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1. (1568–1648). The revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish rule, also known as the Eighty Years' War, is generally said to have initiated in June 1568, when the Spanish executed Counts Egmont and Horne in Brussels. The concerns that led to open revolt, had many earlier causes. The revolt itself is best believed as a series of similar uprisings and wars that, created the Dutch Revolt

2. The ultimate effect of the revolt was determined mainly by 1609, when the combatants approved the Twelve Years' Truce but the war between the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) and the Kingdom of Spain did not regularly stop

3. Philip II's governmental and religious tactics in the Spanish Low Countries (the Netherlands), specifically great taxation and torture of Protestants. The Protestant Reformation had entered in the Netherlands through the Anabaptists and therefore later the Calvinists, and by the 1560s, concerns between Protestants and Catholics were great and raised further by the French Wars of Religion

4. The Dutch people, who before were Protestants, were seeking independence from Spanish rule and the ability to practice their own religion freely. The desire for religious freedom was a significant driving force behind the Dutch Revolution. The Dutch people fought against the Spanish forces, engaging in both military and political struggles to ensure their independence. The conflict lasted for several decades and involved numerous battles and sieges.

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1. During the Dutch Revolt, the Dutch rebels had to find methods to finance their fight. They raised payment through taxes, both on merchandise and goods. They also had gotten economic help from more nations like England and France

2. The Siege of Leiden was an important occurrence during the Dutch Revolt. The Spanish troops surrounded the city and tried to starve out the rebels. They rushed the field and created it tough for the Spanish to attack. Eventually, the Spanish had to retreat. This gave the people hope.

3. The rebels had to use military strength and defend against the government's oppression. They made armies, protected their cities, and fought against the Spanish forces.

4. During the Dutch Revolt was the Pacification of Ghent in 1576. It was a important time when various provinces in the Netherlands came together to form an agreement against the Spanish rule. The Pacification of Ghent aimed to unify the provinces and build religious freedom, in addition to to discharge Spanish military from the area

5. In the Dutch Revolt, the moderates were then able to gain control by looking for more peaceful answers and compromise with the Spanish government. They trusted in bargaining instead of complete-on disobedience. Their approach helped produce various conflicts together and was able to make it to the signing of the Pacification of Ghent.

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1. the radicals established the batavion republic which was a unitary state, unlike the confrontational structure of the dutch republic. they also in forced democratic reforms and expanded civil rights, including religious toleration

2. There was a civil war conflicted called the disaster year in the dutch republic. in 1672, when France invaded there was lots of panic and the people blamed the leaders. including grand pensionary johan de Witt. the oranges took advantage of this and staged a coup. also there was the the foreign part of it where we see the England,Spain, and Rome formed a alliance to stop France from taking over and this provided support to the the dutch.

3. The revolution council was made up of representatives elected by the people. they were mostly middle class patriots, and they were tasked with creating a new constitution while also dealing with internal disagreements. the disagreements eventually led to the dissolution of the council and the establishments of the new government called the batavian commonwealth in 1801

4. When the patriots took over, they tried to create more egalitarian ways, but not everyone agreed with there ideas so the patriots decided they need to take control and would make public officials swear under oath of allegiance to the new regime. people who refused would lose there job or worse.

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1. things began to change after napoleons defeat in 1813. the dutch invited prince William to return from exile, he became the sovereign prince and in 1810 the Napoleonic wars started to slow down and in 1815 completely ended

2. By 1848 political pressure and social unrest led to significant constitutional changes. king William agreed to revise the constitution that turned the Netherlands into a parliamentary democracy. this created a better balance of power giving more representation to different factions

3. aggressive nihilism isn't a term typically associated with the dutch revolution, the dutch revolution was more about political and religious autonomy, rather then rejecting all of the moral and religious factors

4. The dutch war ended with a treaty of Westphalia in 1648. this treaty was recognized as the independence of the new dutch republic from Spanish rule. the new dutch republic had significant autonomy, which laid the groundwork for it to become one of the worlds economic superpowers in the 17th century.

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The Eighty Years' War (1568-1648, also known as The Dutch Revolt and Dutch War of Independence) was a military conflict between the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands and Spain, which then governed them, beginning in the reign of King Philip II of Spain (1556-1598). Peace was concluded in 1648 with the establishment of the Dutch Republic.

Results of the war include:

Beginning of the end of the Spanish Empire

Portuguese independence as Spain lost hold of its colonies

Innovations in warfare by Dutch Protestants

Dutch Independence/formation of the Dutch Republic; countries did not need a monarch

The Netherlands becomes a major European power; colonization of Americas

The main causes of the war were Philip II's political and religious policies in the Spanish Low Countries (the Netherlands), particularly high taxation and persecution of Protestants. The Protestant Reformation had arrived in the Netherlands through the Anabaptists and then later the Calvinists, and by the 1560s, tensions between Protestants and Catholics were high and increased further by the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598), which encouraged more Protestants to relocate to the Netherlands.

When armed conflict began, Philip II's forces were led by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, the 3rd Duke of Alba (l. 1507-1582), who had fought for the Catholic cause under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1519-1556) in the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547). The Duke of Alba took over as Governor of the Netherlands when his repressive religious policies of persecution caused the sitting governor, Margaret of Parma (l. 1522-1586, illegitimate daughter of Charles V), to resign. Alba's policies were challenged by the Protestant William the Silent (l. 1533-1584, also known as William of Orange, not to be confused with William III of England, commonly known as William of Orange) who had fled the duke's persecutions in 1568 and organized the resistance that began the war that same year.

Although political & social problems contributed to the conflict, it was informed by religious intolerance.

The conflict claimed thousands of lives, including William's, before a truce was called in 1609 (The Twelve Years' Truce), with hostilities resuming in 1621 under Philip II's son - successor to Philip III (r. 1598-1621) - Philip IV (r. 1621-1665), who adhered to the policies of Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares (l. 1587-1645), who objected to the significant gains made during the truce by the Dutch statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (l. 1547-1619). By this time, the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) had begun, which would eventually draw all of Europe into conflict. The Peace of Münster (January 1648) stipulated Dutch Independence but was essentially meaningless until it was included in the Peace of Westphalia (October 1648), ending both the Eighty and the Thirty Years' War.

Although political and social problems contributed to both conflicts, they were informed by religious intolerance, and this was not resolved by the concluding peace. It is for this reason that the conflict is also sometimes referred to as The Dutch Wars of Religion. The divisions caused by the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation (1545-c. 1700) continued in Europe after the wars, informing policy, political agendas, and further conflicts in the 18th century.

Background

Charles V handed control of the Low Countries to his son, Philip II, in 1555 prior to his abdication in 1556. Charles V was a member of the powerful Habsburg family, who were staunch defenders of Catholicism. Charles V had been trying to suppress the 'new teachings' of the Protestants shortly after Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) introduced them in the Holy Roman Empire in 1517, and, by the 1540s, the Reformation had established itself in the Low Countries first through the Anabaptists (initially a splinter sect of the Reformed vision of Huldrych Zwingli, l. 1484-1531) and then the Calvinists (followers of John Calvin, l. 1509-1564). Philip II was entrusted with not only governing the Low Countries but eradicating the Protestant heresy there.

Philip II was not particularly interested in the Low Countries except as a source of revenue and sent his half-sister Margaret of Parma to govern with the assistance of Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (l. 1528-1580) and Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (l. 1517-1586), among others. In 1556, Philip II continued the "Edict of Blood" issued by Charles V in 1550 outlawing Protestant writings, teachings, meetings, and religious services, stipulating among the punishments that males found guilty of heresy were to be put to the sword and females buried alive, or members of either sex to be burned at the stake, and their property confiscated. Granvelle led the Inquisition, which enforced the 1556 edict posted on placards throughout the Low Countries.

