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Human Rights Article 1, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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Human Rights Article 1, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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Harvard Referance: Michael Freeman,Polity Press,Human Rights,26 January 2022

Article Review:

"Human Rights" by Michael Freeman offers a comprehensive analysis of the fundamental concept of human rights in today's society. Published in 2022, this book offers a timely and insightful analysis of human rights, their origins, evolution, challenges, and significance in contemporary global affairs. Freeman argues that human rights are crucial for creating a fair and equal world, using historical context, legal analysis, and ethical perspectives.

One of the strengths of Freeman’s book lies in its accessibility. Freeman manages to make complex legal and philosophical concepts accessible to a wide audience through his clear and concise writing style. By avoiding overly technical language, Freeman ensures that readers from various backgrounds can engage with and understand the critical issues surrounding human rights.

Moreover, Freeman’s work is meticulously researched, drawing on a diverse range of sources from legal texts and historical documents to contemporary case studies and international treaties. This interdisciplinary approach not only enriches the narrative but also provides readers with a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of human rights. By grounding his arguments in empirical evidence and real-world examples, Freeman effectively illustrates the relevance and urgency of the human rights discourse in addressing pressing global challenges such as poverty, discrimination, and conflict.

Another notable aspect of Freeman’s book is its balanced perspective. Freeman acknowledges the complexities of protecting human rights while respecting cultural and political differences. By exploring various viewpoints and debates surrounding human rights, Freeman encourages readers to critically evaluate their own assumptions and prejudices, fostering a more nuanced understanding of this complex issue.

Furthermore, Freeman’s book goes beyond mere analysis to inspire action. By highlighting the role of individuals, communities, and institutions in promoting and defending human rights, Freeman empowers readers to become agents of positive change in their own spheres of influence. Whether through grassroots activism, legal advocacy, or corporate social responsibility, Freeman demonstrates that everyone has a part to play in upholding the principles of human dignity and equality.

In conclusion, “Human Rights” by Michael Freeman is a compelling and timely exploration of a topic that lies at the heart of contemporary global discourse. With its accessibility, rigorous research, balanced perspective, and call to action, Freeman’s book serves as an invaluable resource for anyone seeking to understand, advocate for, and advance the cause of human rights in the twenty-first century. These are some main aspects of why I chose this article of human rights written by Michael Freeman.

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Human Rights, now in its fourth edition, is an introductory text that is both innovative and challenging. Its unique interdisciplinary approach invites students to think imaginatively and rigorously about one of the most important and influential political concepts of our time.

Tracing the history of the concept, the book shows that there are fundamental tensions between legal, philosophical and social-scientific approaches to human rights. This analysis throws light on some of the most controversial issues in the field: What are the causes of human-rights violations? Is the idea of universal human rights consistent with respect for cultural difference? Are we living in a 'post-human rights' world?

Thoroughly revised and updated, the new edition engages with recent developments, including the Trump and Biden presidencies, colonial legacies, neoliberalism, conflict in Syria, Yemen and Myanmar, the Covid-19 pandemic, new technologies and the supposed crisis of liberal democracy. Widely admired and assigned for its clarity and comprehensiveness, this book remains a 'go-to' text for students in the social sciences, as well as students of human-rights law who want an introduction to the non-legal aspects of their subject.

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Human Rights, now in its fourth edition, is an introductory text that is both innovative and challenging. Its unique interdisciplinary approach invites students to think imaginatively and rigorously about one of the most important and influential political concepts of our time.

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HUMAN RIGHTS :-ARTICLE1.                         Muhammad Sherjil Raza (30118756)

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HUMAN RIGHTS :-ARTICLE1.                         Muhammad Sherjil Raza (30118756)

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https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Y1gFMznyyuAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA11&dq=Human+Rights+and+the+Moral+Responsibilities+of+Corporate+and+Public+Sector+Organisations&ots=2bMc4r692v&sig=LFKqoxq89LA6TUzGewlq_wnNMb0&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Human Rights and the Moral Responsibilities of Corporate and Public Sector Organisations&f=false

Harvard Referance:
Tom Campbell, Seumas Miller, Year of publication (2006), Human Rights and the Moral Responsibilities of Corporate and Public Sector Organisation’s Volume 20 of Issues in Business Ethics, illustrated edition, Springer Science & Business Media

