Census racial categories underwent changes, reflecting shifting societal perceptions, notably regarding Hispanics' racial identification. Affirmative action faced significant legal challenges, with landmark Supreme Court rulings like Bakke v. Univ. of California in 1978 and Grutter v. Bollinger in 2003, highlighting the ongoing debate surrounding diversity and equal opportunity.

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The Debate Of Race And Intelligence Redux (1980-1990)

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The Debate Of Race And Intelligence Redux (1980-1990)

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In 1994, "The Bell Curve" reignited debates on race and intelligence, proposing a link between IQ and social outcomes, particularly favoring those of European and Asian descent. Arthur Jensen's 1969 work also fueled controversy, asserting a significant genetic component to intelligence, challenging efforts to boost IQ among African Americans. However, Stephen Jay Gould's 1981 book "The Mismeasure of Man" countered biological determinism theories, while Richard Lewontin's 1984 book "Not In Our Genes" questioned genetic explanations for human behavioral traits. Herrnstein and Murray's book faced criticism for alleged scientific racism, prompting Gould to update his rebuttal in 1996.

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NAFTA, The Patriot Act And The New Immigration Blacklash (1990-2000)

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NAFTA, The Patriot Act And The New Immigration Blacklash (1990-2000)

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In 2006, nationwide protests erupted against anti-immigrant legislation, primarily targeting Central American immigrants, leading to congressional debates on immigration reform. The Immigration Act of 1990 and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 shaped post-9/11 immigration policies, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) raised concerns about immigration from Mexico. Census classifications evolved, introducing a multiple-race option and revealing demographic shifts, with four states boasting non-white majority populations by 2005. The "Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act of 2005" proposed a pathway to legal status for undocumented workers, including penalties and a temporary visa program, sparking controversy.