Dutch nobles objected to Granvelle's persecutions including William the Silent who, at that time (c. 1559), was Catholic but had been raised Lutheran and supported religious freedom. He was joined by Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn (l. c. 1525-1568) and Lamoral, Count of Egmont (l. 1522-1568), among others, in calling for Granvelle's recall to Spain, but Margaret of Parma ignored them as she was tasked with eliminating the heresy of Calvinism.

Between 1556-1557, Philip II levied higher taxes on the Low Countries to finance his foreign wars as he was approaching bankruptcy, and in 1559, Granvelle, still running the Inquisition, also reorganized the dioceses in the Low Counties with himself as head, which drew power (and considerable wealth) away from the Dutch nobility and toward Spain. William the Silent, as a stadtholder (administrator) of Philip II, claimed Granvelle had overstepped his authority and was able to have him recalled in 1564. He and Montmorency and Egmont then pressured Margaret of Parma to suspend persecution of Protestants, who had already sent the Belgic Confession of Faith to Philip II in 1562 hoping that an established confession might influence him to change his policies.

Margaret agreed to any efforts that might end religious divisions, but, in 1566, the Calvinists across the Low Countries launched their Beeldenstorm ("statue storm"), also known as the Iconoclastic Fury, during which they destroyed Catholic icons, artworks, monasteries, and churches. Margaret appealed to William the Silent to deal with the issue but, before he could, the Duke of Alba arrived on orders from Philip II to deal with this and other problems. Alba's persecutions of the Protestants were so severe that Margaret of Parma resigned, and William the Silent fled to his hometown of Dillenburg in the Germanic region of the Holy Roman Empire in 1568. Montmorency and Egmont remained and were among the first executed for heresy that same year.

Alba established his Council of Troubles (known to the Dutch as the Council of Blood) to root out heresy and establish order, while William the Silent organized resistance to Spanish rule from Dillenburg and then returned at the head of his troops. On 23 May 1568, the Battle of Heiligerlee was won by Dutch troops led by William the Silent's brothers Louis and Adolf of Nassau, beginning the Eighty Years' War.

War 1568-1579

By this time, the French Wars of Religion had been ongoing for six years, sending Protestant refugees into the Low Countries, but now they were met with Alba's policies of persecution, which then sent both Dutch and French Protestants fleeing elsewhere. Scholar Diarmaid MacCulloch notes:

Alba's punishment of the region lived up to the worst fears inspired in the previous few years: he executed two leading noblemen in 1568, together with about 1,000 others, and the Spanish army behaved like an occupying force in enemy territory. Thousands fled from the Netherlands; it was a highly significant moment for the Reformed as their community in Antwerp, northern Europe's leading center of culture and intellectual enquiry, dispersed across northern Europe to sympathetic refuges in London, Emden, and the German territories. (312)

Alba sent his forces south, leaving northern areas with little protection, and defeated William the Silent in a number of engagements, but in 1572, Elizabeth I of England (r. 1558-1603) expelled the Sea Beggars (independent privateers, known as the Geuzen) from her ports, and they easily took the northern Dutch port of Brill (also given as Brielle) and then that of Vlissingen, establishing Protestant bases and encouraging other cities in the north to declare support for William the Silent.

The Sea Beggars then became an effective military presence, defeating Spanish fleets throughout 1573 and into 1574. At this point, with the war going against Spain (which was running out of money to finance it), Alba was recalled and replaced by Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga (l. 1528-1576) as governor. Requesens abolished the Council of Troubles and negotiated with William the Silent and the other Protestant leaders to end hostilities, but, as Philip II refused to compromise on what he saw as heresy and the Protestants rejected the stipulation that Catholicism was to be universally reinstituted throughout the Low Countries, no peace was possible.

Requesens died in early 1576 and was replaced by John of Austria (l. 1547-1578), Philip II's half-brother, who arrived after the Pacification of Ghent was formalized that November. The Pacification of Ghent, formalized as a response to the mutiny of Spanish mercenary troops who had not been paid in two years and began sacking cities (the Spanish Fury), resulted in their withdrawal from the Low Countries and came close to establishing peace but no agreement on freedom of religion could be reached and so hostilities continued.

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John of Austria inflicted a number of devastating defeats on the Protestants before dying of disease in 1578. He was replaced by Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (l. 1545-1592) who was as effective a military leader as Alba and John of Austria had been. His victories were primarily in the south, however, and in 1579, the Union of Utrecht was signed, establishing the united northern provinces of the Low Countries as independent of Spain, including Flanders, Friesland, Holland, Utrecht, and Zeeland, among others, which prompted the Treaty of Arras (forming the Union of Arras) in the south, allying provinces including Artois and Hainaut with Parma and the Catholic cause.

Duke of Anjou & Death of William

Attempts at reconciling the parties of the Utrecht and Arras unions failed miserably as no compromise on religion could even be considered. William the Silent, casting about for a suitable monarch to replace Philip II, invited Francis, Duke of Anjou and Alençon (l. 1555-1584), who had been fighting for the Protestants in the French Wars of Religion, to become monarch of the Low Countries, and he arrived in 1582. Francis was the youngest son of Catherine de' Medici (l. 1519-1589) and had been consistently sidelined by his older brothers and sisters. Finding himself in more or less the same situation in the Low Countries, with William the Silent and the States-General having more actual power than he did, he led his troops in an attack on Antwerp in 1583 where they were ambushed and slaughtered (the so-called French Fury). Francis then returned to France in disgrace and William the Silent lost considerable prestige.

Philip II placed a bounty on his head, which encouraged the pro-Spanish Catholic Balthasar Gerard to assassinate him in July 1584. Gerhard was then tortured to death but became a martyr to the Catholics as William did to the Protestants. The States-General now offered the crown to Elizabeth I, but she declined, offering instead a protectorate and sending military aid. Maurice of Orange (l. 1567-1625), William's son, took over as leader, initially supported by Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and others.

The forces of Parma were distracted by the wars in France at this time, giving Maurice the opportunity to reform his armies, implementing new strategies and discipline. Drawing on the military tactics and formations of the ancient Roman army, Maurice reconfigured military units and established the tactic of continual volley fire and countermarch in which a row of infantry would discharge their weapons, split to either side, and head to the rear of the formation while reloading, as the second row fired and did the same. Maurice's innovations are regarded as establishing the paradigm of modern warfare later developed by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (l. 1594-1632) in the Thirty Years' War.

Philip II died in 1598 and was succeeded by Philip III, who continued his policies, but now the Dutch armies were better trained and so more effective. Spain had suffered a severe blow in the loss of the Spanish Armada in 1588 during its invasion of England and, at the same time, the united northern provinces had become more firmly established and were able to send naval fleets to attack Spanish interests, diverting resources and manpower away from Spain's efforts in the Low Countries. The Dutch-Portuguese War (1602-1663, also known as the Spice War) further distracted Spain as it tried to hold onto its colonies. Even so, both sides poured money into recruiting troops and building forts which depleted their funds, and the war slowly came to the temporary halt known as the Twelve Years' Truce.

Twelve Years' Truce & Thirty Years' War

The truce was largely the work of the statesman Johan van Oldenbarnevelt of Holland (probably best known as the founder of the Dutch East India Company in 1602), ignoring the objections of Maurice of Orange, who was confident he could win the war. Once the truce was called, and the Dutch Protestants no longer had to worry about fighting the Spanish, they turned on each other as liberal and conservative factions tried to gain greater political power. An advocate of religious tolerance, Oldenbarnevelt negotiated the disbanding of armed militia who supported the more radical and conservative elements of the States-General, and under his guidance, Holland declared its independence. He was later arrested under orders of the conservatives (supported by Maurice), along with his supporters, and executed.