Article Review:
The book is old but i choosed this bacause it gives idea of old human rights and so the book is "Human Rights and the Moral Responsibilities of Corporate and Public Sector Organizations: Illustrated Edition" by Tom Campbell and Seumas Miller is like a guiding light, helping us understand the connection between human rights and the moral duties of organizations. This thorough work, based on ethical philosophy, explores the reasons why corporations and public sector entities should care about human rights. The article talks about why it's crucial for these organizations to focus on human rights and discusses their ethical obligations in protecting and promoting human rights. It emphasizes the need for a deep understanding of the moral responsibilities that these organizations must bear in today's globalized and interconnected world. The book doesn't just talk about theories; it dives into real-world examples and examines the challenges faced by these organizations in maintaining human rights standards. One of the book's strengths is its ability to blend theoretical analysis with practical examples, making it easy for a wide audience to understand. By using real-life situations, Campbell and Miller connect ethical ideas with everyday situations, making the book relevant for both academics and professionals. The authors explore the complex relationship between human rights and organizations, shedding light on how these entities impact human rights. A key lesson from the book is that corporations and public sector organizations play a significant role in protecting human rights. It stresses that these entities don't just have legal obligations but also moral responsibilities in their operations and interactions with people. Campbell and Miller argue that by including human rights principles in their policies, practices, and decision-making, organizations can help create a fairer and more just society. They discuss the potential benefits of such an approach, including a better reputation, trust from stakeholders, and long-term sustainability. This seminal work not only underscores the importance of understanding the ethical obligations but also serves as a guide for practitioners, policymakers, and scholars, emphasizing the critical role organizations play in fostering a just and equitable society. In conclusion, "Human Rights and the Moral Responsibilities of Corporate and Public Sector Organizations: Illustrated Edition" is an important book that explains why organizations urgently need to integrate human rights into their ethical frameworks. With clear arguments, insightful case studies, and an innovative illustrated format, the book is a valuable guide for scholars, practitioners, and policymakers, encouraging a more thoughtful and responsible approach to how organizations operate in our connected world.

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Human Rights

Article : 1

Fakhar Qazi
(30116578)

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=V85WCXgbRegC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=info:U4KFl-REZ2kJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=NXieQ6NTDj&sig=gH4FkAVoSYOvY0FA8KxDaXRc-uY&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Harvard Reference :
Authur :  Charles R.Beitz
Published  year : 2009,2011
Title : The idea of human rights
Publisher : Oxford University

Article Review:

In his groundbreaking book "The Idea of Human Rights," Charles R. Beitz provides an engaging analysis of the theoretical underpinnings and real-world applications of human rights. Beitz presents a strong case for the universality and inalienability of human rights by carefully examining moral theories, historical precedents, and current issues.

Beitz starts out by charting the discourse's historical evolution and recognising its intellectual roots in a variety of schools of thought, including utilitarianism, natural law, and Kantian ethics. Beitz illustrates the concept's ongoing relevance and significance in a variety of cultural and ideological situations by placing human rights within this rich intellectual history.

Beitz's argument revolves around the idea that all humans are morally equal. He argues that regardless of a person's colour, nationality, or social standing, they are all born with inherent worth and dignity, which is the foundation of human rights. The foundation of the human rights architecture is the fundamental idea of moral equality, which offers a common framework for moral reflection and political action.

Beitz also discusses the problem of cultural relativism, which holds that human rights are culturally particular and cannot be implemented globally. Beitz contends that there is a core set of human rights ideas that enjoy cross-cultural accord, even as he acknowledges the significance of cultural variety. These values, which include the rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of basic dignity, cut across cultural divides and serve as the cornerstone of an international moral agreement.

Beitz also struggles with the conflict between upholding human rights and maintaining state sovereignty. Although governments bear the primary responsibility of safeguarding the rights of their inhabitants, Beitz argues that the international community has a moral obligation to step in when states neglect this obligation. Beitz promotes a collaborative approach to human rights governance that puts people's welfare ahead of state sovereignty by drawing on cosmopolitan ideas.

Beitz's work is notable for its intellectual depth and analytical rigour. He navigates the murky waters of human rights theory with expertise and intelligence, engaging with difficult philosophical ideas and moral quandaries with clarity and accuracy. Beitz's thoughtful arguments push readers to consider their own presumptions and views critically, which promotes a greater comprehension of the moral implications of the discussion of human rights.