During the Twelve Years' Truce, however, Oldenbarnevelt firmly established Holland as a powerful state within the Dutch Republic. The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 when Ferdinand II (l. 1578-1637) was deposed as King of Bohemia and the Dutch Republic supported his successor Frederick V (l. 1596-1632) with arms and resources. The Dutch intervention in Bohemia marked the first entrance of a foreign power into what was initially a civil war and would eventually involve all of Europe.

Philip III of Spain died in 1621 and was succeeded by Philip IV, who relied on the counsel of his prime minister Gaspar de Guzmán. Guzmán objected to the developments in the Low Countries during the truce and, especially, to the rise in Dutch commercial trade at Spain's expense. Hostilities resumed in 1621 after Spain's embargos were established, at Guzmán's suggestion, interrupting shipping and depressing the Dutch economy.

Maurice of Orange died in 1625 and was succeeded by his half-brother Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (l. 1584-1647). Frederick Henry refused to be drawn into the political games of the different religious and political factions and was able to revive the Dutch economy while also encouraging initiatives begun under Maurice such as the establishment of the Dutch West India Company (founded 1621 and which would be instrumental in founding New Netherlands in North America) and Dutch East India Company, both providing vital revenue to the Dutch Republic through the Transatlantic Slave Trade, trade in goods, and privateering. By 1628, Spain was involved in the Thirty Years' War, drawing resources away from the Low Countries and allowing Frederick Henry to win a decisive victory in 1632.

Frederick Henry guaranteed freedom to practice the Catholic faith in all conquered territories in the interests of ending the war, but talks dragged on as delegates refused to compromise on various issues - among them this very question of religious tolerance - and Spain was able to reform its forces and renew the war. In 1635, France allied itself with the Dutch against Spain, which brought the French into the Thirty Years' War as well, and hostilities continued until 1648 when both wars were concluded by the Peace of Westphalia.

Conclusion

The Eighty Years' War ended with the recognition of the independent Dutch Republic of the seven northern districts by Spain and of the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands by the Dutch Republic. The Treaty of Münster (Peace of Münster) had more or less already concluded this in January 1648, but stipulations and various details were added to the documents, which were finally agreed to in October 1648 ending two of the longest and most costly conflicts in European history. The Eighty Years' War cost an estimated 100,000 to as high as 500,000 lives, and the deal toll for the Thirty Years' War has been placed at around 8 million.

The Eighty Years' War broke Spain's power in the Low Countries and divided the region into what eventually became the Netherlands in the north and the countries of Belgium and Luxembourg in the south. The establishment of the Dutch East India and Dutch West India companies placed the Netherlands among the leading European powers in the 17th century participating in the Transatlantic Slave Trade, commercial trading, and the colonization of the Americas, West Africa, and the Caribbean among other areas.

The final legacy of the war continues to be debated as whatever good came out of it must be weighed against the enormous loss of life - before, during, and after - and the widespread destruction caused by people unwilling to compromise or simply leave each other alone. Whether in the case of the Habsburg kings of Spain and the Netherlands generally or between Protestants and Catholics, one Protestant sect against another, or divisions within a single sect, there were multiple times in the over 100 years of conflict when peace might have been possible without the demonization, by all involved, of those who held different beliefs and values.

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The Eighty Years' War (1568-1648, also known as The Dutch Revolt and Dutch War of Independence) was a military conflict between the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands and Spain, which then governed...

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DUTCH REVOLT (15681648). The revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish rule, also known as the Eighty Years' War, is traditionally said to have begun in June 1568, when the Spanish executed Counts Egmont and Horne in Brussels. The tensions that led to open revolt, however, had much earlier origins. The revolt itself is best viewed as a series of related uprisings and wars that, taken together, constitute the Dutch Revolt. The eventual outcome of the revolt was decided for the most part by 1609, when the combatants agreed to the Twelve Years' Truce, but the war between the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) and the Kingdom of Spain did not officially come to an end until both parties agreed to the Peace of Mnster, which was part of the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648.

PRELUDE TO REVOLT: THE DISUNITY OF THE NETHERLANDS

The various provinces of the Low Countries (Netherlands) were never really united into a distinct country prior to the late sixteenth century. They were slowly and loosely brought under the control of the dukes of Burgundy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries but were never more than a collection of counties and duchies. These territories each retained their customary laws and traditions, their so-called ancient liberties. In many respects this disunity of the provinces of the Low Countries ensured that particularist agendas would stand in the way of attempts by the rulers to create a centralized administration and unified country.

Whereas the Burgundian dukes did not move too quickly in the direction of expansion and centralization, their Habsburg successors certainly did. Probably the most important move toward centralization prior to the revolt was taken by Emperor Charles V (ruled 15191556) when he succeeded in having his "seventeen provinces" of the Netherlands united as a single entity by agreement of the States-General (parliament) to his Pragmatic Sanction in 1549. The Pragmatic Sanction outlined the way the succession would be regulated and provided that the seventeen provinces must always have the same ruler. It is not clear, however, if this meant that their liberties would be compromised.

Charles V's son Philip II of Spain (ruled 15561598) continued his father's policies, in particular suppressing heresy, but whereas the Ghent-born Charles V was a fairly popular figure, the Netherlanders always viewed the Spanish-born Philip as a foreigner. The great nobles of the Low Countries and delegates to the States-General disapproved of his reliance on officials sent from Spain. Soon the nobles, including William of Orange (15331584), Lamoraal, count of Egmont (15221568), and the count of Hoorne, Filips van Montmorency (15181568), became disenchanted with Philip's increasingly absolutist-tilting government in Brussels, which was led by the unpopular Antoine Perrenot (15171586), the future Cardinal Granvelle.

The nobles' main argument was a constitutional one. They thought that government should be administered jointly by the prince (usually through his officials), the nobility, and the States-General. Thus the nobility had an important role to play in government. As Philip's chief official in the Netherlands and the champion of royal prerogative, Perrenot received the brunt of the nobility's ire. But rather than seek any kind of compromise, Philip's government insisted that the nobles swear an oath of allegiance (1567) to the king in which they would essentially be renouncing their traditional liberties. While many of the nobles accepted the change (with considerable grumbling), William of Orange and a few others refused.

These constitutional issues were being raised at a time of increasing religious tensions, due mostly to the ecclesiastical reforms Philip II proposed to institute new bishoprics in the Low Countriesand also to an increase in the prosecution of "heretics." With papal approval, Philip's plan called for the creation of several new bishoprics with a primate of the Netherlands in the person of the archbishop of Mechelen; to fill this position Perrenot was installed as Cardinal Granvelle. But it was the Habsburg obsession with rooting out heresy that is often associated with the uprising that occurred in 1566. Late in 1565 Philip's Council of State directed Inquisition officials to enforce anti-heresy laws.

For the nobility, this was one more affront to their authority. The great nobles considered resisting the government's religious policies, but it was the lower nobility that took action. The lower nobles, led mostly by Protestants or those with Protestant leanings, came together at Culemborch to form the Compromise of the Nobility, with the express intention of forcing Philip's regent (and half-sister), Margaret of Parma (15221586), to change the heresy law. By April 1566 as many as four hundred lesser nobles, all supporters of the Compromise, assembled at Brussels to present their petition to Margaret. One minister referred to these nobles not as petitioners, but as les gueux, 'the Beggars', a name that became a badge of honor.

The Beggars promised violence if Margaret failed to take action against the heresy laws. Although she issued a decree of "moderation," the damage had been done; Calvinists had already begun flouting the laws, and preaching in the Netherlands had reached a fever pitch by late spring 1566. The nobles soon lost control as Calvinist preachers urged their listeners to destroy the numerous religious images found in the churches of the Low Countries. This iconoclasm of the summer of 1566 was widespread, hitting Antwerp on 20 August, and Ghent, Amsterdam, Leiden, and Utrecht a few days later. A terrified Margaret acquiesced to the repeated demands of the Beggars and agreed to an "Accord" permitting Protestant worship in the parts of the Low Countries where it was already being practiced. Unfortunately the Compromise of the Nobility soon collapsed, leaving no one really in control. The iconoclasm continued, and Margaret had no choice but to raise an army to bring order to the provinces.