Beitz's book is also topical and pertinent, providing viewpoints and insights that are in line with current discussions and advancements in the field of human rights. Beitz's demand for a renewed commitment to fundamental human rights bears significant consequences for activists, policymakers, and people alike in an era characterised by increased globalisation, political polarisation, and social instability.

In conclusion, Charles R. Beitz's "The Idea of Human Rights" offers an insightful and intellectually engaging examination of one of the most important topics of our day. Beitz's book reinforces the lasting significance of human rights as a guiding principle for moral behaviour and social justice in a diverse and linked society by its thorough analysis, moral clarity, and global perspective.

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Article 4

Human Rights

Fakhar Qazi

( 30116578 )

https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4456424

Harvard Reference:

Dr Marco Longobardo, m.longobardo1@westminster.ac.uk Unedited version. Final paper forthcoming in (2024) 24 Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional

Article Review :

For researchers, selecting a journal for publishing is a crucial choice that affects the impact and distribution of their work. Within this framework, Dr. Marco Longobardo's decision to use the Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional for his upcoming paper represents a deliberate and strategic decision based on a number of factors.

First and foremost, it is crucial that the journal's focus and Dr. Longobardo's study are thematically aligned. International law is the main topic of the Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, which is probably also the main topic of Dr. Longobardo's paper. ensuring that the substance of the magazine and its thematic focus align

An further factor in the Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional's attraction as a publication venue is its prominence and renown. Reputable journals with a strong history of academic contributions draw in a discerning readership and raise the profile and authority of published work. Dr. Longobardo increases the effect and reach of his research by placing it into a prestigious academic discourse by linking his publication to Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional.

Furthermore, the quality and rigour of published scholarship are significantly influenced by the journal's editorial rules and review procedure. The fact that Dr. Longobardo chose to submit his work to Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional shows that he has faith in the peer-review and editorial standards of the publication. A comprehensive and open review procedure not only confirms the paper's scholarly worth but also offers insightful criticism for enhancing and strengthening the research.

Moreover, Dr. Longobardo is able to interact with a wide range of academics, professionals, and decision-makers because to the Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional's global readership and visibility. Publication in a worldwide publication promotes collaboration and the exchange of ideas across academic and geographic borders, facilitating the diffusion of information and interdisciplinary discourse.

Additionally, accessibility and inclusion factors might have had a role in Dr. Longobardo's selection of Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional. Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional is one of the open access journals that guarantees that research findings are freely accessible to academics and practitioners worldwide. This fosters greater engagement with diverse perspectives and voices within the academic community and promotes equitable access to knowledge.

In conclusion, Dr. Marco Longobardo made a purposeful and strategic decision to publish his upcoming paper in the Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional. This decision was based on factors such as accessibility, inclusivity, international visibility, editorial quality, reputation, and thematic alignment. Dr. Longobardo not only increases the effect and visibility of his study but also advances international law scholarship by publishing his work in a prestigious and well-respected magazine such as Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional.

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35 Pages Posted: 7 Jun 2023 Last revised: 4 Mar 2024

Date Written: May 23, 2023

Abstract

The article deals with the applicability of apartheid in occupied territory. Rather than assessing whether in specific situation of an occupation an occupying power has established an apartheid regime, the article discusses whether there is anything in the law of occupation or in the international regulation of apartheid that makes them mutually exclusive. On the basis of international human rights law, international criminal law, and international humanitarian law considerations, it is argued that apartheid can be applied to occupied territory following the ordinary rules for the application of international human rights law and international criminal law in occupied territory. Accordingly, international law does not bar the application of apartheid in occupied territory, but rather, the law of occupation and apartheid coincide to strengthen the protection of civilians in occupied territories.