While Margaret was hard at work bringing the towns of the provinces to heel, Philip II weighed his options. By November 1566 he had decided to send an army to the Netherlands. But the Beggars had been raising troops in opposition to the government, so Margaret had to take action. This split the nobility, many of whom sided with the government. Margaret's troops had been successfully besieging Calvinist strongholds and on 13 March 1567 defeated the rebel troops at the Battle of Oosterweel. By May 1567 the Netherlands were back under the control of the regent. The next month Philip sent his Spanish army, under the leadership of the duke of Alba, to the Netherlands.

Once in the Netherlands, the Duke of AlbaFerdinand lvarez de Toledo (15081583)set about rooting out heresy and, through the Council of Troubles, prosecuting individuals branded as traitors to the Spanish king. Of the almost nine thousand people found guilty of participating in the troubles of 15661567, including some well-known nobles, at least one thousand were executed, including Counts Egmont and Hoorne. Only the nobles who remained loyal to Philip survived unscathed. William of Orange emerged as the de facto leader of the opposition. His attempt to invade the Netherlands from his ancestral home in Germany with a force of some 30,000 men in October 1568 was no match for the Spanish forces. William's brother, Count Louis of Nassau (15381574), sent ships out to get aid from exiled Calvinist communities in England, but it was too late and Louis's "Sea Beggars" (Watergeuzen) eventually turned to privateering. At the time William had no choice but to retreat. He spent the next year fighting for the Huguenots in France.

By 1569, it seemed that revolt in the Netherlands had been snuffed out and had little chance of reigniting. Alba set about instituting Philip's plans and policies for the Netherlands, including the ecclesiastical reforms. William of Orange and his supporters had been continuing to plan for an eventual invasion, but, perhaps because of the harshness of Alba's regime, he found few willing to rise up in the Netherlands. Help had to come from the outside. France was one obvious source of aid; the other was England. William thought he had support from both places. His plans for an invasion in 1572 included a thrust from the east with his German army and from the south by a Huguenot army with a naval assault from England by the unruly Sea Beggars. Coordination failed, and the Sea Beggars, who had been expelled from their English bases, moved too soon. They attacked Brill (Den Briel) on 1 April 1572, taking the port city without difficulty. By the end of April, Flushing was also in Beggar hands. Over the next few months the Beggars, usually aided by defectors in the towns, were able to take Gouda (21 June) and Dordrecht (25 June). By July, Haarlem (15 July), Leiden (23 July), and Rotterdam (25 July) also went over to the rebel side.

Most of the land-based forces could not take the field until July. A rebel army under Louis of Nassau managed to take Mons (Bergen) and other rebels took a few other towns, but the French force from the south was roundly defeated at St. Ghislain, and the French crown's changing attitudes toward the Huguenots meant that no more forces would be sent. William's own force stalled in the northeast. Alba succeeded in retaking the towns held by rebels, but the thought of a protracted war in Holland and Zeeland, places where William had many supporters, split the Spanish leadership, so in November 1573 Philip II replaced Alba with Don Luis de Requesens y Ziga (15281576).

William of Orange wasted no time in taking advantage of Spanish indecision by currying the support of the States of Holland and Zeeland. While not all of Holland and Zeeland could accept William's position (Amsterdam remained loyal to Philip), the two provinces united in the summer of 1575 with William of Orange as their leader. Meanwhile, Requesens had heeded Alba's advice and pressed into Holland and Zeeland. The Spanish successfully captured rebel cities such as Haarlem and Brill in 1573. The rebels were only able to hold out by flooding large areas in advance of the Spanish army. The floods kept the Spanish at bay, foiling their siege of Leiden in 1574.

The costs of this protracted war in the Netherlands were astronomical. It has been estimated that the war cost Spain more than the combined income from Castile and Spain's New World possessions. Due to lack of pay, the Spanish army mutinied several times, abandoning their garrisons and leaving them open to rebel forces. Philip was on the brink of bankruptcy. He ordered Requesens to open negotiations with the rebels. Requesens met with William at Breda in March 1575. The talks ended in failure, however, as neither side would back down on the religious issue. Within the year the financial crisis had become acute, Requesens had died, and despite a Spanish victory over Zierikzee in Zeeland, the Spanish could not make their payroll and the troops mutinied once again.

The Spanish troop mutinies of 1576, more than anything else, brought the various provinces of the Low Countries together in common cause. When mutinous troops sacked the royalist town of Aalst, even Catholics loyal to Philip looked for some kind of common defensive arrangement. Talks between William's supporters and Catholic loyalists began at Ghent in October 1576. The participants in the Ghent meeting agreed to set aside their own religious differences by suspending the heresy laws and uniting to expel the Spanish. This agreement, called the "Pacification of Ghent," was quickly ratified by the various Provincial States in reaction to the "Spanish Fury," the violent mutiny of the Spanish troops at Antwerp on 4 November 1576, in which about eight thousand people were killed. The Pacification of Ghent did not, however, resolve the problem of disunity in the Netherlands. What appeared to be unity of action was only temporary.

Philip appointed his half-brother, Don Juan of Austria (15471578), to replace Requesens as governor-general of the Netherlands. His charge was to find a temporary settlement with the rebels. Indeed the States-General was happy to recognize him as governor, provided he agreed to the provisions of the Pacification of Ghent. William of Orange remained mistrustful of Don Juan and urged the States-General to act cautiously. The States-General installed Don Juan as governor-general on 1 May 1577, over William's objections. William was right to be concerned about Don Juan's intentions. Don Juan attempted to neutralize the States-General and impose his own authority as soon as July 1577, when he captured Namur, unsuccessfully attacked Antwerp, and recalled the Spanish troops to the Low Countries. Because of this duplicity, the Catholic nobles from the southern Low Countries arranged for the Austrian Archduke Matthias (15571619) to replace Don Juan as governor-general, but this arrangement was never recognized by Philip II.

During all of this, Philip II had been preoccupied with the threat of the Ottoman Empire in the east. Once peace with the Turks was achieved after the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, Philip reacted decisively to the developments in the Netherlands. He sent his Spanish army back to the Low Countries under the leadership of Alexander Farnese (15551592), the prince and eventual duke of Parma. As soon as Parma and his army landed, they began a successful campaign, taking Gembloux on 31 January 1578, and Leuven on 13 February. Don Juan died of the plague in October, and Philip appointed Parma as governor of the Netherlands.

Despite military assistance from both France and England, infighting among the provinces precluded the possibility of united action. The division between the largely royalist Catholic provinces of the south and the independent-minded Calvinist provinces of the north tore the States-General apart. In January 1579 the northern provinces (Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, Gelderland, and Ommelanden) concluded the Union of Utrecht, effectively establishing the United Provinces. The southern provinces of Hainault and Artois created the Union of Arras (later joined by Walloon Flanders), which reconciled itself to the rule of Philip II on 6 April 1579. The provinces of the Union of Arras, together with the provinces already under Spanish control (Namur, Limburg, and Luxembourg), formed the basis for continued Spanish rule.

Continuing their move toward independence, the provinces of the Union of Utrecht deposed Philip II as sovereign of the Netherlands in the Act of Abjuration (26 July 1581). Who should replace him became the problem that the States-General would need to solve. In the end they turned to Franois de Valois (15561584), duke of Anjou, a French prince of the blood and a Catholic. He was never particularly popular and never received the dignities he expected, so he returned to France in the summer of 1583. When a royalist assassinated William of Orange in Delft on 10 July 1584, the United Provinces were left without a strong leader.