Keywords: apartheid, international crimes, occupation, occupied territory, principle of self-determination of peoples, racial discrimination

Longobardo, Marco, The Applicability of Apartheid to Situations of Occupation: At the Crossroads between International Humanitarian Law, International Criminal Law, and International Human Rights Law (May 23, 2023). Forthcoming (2024) 24 Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4456424 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4456424

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the applicability of apartheid to situations of occupation: at the crossroads between international humanitarian law

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The Applicability of Apartheid to Situations of Occupation: At the Crossroads between International Humanitarian Law, International Criminal Law, and International Human Rights Law

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The article deals with the applicability of apartheid in occupied territory. Rather than assessing whether in specific situation of an occupation an occupying p

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International Human Rights Law and Practice

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HUMAN RIGHT :-ARTICLE-2 Muhammad Sherjil Raza (30118756)

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HUMAN RIGHT :-ARTICLE-2 Muhammad Sherjil Raza (30118756)

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Harvard Reference:

Ilias Bantekas, Lutz Oette, Year of publication (2022), International Human Rights Law and Practice, illustrated edition, Cambridge University Press.

Article Review:

"Ilias Bantekas and Lutz Oette's book, 'International Human Rights Law and Practice,' is a great resource for anyone interested in understanding how human rights work in the real world. This article is a summary of the book, breaking down its key points for easy understanding. The book covers a lot of ground, starting with the basics of international human rights law and going all the way to current challenges. It's not just for experts; students and anyone interested in human rights can benefit from it. One of the strengths of the article is its focus on practical aspects. It looks at real cases, international agreements, and the roles of different groups in making sure human rights are respected globally. By doing this, it gives a broad view of how human rights principles are applied. What sets this article apart is its detailed look at the complexities of promoting and protecting human rights. It doesn't just talk about theory; it dives into the challenges faced in the real world. The use of case studies and examples helps to illustrate how human rights play out in different situations. An important aspect highlighted is the role of grassroots activism and civil society. The article emphasizes that individuals and organizations working at the community level play a crucial part in making sure human rights are respected. This inclusion of grassroots efforts makes the article stand out, as it shows the practical side of making positive changes. By reading this article, readers can get a deep understanding of human rights in action. It shows the challenges faced in implementing these principles and encourages readers to think critically about how human rights apply in various situations. In conclusion, 'International Human Rights Law and Practice' is not just a theoretical guide; it's a practical resource that helps readers navigate the complexities of international human rights law. It gives a clear understanding of the real-world implications of human rights principles and inspires individuals to take action in promoting and protecting human rights. The book remains relevant by addressing current challenges, making it a valuable tool for anyone looking to engage with human rights on a practical level.

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International Human Rights Law and Practice

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“Traditional international human rights law, with its focus on the state both as protector and (potential) violator, lacks an important dimension, namely individual criminal liability and mechanisms to ensure accountability in order to respond to serious human rights violations. This was seen as an evident weakness of the system that had remained unaddressed since the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials. However, a change in political constellations following the end of the Cold War, the establishment of ad hoc tribunals by the UN Security Council (UNSC) in the 1990s in response to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia and the genocide in Rwanda, strong NGO movements, and the leadership of several states resulted in the reemergence of international criminal justice efforts. This culminated in the establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 1998 and led to the setting up of several mixed/hybrid courts, such as those in East Timor, Cambodia and Sierra Leone.74 In an important broadening of the scope of international criminal law, the statutes of international tribunals recognise that war crimes can 73 See on relevant developments and jurisprudence, Chapter 8.6. 74 See on international criminal law generally, A. Cassese, International Criminal Law, 3rd edn (Oxford University Press, 2012); R. Cryer, H. Friman, D. Robinson and E. Wilmshurst, Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, 2010); I. Bantekas, International Criminal Law, 4th edn (Hart, 2010); and for resources on tribunals and hybrid courts, www.monash.edu/law/research/projects/icjp/compilationproject/ general/tribunals-hybrid-courts. 151 also be committed in internal armed conflicts.75 In parallel, several human rights treaty bodies, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and others have recognised the applicability of human rights in the course of armed conflicts.76 These developments have resulted in the growing convergence of international human rights law, international humanitarian law and international criminal law, in particular when addressing violations in internal armed conflicts. International human rights law has also become increasingly important in the context of international refugee law, such as in respect of the interpretation of the notion of persecution, immigration detention, and the scope of the prohibition of refoulement.77 At the national level, meanwhile, the end of conflicts and/or authoritarian systems has triggered complex processes often referred to as transitional justice.78 These processes are characterised by the agreed upon need to address legacies of violations in times of transition. This includes having to determine what should be done in respect of 75 See arts. 5-8 ICC Rome Statute 1998, particularly para. (2)(c)-(f). 76 See Chapters 16.4 and 16.5. 77 See Chapter 13.3.6, and V. Chetail, ‘Are Refugee Rights Human Rights? An Unorthodox Questioning of the Relations between Refugee Law and Human Rights Law’ in R. Rubio-Marin (ed.), Human Rights and Immigration (Oxford University Press, 2014) 1972”--

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2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - United States Department of State

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HUMAN RIGHTS ARTICLE;-3.                          Muhammad Sherjil Raza.                                 (30118756)

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HUMAN RIGHTS ARTICLE;-3.                          Muhammad Sherjil Raza.                                 (30118756)

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Harvard Reference:

U.S Department of state, Year of publication (2022), Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor

Article review:

2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the human rights situation in various countries around the world. The report covers a wide range of human rights issues, including civil liberties, political rights, freedom of expression, and more. It offers detailed assessments of each country's human rights practices, highlighting both positive developments and areas of concern. One of the major strengths of this report is its objective and thorough approach to documenting human rights violations. By reviewing this report, you'll be able to stay informed about the human rights situation globally and gain insights into the efforts being made to promote and protect human rights. It can serve as a valuable resource for researchers, activists, policymakers, and anyone interested in human rights issues. The Country Reports on Human Rights Practices is an excellent choice because it provides a comprehensive and objective assessment of human rights practices in different countries. It covers a wide range of issues and offers detailed insights into the state of human rights globally. By selecting this report, we can gain access to reliable and up-to-date information about civil liberties, political rights, freedom of expression, and more. This report is published by the U.S. Department of State, which adds credibility to the information presented. It's recognized globally as a reliable source for human rights analysis. The connection between human rights and the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices is that the report provides a detailed analysis of the human rights situation in different countries. It sheds light on the status of civil liberties, political rights, freedom of expression, and more. By reading the report, you can gain a better understanding of the challenges and progress in upholding human rights globally. It's a valuable resource for raising awareness, advocating for change, and promoting human rights for all. The conclusion of a review of the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices would generally summarize the findings and highlight the key human rights issues identified in different countries. It would emphasize the importance of addressing these issues, promoting human rights, and working towards a more just and equitable world.

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Preface

For nearly 50 years, the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices have served as a vital resource for governments, researchers, advocacy groups, journalists, and voices of conscience worldwide that work to promote respect for human rights and accountability for injustice. The individual reports cover 198 countries and territories, providing factual, objective information based on credible reports of the events that occurred throughout 2022. These reports are meticulously compiled by U.S. Department of State employees in Washington, D.C., and at our overseas missions throughout the world, who collectively spend thousands of hours preparing the reports using credible information from U.S. embassies and consulates abroad, foreign government officials, nongovernmental and international organizations, jurists and legal experts, journalists, academics, human rights defenders, labor activists, and published reports. We take seriously our responsibility to ensure their accuracy.

Each country report speaks for itself, describing reports of practices in calendar year 2022 in light of international law and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Some of the reports highlight record violations and abuses that are appalling in their scale and severity. Russia's full-scale war against Ukraine beginning in February 2022 has resulted in massive death and destruction, with reports of members of Russia's forces committing war crimes and other atrocities, including summary executions of civilians and horrific accounts of gender-based violence, including sexual violence against women and children. In Iran, the regime responded with brutality and violence to peaceful protests across the country following the tragic death of Mahsa Jina Amini while in the custody of the so-called "morality police." This year's country report documents in detail the Iranian regime's violent crackdown and its continued denial of the Iranian people's universal human rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedoms of expression and religion or belief.

In Xinjiang, in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the country report describes how genocide and crimes against humanity continued to occur against predominantly Muslim Uyghurs and members of other ethnic and religious minority groups. In Burma, the report relays how the military regime continues to use violence to brutalize civilians and consolidate its control, reportedly killing more than 2,900 people and detaining more than 17,000 since the February 2021 military coup. As part of our efforts to ensure accountability in Burma, I made the important determination in March 2022 that the military had committed genocide and crimes against humanity against Rohingya, most of whom are Muslim, repledging U.S. efforts to promote justice and accountability for abuses faced by Rohingya and other ethnic and religious minority groups across Burma. As reflected in the report on Afghanistan, the Taliban's oppressive and discriminatory measures against women and girls have been relentless. No other country in the world bars women and girls from getting an education, which is an internationally recognized human right. The Taliban's edict barring female employees of non-governmental organizations from the workplace imperils tens of millions of Afghans who depend on humanitarian assistance for their survival. No country can achieve peace and prosperity when half its population is cut off from society and the economy.