With William of Orange out of the picture, Parma began his campaign to reconquer the Netherlands. Ghent surrendered to Parma's army on 17 September 1584 and Brussels capitulated on 10 March 1585. The search for foreign help in the face of what was amounting to a Spanish reconquest brought the States-General's gaze, once again, to focus on England. An agreement, formalized in the Treaty of Nonsuch on 20 August 1585, was forged between the English and the States-General, allowing Elizabeth I to appoint a governor-general for the Netherlands and to send a large army to halt the Spanish advance. But AntwerpParma's greatest prizehad already fallen to the Spanish on 17 August.

Elizabeth I appointed Robert Dudley, the earl of Leicester (1532/331588), as governor-general, but she could not eliminate the disunity that plagued the Netherlands, and Leicester's attempts to impose his own ideas of centralized government were doomed to failure. In the end, Leicester had no choice but to return to England with his army. The Dutch then turned to one of their own to lead the revolt: Count Maurice of Nassau (15671625), the second son of William of Orange.

For Philip II the English involvement in the revolt could only be viewed as an act of war. In order to counter the English, and in part as a reaction to English "piracy" against Spanish commerce with the New World, Philip dispatched an armada of over 100 ships to invade England in 1588. The fate of the Spanish Armada is well-known, but this naval defeat did not hamper Spanish abilities on land. Nevertheless, Spanish attention to the English problem and Spanish involvement in French wars gave the Dutch some breathing space. Maurice succeeded in recapturing many of the northern towns lost to Spain at just the time that Philip II ordered Parma's army to intervene in the civil war in France, where Parma died in 1592.

Now the Spanish were left without a leader in the Netherlands. Eventually, Philip II appointed his nephew (and eventual son-in-law) Archduke Albert of Austria as governor-general in 1596. Albert had little success in consolidating Spanish power in the Netherlands, however, because of Spanish bankruptcy, troop mutinies, and desertions. The next several years witnessed an intense period of warfare that largely resulted in stalemate. By then Philip II had died and his successor Philip III (ruled 15981621) saw no way to continue financing a war that had been draining the Spanish treasury for decades. The time had come for the peace process suggested by Henry IV of France (ruled 15891610): both sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in Antwerp on 9 April 1609.

ACCOMMODATION: THE LAST GASP OF WARFARE

The Twelve Years' Truce worked more to the advantage of the Dutch than to that of the Spanish. The Dutch, freed of the need to fight an expensive war with Spain, were able to build up a powerful economy. Politically, however, the shape the Dutch Republic would ultimately take was still a matter of much debate, particularly the role the Reformed (Calvinist) Church would play. The fortunes of the Spanish Netherlands were flagging by the end of the truce. The commerce of Spain herself met with stiff competition from the Dutch, and the Dutch and the Spanish found each other drawn to differing sides of the political developments of early-seventeenth-century Europe. The Dutch Revolt had merged into the greater European conflict of the Thirty Years' War (16181648).

By the time the Twelve Years' Truce finally expired in 1621, Philip III was dead, and pro-war factions on both sides called for renewed hostilities. But by then neither side expected to triumph over the other. Both sides were involved in the Thirty Years' War, and the Spanish in particular found it impossible to devote much attention to warfare in the Netherlands. The best course of action was to sue for peace. Negotiations were drawn out for several years, with the two combatants only slowly making concessions. Finally, on 30 January 1648, the Peace of Mnster (later incorporated into the Peace of Westphalia of October 1648) ended the war between Spain and the United Provinces, making permanent the division of the Low Countries and guaranteeing the independence of the Dutch Republic.

See also Alba, Fernando lvarez de Toledo, duke of ; Charles V (Holy Roman Empire) ; Dutch Republic ; Isabel Clara Eugenia and Albert of Habsburg ; Juan de Austria, Don ; Netherlands, Southern ; Oldenbarneveldt, Johan van ; Parma, Alexander Farnese, duke of ; Philip II (Spain) ; Thirty Years' War (16181648) ; Westphalia, Peace of (1648) ; William of Orange .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Darby, Graham, ed. The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt. London, 2001.

Geyl, Pieter. 2nd ed. New York, 1958. Reprint, 1980.

Griffiths, Gordon. "The Revolutionary Character of the Revolt of the Netherlands." Comparative Studies in Society and History 2 (1960): 452472.

Parker, Geoffrey. The Dutch Revolt. London, 1977.

Rowan, Herbert H. "The Dutch Revolt: What Kind of Revolution?" Renaissance Quarterly 43 (1990): 570590.

't Hart, Marjolein C. The Making of a Bourgeois State: War, Politics and Finance during the Dutch Revolt. Manchester, U.K., 1993.

Donald J. Harreld

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1652 to 1783
Dutch - versus - English

First Anglo-Dutch War, 1652-1654 Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667 Third Anglo-Dutch War, 1672 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, 1770-1773
The Anglo-Dutch wars were all fought primarily over mercantile interests, and were entirely naval in character. At the time of the first three wars, Dutch was at the height of her power, having displaced Portugal as the main colonial trading power in Asia. The Dutch East India Company was extremely wealthy and powerful, and Britain was jealous for control of its American colonies. A secondary aspect of the war had to do with the republic/royalist split among the protestant governments of both Holland and England. The Anglo-Dutch conflict was therefore, essentially resolved by the elevation of William of Orange, a Stuart nephew, first to a position of power within the Dutch republic, and later to the throne of England. From that point, the countries were allies, and over time London, instead of the Netherlands became the center of commercial shipping.
First Anglo-Dutch War : 1652-1654

BLAKE KEPT THE FIGHT GOING MERRILY . . . GIVING AND TAKING MANY EFFECTIVE BROADSIDES.

The First Anglo Dutch war was initiated by the English Commonwealth under Cromwell. During the civil war the Dutch merchant fleet had been honing in on Britain's trade in the Americas, so Britain declared that its colonies would only be allowed to trade with British ships. After much negotiation, this provoked an open war for which the Dutch were not fully prepared. The naval war continued for two years, and seriously impeded both countries shipping. After two years, there was no decisive winner, but both countries were exhausted by the struggle. Cromwell eventually decided that the two Puritan nations should be allies instead of antagonists and opened negotiations for peace.

Dutch victory
Fought November 29, 1652, between a Dutch fleet of 95 sail, under Van Tromp, and an English fleet of 40 ships, under Blake. The Dutch were victorious, the English fleet being much cut up, and two ships captured.

Second Anglo-Dutch War : 1665-1667

NAVAL ENGAGEMENT, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

Like the first Anglo-Dutch war, the second war was provoked by the British, for essentially mercantile interests. Although Charles II did not particularly want war, some elements within his government were very aggressive and had designs on Dutch colonies in Africa and America. In order to provoke war, the British attacked Dutch trading posts in West Africa, and also took over New Amsterdam, the Dutch colony in the New York region. Although the early war went in favor of the English, the Great Plague and Great Fire of London severely weakened the English war effort, and eventually, they were forced to sue for peace.

drawn battle victory
Fought June 1, 2 and 3, 1666, between the English fleet under the Duke of Albemarle, and the Dutch under De Ruyter, Van Tromp and De Witt. After an obstinate fight, Albemarle, on the 3rd, retired, after setting fire to his disabled vessels, but the Dutch were too seriously crippled to pursue.

Dutch victory
Fought July 1, 1666, between a British fleet of 60 sail, under the Duke of Albemarle, and a Dutch fleet of 71 sail-of-the-line, and 30 smaller vessels under van Tromp and de Ruyter, The action lasted two days, and was desperately contested, but the Dutch being reinforced in the morning of the 3rd, Albemarle bore away. On the 4th, having been joined by Prince Rupert's squadron, he renewed the attack, but without success. The English lost 10 ships, while most of the others were disabled. The killed and wounded amounted to 1,700, while 2,000 were taken prisoners.