Protracted human rights crises, as in South Sudan where a constant stream of subnational violence, combined with the transitional government's lack of progress in implementing long overdue commitments, have continued to cause misery and death. The report on Syria describes how the regime continues to jail, torture, and kill political opponents, human rights defenders, and journalists. Over 154,000 persons remain disappeared or unjustly detained by the regime, ISIS, and other parties to the conflict. Authoritarian governments - like those in Cuba, Belarus, and Venezuela, among others - have condemned hundreds or thousands of peaceful protestors to lengthy and unjust prison sentences. In Cambodia, brave trade union activists who have led hundreds in a peaceful strike for over a year, have been reportedly met with arrest, detention, and other efforts to demoralize workers and silence their voices.

Still, we see people of courage and conscience standing up, at great personal risk, for universal human rights, to protect the wellbeing of their communities and for the future of their countries. These human rights defenders work tirelessly to expose injustice, corruption, and abuse and to press for transparency and accountability.

The 2022 country reports also illuminate the compounding impacts of human rights violations and abuses on persons in marginalized communities who also suffer disproportionately from the negative effects of economic inequality, climate change, migration, food insecurity, and other global challenges. In line with President Biden's June 15, 2022, Executive Order, the 2022 country reports specifically include enhanced reporting on so-called conversion "therapy" practices, which are forced or involuntary efforts to change a person's sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression, as well as additional reporting on the performance of unnecessary surgeries on intersex persons.

Democracy, human rights, and labor rights are mutually reinforcing, and support for democratic renewal is essential to promoting these rights. President Biden will co-host the second Summit for Democracy with the Governments of Costa Rica, the Netherlands, the Republic of Korea, and the Republic of Zambia on March 29-30, 2023. Together, we will showcase the great progress made by Summit partners and the importance of working together to meet the many challenges to democracy.

As the Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes, all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. We submit these country reports in service to our common humanity.

Antony J. Blinken
Secretary of State

Country Reports

Africa (Sub-Saharan)

East Asia and Pacific

Europe and Eurasia

Near East (Middle East and North Africa)

South and Central Asia

Western Hemisphere

Acts of Congress mandate the annual submission of the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. The Country Reports cover internationally recognized human rights, including those set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights instruments, as well as worker rights. These include the prohibition on torture or other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment and the prohibitions on arbitrary detention, enforced disappearances, and clandestine detention and other violations or abuses of the right to life, liberty, and the security of person. They also include certain other rights, such as the right of peaceful assembly and the rights to freedom of expression, association, and religion or belief. Furthermore, the reports cover key internationally recognized worker rights issues, as required in the Trade Act of 1974, such as the right to freedom of association, the right to bargain collectively, the prohibition of forced or compulsory labor, the status of child labor practices, the minimum age for employment of children, discrimination with respect to employment, and acceptable work conditions.

The Country Reports are prepared by reviewing information available from a wide variety of credible sources, including U.S. and foreign government officials; victims of alleged human rights abuses; academic and congressional studies; and reports from the press, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) concerned with human rights. Particularly helpful for citation are NGOs, whether within a single country or those with an international perspective.

The Country Reports cover respect for human rights in foreign countries and territories worldwide. They do not describe or assess the human rights implications of actions taken by the U.S. government or its representatives.

To comply with the congressional requirement for reporting on human rights practices, the Department of State provides guidance to U.S. diplomatic missions annually in July for submission of updated reports in September and October. The Department of State updates these texts by year's end. Multiple concerned bureaus and offices in the Department of State provide contributions, and the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor prepares a final draft of each country report. The U.S. Department of Labor contributes to material in section 7 on worker rights (see appendix B for more detail).

The Department of State strives to make the Country Reports comprehensive, objective, and uniform in scope. We seek a high standard of consistency in the reports, despite the multiplicity of sources and the diversity of countries. For purposes of focus and streamlining, the reports select a few illustrative examples of alleged abuses or violations and follow up in most instances only on the previous year's high-profile unresolved allegations. In recent years the Department of State's annual instructions on the update of the Country Reports removed the requirement that information be provided even when no abuse or violation was alleged. An example is a reduction in information on prison conditions when there have not been allegations of inadequate conditions. If there has been no allegation concerning the unavailability of potable water in a prison, then the report need not include information on that condition. It is only an allegation, for example, regarding the absence of potable water that would raise concerns regarding prison condition and thus be mentioned. This change allowed the reports to increase the focus on reported violations and abuses.