Third Anglo-Dutch War : 1672

The third Anglo-Dutch War was fought as part of a complicated series of hostilities between England, France, the Netherlands and Sweden. England was at first part of a triple alliance with Sweden and the Netherlands against France. However, Charles made a secret deal with France, and France attempted to invade the Netherlands. At this point, England joined France and was briefly at war until a peace was made separately between France and the Netherlands. Overall England was not pleased with the course of events, and again made peace, but not until William III of Orange, a nephew of Charles III who had been excluded from power in the Netherlands for many years, was named "Stadtholder", after the assassination of his rival Johan de Witt. Fifteen years later, William of Orange became William III of England.

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War : 1770-1773

The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War occurred during the American Revolutionary War, and was caused by the failure of the Netherlands to support Britain, her supposed ally, during its war with its colonies. The course of the conflict had more to do with internal politicking within the Netherlands, than the relationship with Britain, and it proved to be a disaster for the Netherlands. Once the Dutch realized they were not prepared to fight the British they avoided further hostilities until peace was declared.

Fought August 15, 1781, between a British fleet of seven battleships and six frigates, under Admiral Hyde Parker, and a Dutch fleet of equal strength under Admiral Zoutman. After a severe engagement, the Dutch bore away, and reached their port in safety, the British fleet being too crippled to pursue. The British lost 109 killed and 362 wounded; the Dutch 1 ship, the drawn battle victory
Hollandia, 142 killed and 403 wounded.

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First Anglo-Dutch War, 1652-1654 Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667 Third Anglo-Dutch War, 1672 Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, 1770-1773 The Anglo-Dutch wars were all fought primarily over mercantile interests, and were entirely naval in character. At the time of the first three wars, Dutch was at the height of her power, having displaced Portugal as the main colonial trading power in Asia.

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Second Anglo-Dutch War

Part of the Anglo-Dutch Wars

The Four Days' Battle, 1-4 June 1666, by Abraham Storck

Belligerents

Commanders and leaders

von Galen

Strength

Dutch Republic

131 warships

Denmark-Norway

250 men

139 warships

21,000 men

4,200 guns

Casualties and losses

Dutch Republic

5,150 killed

3,000 wounded

2,500 captured

23 warships lost

Denmark-Norway

8 killed

7,210 killed

7,000 wounded

2,000 captured

29 warships lost

2 warships captured

The Second Anglo-Dutch War, or Second Dutch War, began on 4 March 1665, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. One in a series of naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic, its causes were a combination of political differences and commercial disputes.

Despite several initial victories, the Royal Navy was unable to mount an effective blockade of Dutch waters, and by the end of 1666 the war had reached a stalemate. Although peace talks began, neither side was willing to make significant concessions until the Dutch Raid on the Medway in June 1667 forced Charles II to make terms.

The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France. In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672.

Background

Despite similar ideologies, commercial disputes and political differences between the Dutch Republic and Commonwealth of England led to the 1652 to 1654 First Anglo-Dutch War. The treaty that ended the war failed to address these issues, which included Dutch opposition to the 1651 Navigation Acts, and English objections to Dutch trading monopolies. This meant tensions continued, and even when the two countries were theoretically at peace, competition for markets in the East Indies and elsewhere often resulted in conflict outside Europe. For various reasons, factions in both countries hampered efforts to reach resolution through diplomatic means.

From 1650 to 1672, Dutch politics was dominated by the States Party and their leader, Grand pensionary Johan de Witt. Despite suspicions about Charles II's links to their Orangist opponents, de Witt viewed the 1660 Stuart Restoration as an opportunity to rebuild relationships. He hoped to negotiate overlapping defensive agreements with England and France to ensure peace, and continued Dutch economic dominance.

However, the English saw little benefit in preserving this system, and wanted concessions the Dutch were not prepared to grant. When merchants in the City of London demanded increased Protectionism, Charles II renewed the Navigation Acts in August 1660, then strengthened them further in 1663. Parliament claimed they were simply responding to measures taken by the Dutch East India Company, or VOC, to enforce its monopolies in Asia, and by the West-Indische Compagnie, or WIC, in West Africa.

Ships in Amsterdam harbour, c. 1690; in the second half of the 17th century, Dutch merchants dominated European trade

For Charles, expanding the economy was another way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament, preferably using Royal monopolies or charters to do so. In 1660, he and his brother James founded the Royal African Company, or RAC, whose purpose was to challenge Dutch dominance of the Atlantic slave trade. Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret, Shaftesbury and Arlington, creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy.

The Atlantic trade was a three way process, whereby slaves from West Africa were transported to Sugar plantations in the Caribbean, which in turn were supplied by colonies in North America. These links meant conflict in one region often led to fighting in all three. In August 1664, the English first occupied New Netherland, renamed New York City, then took WIC slaving posts in modern Guinea. When these were recaptured by a Dutch fleet under Michiel de Ruyter in early 1665, the RAC was forced into bankruptcy, and its influential investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses.

In taking these actions, the Dutch were reassured by their 1662 defensive treaty with France, under which Louis XIV agreed to provide military support if they were attacked by England. In return, the Dutch undertook not to interfere with French actions in the Spanish Netherlands, but by 1664, many were concerned by the prospect of having an expansionist France as a neighbour, rather than a weakened Spain. Although it provided another reason to agree terms with England, negotiations made little progress. This was partially due to the complexity of the Dutch political system, which made it difficult to reach consensus between the different provinces and powerful trade groups like the VOC. It also reflected de Witt's belief Parliament would not approve funds for an expensive naval war, a view shared by many English politicians, including Charles' chief minister Lord Clarendon.

For his part, Louis XIV feared an Anglo-Dutch conflict might draw in Spain or the Holy Roman Empire, and impede his efforts to acquire the Spanish Netherlands. He therefore tried to mediate between the two, or at least limit conflict to Africa and the Americas, which would not require France to become involved. Aware of his reluctance, Charles II saw no reason to make concessions, while Sir George Downing, his Ambassador in The Hague, claimed recent financial losses meant the Dutch could not afford a war. Other advisors argued the Franco-Dutch treaty only applied to defensive actions, so provoking the Dutch into declaring war would give Louis XIV the chance to remain neutral. Following English attacks on convoys off Cadiz and in the English Channel, the Dutch declared war on 4 March 1665.

Opposing forces and tactics

Some historians argue that just as the tactics used by 17th century armies were transformed by the Military Revolution, the Anglo-Dutch Wars marked a similar change in naval practice. The ships on either side have been described as the "most advanced, complex, expensive and manpower-intensive weapons systems of their day". With the fleets involved increasing to over 100 ships per side, maximising firepower required greater levels of organisation, discipline and co-ordination. One solution to these problems was the Line of battle formation.

HMS Sovereign of the Seas, with its architect Peter Pett; built in 1634, it carried over 100 guns, while the largest Dutch ships had a complement of 60 to 70

In 1664, the Royal Navy issued new "Fighting Instructions", formalising the "line of battle" as standard practice. They also established a signalling system allowing commanders to control their fleets, something the Dutch then lacked. Over the course of the war, the formation was employed by both, although it better suited the heavier ships used by the Royal Navy, and its emphasis on gunnery to sink opponents. The Dutch preferred the use of boarding, with individual ships fighting one another.

Difficulties in communicating orders meant during combat many captains focused on avoiding collisions rather than engaging the enemy, making battles chaotic and often indecisive. In addition, both navies consisted of significant numbers of purpose-built warships, bulked out by private merchantmen. Although many of the latter were well-armed, they were often less capable of standing up to sustained fire. Dutch merchant ships were particularly vulnerable to the larger English warships.

Based on lessons learned from the First Anglo-Dutch War, post-1653 the Dutch navy was re-organised around sixty-four newly built and larger Ships of the line, each with between 40 to 60 guns. However, they remained inferior to English vessels such as HMS Sovereign of the Seas, which carried over 100 guns. In 1664, it was decided to create a new core of even heavier ships, which were mostly still under construction when fighting began in 1665. Stronger finances allowed the Dutch to complete these plus another twenty during the war, compared to only a dozen built by England.

Although the Royal Navy was superior in ships and leadership at the beginning of the war, these advantages were gradually eroded by Parliament's reluctance to fund it. Downing, and other observers who argued the Dutch could not afford a war, overlooked recent reforms that improved their credit, and made it relatively easy to raise money. In contrast, English expectations that profits from Dutch ships captured by privateers would cover costs proved unfounded. In December 1664, Parliament approved £2.5 million in taxes for the navy, but much of this was spent on essential repairs, or allegedly stolen by officials. To fund operations, Charles had to rely on short term loans from the City of London, at ever increasing interest rates. By the end of 1666, lack of money led him to discharge most of the fleet, with disastrous results.

The War in Europe; 1665

The Second Anglo-Dutch War; key battles

Both sides planned a short war, since the English could not afford a long one, while the Dutch wanted to minimise any potential economic damage. De Witt ordered his naval commander Jacob van Wassenaer to bring the English fleet to battle, although his ships were inferior in organisation, training, discipline and firepower. At the Battle of Lowestoft on 13 June 1665, the Dutch navy suffered the worst defeat in its history, losing some sixteen ships. Most of the fleet escaped, but over 30% of its personnel were killed or captured, with van Wassenaer himself among the dead.

Defeat led to an extensive overhaul of Dutch tactics and command structures, with several captains either executed for alleged cowardice, or dismissed. In July, Michiel de Ruyter became the new commander in chief, and followed the English in formalising the line battle formation. Dutch finances also received a boost when the VOC Spice Fleet returned home safely after the battle of Vågen. This was offset when the eastern province of Overijssel was over-run by troops from Münster under Bernhard von Galen, who was backed by English subsidies.

Münster's invasion threatened to involve Germany in the fighting, and thus provide an excuse for Emperor Leopold to intervene. Concerned by this, Louis sent French soldiers to prevent supplies reaching von Galen's troops. Reports Charles was negotiating an alliance with Spain meant he also stepped up attempts to mediate a settlement, but the English in general remained deeply suspicious of French intentions. Although the Dutch offered to renounce their territorial claims in North America, and cede three West African posts, success at Lowestoft prompted Charles to demand further concessions and a Dutch agreement to bear the costs of the war. In December 1665, Louis withdrew his ambassadors from London, signalling his intention to declare war.

Battle of Vågen, Norway, on 12 August 1665

Downing now contacted the Orangist party in Overijssel, which had suffered severely from von Galen's invasion, asking that they demand the States General make peace with England. De Witt's position was too strong for this to succeed, and on 11 December he declared the only acceptable peace terms were a return to the status quo ante bellum, or a quick end to hostilities under a uti possidetis clause.

The War in Europe; 1666

On 16 January 1666, Louis declared war on England. In return for a large French subsidy, Denmark-Norway did the same in February, effectively closing the Baltic trade to English ships, and with it access to vital naval supplies. The payments promised to von Galen by Charles largely failed to materialise, and when Brandenburg-Prussia threatened to attack Münster, he made peace with the Republic at Cleves in April.

Anglo-Dutch negotiations had progressed far enough that de Witt invited Charles II to start formal negotiations. Talks made little progress, as both sides felt they were negotiating from a position of strength. Despite the French declaration of war, Charles knew Louis wanted to avoid being dragged into the conflict, and through informal correspondence was aware he considered Dutch demands excessive. By now, the French king had also concluded the Dutch would never voluntarily make the concessions he required in the Spanish Netherlands, and began planning the 1667 War of Devolution.

On the other hand, Dutch morale rose with the completion of thirty new warships, most carrying up to 72 guns, heavier than any available in early 1665. They were supposed to link up with a French naval force in the English Channel, giving them a significant numerical advantage. However, most of the French ships were based in the Mediterranean Sea, and despite leaving Toulon in April, delays meant they failed to arrive in time. One contemporary diplomat suggested the relatively new and inexperienced French navy did so deliberately, being "dismayed by the difficulties of the enterprise"

The Four Days' Battle as depicted by Abraham Storck

Nevertheless, the threat of French intervention forced the English to send a detachment to block the Strait of Dover, leaving 60 ships facing a Dutch fleet of around 84. In the initial stages of the Four Days' Battle, fought from 11 to 15 June, the Dutch inflicted heavy damage on their opponents, before the return of the detached squadron forced them to withdraw. The English lost ten ships compared to only four Dutch, but any hope the Royal Navy was too damaged to renew hostilities soon proved incorrect.

After extensive repairs, the English fleet put to sea again and confronted the Dutch in the St. James's Day Battle of 4 and 5 August. Generally considered an English victory, it ultimately had little strategic value. Although the Dutch suffered heavy casualties and many ships were badly damaged, their fleet remained intact, while lack of money meant the English could scarcely afford to pay their sailors or purchase supplies. A more significant economic loss occurred on 19 August, when up to 150 Dutch merchantmen sheltering in the Vlie estuary were destroyed in an action known as Holmes's Bonfire.

Holmes's Bonfire, by Willem van de Velde the Elder

Over a period of eighteen months from 1665 to 1666, the Great Plague of London killed more than a quarter of its population. In September 1666, the Fire of London destroyed much of the city, causing huge economic damage, and public opinion now turned against the war. Charles could no longer rely on London merchants to supply the loans needed to fund it, and the Navy Board was forced to discharge many sailors unpaid.

Parliament was recalled for the first time in a year, and approved new taxes of £1.8 million. However, their payment was subject to various conditions, and disputes over these meant delays in its collection. Lack of money made it almost impossible to plan naval operations for 1667.

The War in Europe; 1667

By early-1667, the financial position of the English crown had become desperate. The kingdom lacked sufficient funds to maintain their fleet's seaworthiness, so it was decided in February that the heavy ships were to remain laid up at Chatham, with only a small Flying Fleet manned to attack Dutch merchant shipping, which lowered morale in the fleet and prevented merchant ship from sailing and colliers from reaching London without fear of Dutch interception. Clarendon informed Charles as to his only two options: to make very substantial concessions to Parliament, or to initiate peace talks with the Dutch under their conditions, which began in March. Charles had wished for peace talks to be held in England or, failing that, at The Hague, but the Dutch offered three other cities where support for the House of Orange was less and Charles selected Breda, in the southern Generality Lands.

Raid on the Medway of 9-14 June 1667

In the meantime, a Dutch fleet was assembled in the Texel under the command of Willem van Ghent. One of the motives was to destroy the Scottish privateering fleet in the Firth of Forth. In a series of running encounters with Scottish privateers at sea, and various shore batteries (particularly at Burntisland) the Dutch were seen off with the loss of three ships damaged. Thereafter, Scottish privateers followed the Dutch into the North Sea where they without any difficulty picked off stragglers. In the southern part of Britain, things did not go so well.

As England was also at war with France, Charles sent envoys to Paris in March for unofficial preliminary talks on peace terms. In view of deteriorating Franco-Dutch relations, these talks turned to a third option not considered by Clarendon: a secret alliance with France. In April, Charles concluded his first secret treaty with Louis, stipulating that England would not enter into alliances that might oppose a French conquest of the Spanish Netherlands. In May, the French invaded, starting the War of Devolution. Charles hoped, by means of stalling the talks at Breda, to gain enough time to ready his fleet to obtain concessions from the Dutch, using the French advance as leverage.