Additionally, the Department of State's annual instructions also made changes to sharpen the focus on reports of violations and abuses of internationally recognized human rights and each government's actions regarding such violations and abuses. For example, the executive summary of each report is sharply focused on credible reports of the significant types of violations and abuses of internationally recognized human rights, if applicable to the country concerned. These include reports of extrajudicial killing, torture, harsh and life-threatening prison conditions, and the worst forms of restrictions on freedoms of expression, peaceful assembly, association, and religion or belief, as well as bias-motivated crimes of violence and similar abuses. The summary does not include many other common issues, such as overcrowding in prisons and societal discrimination, but these matters continue to be covered in the body of the reports.

In 2022 there is increased attention to reporting of threats and violence against human rights defenders, particularly those exercising their civil and political rights to advocate for the environment and land as well as Indigenous peoples' rights. Additionally, in section 1.e. of this year's reports, as has been the case since the 2019 reports, there is an expanded subsection on politically motivated reprisal against individuals located outside the country (otherwise known as "transnational repression"). The 2022 reports in section 6 contain new and expanded information on abuses against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex individuals. Finally, in section 1.f., the 2022 reports include greater information, when known, about the use of technology to arbitrarily or unlawfully surveil or interfere with the privacy of individuals (e.g., citizens, civil society, journalists, members of minority groups).

While the reports continue to report on societal conditions, including discrimination, that can affect the enjoyment of internationally recognized human rights, we have reduced the amount of statistical data in the subsections of the report illustrating those conditions. In the age of the internet, the underlying data are generally available. We have provided links to relevant sources rather than repeat the data in the text of the reports. Such links are consolidated in appendix C.

Evaluating the credibility of reports of human rights violations and abuses remains difficult. Most governments and opposition groups deny they commit human rights violations or abuses and occasionally go to great lengths to conceal any wrongdoing. There may be few eyewitnesses to specific alleged violations or abuses. Frequently, eyewitnesses are intimidated or prevented from reporting what they know. On the other hand, individuals and groups opposed to a government may have incentive to exaggerate or fabricate abuses. In similar fashion, some governments may distort or exaggerate abuses attributed to opposition groups. The Department of State seeks to identify those groups (for example, government forces) or individuals for whom available, credible evidence indicates probable involvement in human rights violations or abuses or other problematic conduct.

Many governments that profess to respect human rights may in fact secretly order or tacitly condone violations or abuses. Consequently, the Country Reports look beyond statements of policy or intent to examine reports of what a government did, or did not do, to protect human rights and promote accountability, including the extent to which it investigated, brought to trial, or punished those responsible for any violations or abuses.

The Country Reports describe facts relevant to human rights concerns as they have been reported by the sources identified above. Notwithstanding terms that may be used in them, they do not state or reach legal conclusions with respect to domestic or international law.

Occasionally a report may state that a country "generally respected" the rights of individuals. The Department of State uses the phrase "generally respected" because the protection and promotion of human rights is a dynamic endeavor. It cannot be stated with absolute accuracy that any government always respects these rights without qualification, even in the best of circumstances. Accordingly, reports use "generally respected" as a phrase to describe countries that attempt to protect and promote human rights in the fullest sense, and it is thus the highest level of respect for human rights assigned by these reports.

Because the Secretary of State designates foreign groups or organizations as foreign terrorist organizations (FTOs) on the Department of State FTO list, the reports describe as "terrorists" only those groups on the current FTO list.

The following notes on specific parts of each country report provide an overview of the key problems covered, but they are not intended to be comprehensive descriptions:

Arbitrary Deprivation of Life and Other Unlawful or Politically Motivated Killings: Includes killings ordered by governments or committed by governments without fair trial guarantees, including when there is evidence of a political motivation. This subsection also includes illustrative, publicly well-known examples of killings by police or security forces and deaths that resulted from excessive use of force or other abuses of human rights, including as it relates to equal protection of law.