De Witt was aware of Charles's general intentions - though not of the secret treaty. He decided to attempt to end the war with a single stroke. Ever since its actions in Denmark in 1659, involving many landings to liberate the Danish Isles, the Dutch navy had made a special study of amphibious operations; the Dutch Marine Corps was established in 1665. After the Four Days' Battle, a Dutch marine contingent had been ready to land in Kent or Essex following a possible Dutch victory at sea. The Dutch fleet was, however, unable to force a safe passage into the Thames as navigational buoys had been removed and a strong English squadron was ready to dispute their passage. But now there was no English fleet able to contest a similar attack. De Witt conceived the plan for a landing of marines, to be overseen by his brother Cornelius, at Chatham where the fleet lay effectively defenceless, to destroy it.

The Dutch burn English ships during the expedition to Chatham by Jan van Leyden

In June, De Ruyter, with Cornelis de Witt supervising, launched the Dutch raid on the Medway at the mouth of the River Thames. After capturing the fort at Sheerness, the Dutch fleet went on to break through the massive chain protecting the entrance to the Medway and, on the 13th, attacked the laid up English fleet.

The daring raid remains one of the largest disasters in the history of the Royal Navy and its predecessors. Fifteen of the Royal Navy's remaining ships were destroyed, either by the Dutch or by being scuttled by the English to block the river. Three of the eight remaining "big ships" were burnt: Royal Oak, the new Loyal London and Royal James. The largest English flagship, HMS Royal Charles, was abandoned by its skeleton crew, captured without a shot being fired, and towed back to the United Provinces as a trophy. Its counter decoration depicting the royal arms is on display in the Rijksmuseum. Fortunately for the English, the Dutch marines spared the Chatham Dockyard, at the time England's largest industrial complex; a land attack on the docks themselves would have set back English naval power for a generation. A Dutch attack on the English anchorage at Harwich had to be abandoned however after the battle of Landguard Fort ended in Dutch failure.

The Dutch success made a major psychological impact throughout England, with London feeling especially vulnerable just a year after the Great Fire of London. However, for a second time, the Dutch had been unable to land substantial land forces in Britain, or even do substantial damage to the Chatham dockyard. The raid did, together with the English financial crisis, speed up negotiations. All this, together with the cost of the war, of the Great Plague and the extravagant spending of Charles's court, produced a rebellious atmosphere in London. Clarendon ordered the English envoys at Breda to sign a peace quickly, as Charles feared an open revolt.

War in the Caribbean

French ships under attack at Martinique, 1667

The Second Anglo-Dutch war had spread to the Caribbean islands, and in late 1665 an English force, mainly consisting of buccaneers under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Edward Morgan, the Deputy Governor of Jamaica, assisted by his nephew Thomas Morgan, quickly captured the Dutch islands of Sint Eustatius and Saba. After his uncle's death in December 1665, Thomas Morgan was appointed as governor of these two islands. Also in late 1665, an English force from Jamaica and Barbados captured the Dutch possession of Tobago. The French declaration of war on the side of the Dutch altered the balance of power in the Caribbean and facilitated a Dutch counterattack. The first successes of the new allies were the French recapture of Tobago in August 1666, a joint Franco-Dutch recapture of Sint Eustatius in November 1666 and a French capture of the English island of Antigua in the same month. The arrival of a French squadron under Joseph-Antoine de La Barre in January 1667 allowed the French to occupy the English half of St Kitts and Montserrat, leaving only Nevis of the Leeward Islands in English hands, together with Jamaica and Barbados to the west.

A Dutch force under Admiral Abraham Crijnssen, organised by the province of Zeeland, not the States General, arrived at Cayenne in February 1667 and captured Suriname from the English in the same month. Crijnssen delayed in Suriname until April, then sailed to Tobago, which had been vacated by the French after expelling the English garrison, where he rebuilt the fort and left a small garrison. Although Crijnssen was instructed not to delay, it was not until early May that he and de La Barre combined forces, agreeing to a Franco-Dutch invasion of Nevis, which sailed on 17 May 1667. However, their attack was repelled in the Battle of Nevis on 17 May by a smaller English force. This confused naval action was the only one in this war where all three navies fought: it failed largely through de la Barre's incompetence. After this failed attack, Crijnssen left in disgust and sailed to the north to attack the Virginia colony, while the French, under de la Barre, moved to Martinique. The Battle of Nevis restored English naval control in the Caribbean and allowed the early recapture of Antigua and Montserrat and an unsuccessful attack on St Kitts soon after.

In April, a new English squadron of nine warships and two fireships under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir John Harman sailed for the West Indies, reaching them in early June. Harman encountered the French with seven larger and 14 smaller warships and three fireships under la Barre anchored under the batteries of Fort St Pierre, Martinique. He attacked on 6 July and sunk, burnt or captured all but two the French ships. With the French fleet neutralised, Harman then attacked the French at Cayenne on 15 September forcing its garrison to surrender. The English fleet then went on to recapture Fort Zeelandia in Suriname in October. News of these English victories only reached England in September, after the Treaty of Breda had been signed, and possessions captured after 31 July had to be returned. Crijnssen sailed back to the Caribbean only to find the French fleet destroyed and the English back in possession of Suriname.

Treaty of Breda

The conclusion of the Treaty of Breda, at Breda Castle

On 31 July 1667, what is generally known as the Treaty of Breda concluded peace between England and the Netherlands. The treaty allowed the English to keep possession of New Netherland, while the Dutch kept control over Pulau Run, Fort Cormantin and the valuable sugar plantations of Suriname, while also regaining Tobago, St Eustatius, and its West African trading posts. This uti possidetis solution was later confirmed in the Treaty of Westminster. The Act of Navigation was modified in favour of the Dutch by England agreeing to treat Germany as part of the Netherlands' commercial hinterland, so that Dutch ships would now be allowed to carry German goods to English ports. The English were also forced to accept the Dutch 'Free Ship, Free Goods' principle.

In the same date and also at Breda, a public treaty was concluded between England and France that stipulated the return to England of the former English part of St Christopher and the islands of Antigua and Montserrat, all of which the French had occupied in the war, and that England should surrender its claim to Acadia to France, although the extent of Acadia was not defined. This public treaty had been preceded by a secret treaty signed on 17 April in which, in addition to these exchanges of territory, Louis and Charles agreed not to enter into alliances opposed to the interests of the other, by which Louis secured the neutrality of England in the war he planned against Spain.

The order of priorities whereby the Dutch preferred to give up what would become a major part of the United States, and instead retain a tropical colony, would seem strange by present-day standards. However, in the 17th century tropical colonies producing agricultural products which could not be grown in Europe were deemed more valuable than ones with a climate similar to that of Europe where Europeans could settle in comfort.

The peace was generally seen as a personal triumph for Johan de Witt and an embarrassment to the Orangists, who seemed reluctant to support the war and eager to accept a disadvantageous early peace. The Republic was jubilant about the Dutch victory. De Witt used the occasion to induce four provinces to adopt the Perpetual Edict of 1667 abolishing the stadtholderate forever. He used the weak position of Charles II to force him into the Triple Alliance of 1668 which again forced Louis to temporarily abandon his plans for the conquest of the southern Netherlands. But de Witt's success would eventually produce his downfall and nearly that of the Republic with it. Both humiliated monarchs intensified their secret cooperation through the Secret Treaty of Dover and would, joined by the bishop of Münster, attack the Dutch in 1672 in the Third Anglo-Dutch War. De Witt was unable to counter this attack, as he could not create a strong Dutch army for lack of money and for fear that it would strengthen the position of the young William III. That same year de Witt was assassinated, and William became stadtholder.

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Part of a series of four Anglo-Dutch Wars fought between the English (later British) and the Dutch in the 17th and 18th centuries for control over the seas and trade routes. Fought between 4 March 1665 until 31 July 1667.