While the subsection generally excludes combat deaths and killings by nonstate actors, it does cover killings by such actors as opposition groups or terrorists or widespread killings by criminal groups. Killings by terrorist or other nongovernmental groups are covered after government abuses. The reports, in section 1.c. under Prison and Detention Center Conditions, cover deaths in detention due to adverse conditions. In optional section 1.g., used for countries engaged in conflict, the reports cover allegations of civilian casualties, detention-related abuses, including torture, and other abuses by the government's armed forces or other state organs or by nonstate armed groups operating within that state.

Disappearance: Covers cases in which the government may be involved in the detention, abduction, or disappearance of individuals and refuses to acknowledge the detention of those persons or to account for their whereabouts or fate. This includes cases in which the disappeared person has not been found. Cases eventually classified as killings after the bodies of missing persons are discovered would be covered in the previous section, while those eventually identified as having been arrested or otherwise arbitrarily or unlawfully held in detention may be covered in section 1.d., Arbitrary Arrest or Detention.

Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, and Other Related Abuses: Covers "torture," defined in the Convention against Torture, Article 1, as "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind."

The U.S. government understands that the definition of torture is intended to apply only to acts directed against persons in the offender's custody or physical control. The United States understands that mental pain or suffering refers to prolonged mental harm caused by or resulting from: (1) the intentional infliction or threatened infliction of severe physical pain or suffering; (2) the administration or application, or threatened administration or application, of mind-altering substances or other procedures calculated to disrupt profoundly the senses or the personality; (3) the threat of imminent death; or (4) the threat that another person will imminently be subjected to death, severe physical pain or suffering, or the administration or application of mind-altering substances or other procedures calculated to disrupt profoundly the senses or personality.

"Cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment" is defined in the Convention against Torture, Article 16, as acts that do not amount to torture as defined by Article 1, when committed by or at the instigation of, or with the consent or acquiescence of, a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. The U.S. government understands the term "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" to mean the cruel, unusual, and inhuman treatment or punishment prohibited by the Fifth, Eighth, and Fourteenth Amendments to the Constitution of the United States.

The subsection discusses reported occurrences without analysis of whether they fit any precise definition, and it includes reported uses of physical and other force that may fall short of torture but which may constitute cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment. This subsection may include reports of mistreatment that may not constitute torture or other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment. Furthermore, it covers prison and detention center conditions and deaths in such facilities due to poor conditions or mistreatment.

Arbitrary Arrest or Detention: Includes reports of cases in which detainees are held arbitrarily or unlawfully, such as being held without being charged or, if charged, without being brought promptly before a judicial authority with power to determine the lawfulness of the detention or without trial within a reasonable time.

Denial of Fair Public Trial: Notes whether there is an independent and impartial judiciary free of corruption and political influence and whether trials are fair and public and afford criminal defendants the minimum fair trial guarantees recognized internationally as necessary for a criminal defense. The subsection Political Prisoners and Detainees covers persons convicted, imprisoned, or detained essentially for political beliefs or nonviolent acts of dissent or expression, particularly based on overly broad and sweeping charges intended to stifle the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

If applicable, the section includes a subsection Transnational Repression. This subsection covers reports of a range of acts, including killings, kidnappings, or violence taken by states against individuals living abroad, especially political opponents, civil society activists, human rights defenders, or journalists, seeking to silence criticism and prevent them from exercising their human rights and fundamental freedoms. It also includes credible information regarding a country that, during the year, attempted to misuse international law enforcement tools, such as Interpol systems, for politically motivated reprisals against individuals living outside the country and related efforts by a country to exert bilateral pressure on another country aimed at having that country take adverse action against an individual. Such action could include exerting political pressure for the return of perceived enemies located in other countries.

The subsection Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies covers whether there is access to an independent and impartial court or other competent authority to seek civil remedies for alleged human rights abuses, such as damages for or cessation of the alleged abuse.

If applicable, the subsection Property Seizure and Restitution describes if there is a systemic failure of a government to enforce court orders with respect to restitution or compensation for the taking of private property under domestic law. This subsection is not intended to discuss or evaluate individual claims.

Arbitrary or Unlawful Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence: Covers whether government authorities entered homes without judicial or other appropriate authorization, and whether a government accessed, collected, or used private communications or personal data arbitrarily (such as by targeting individuals based on the exercise of their human rights) or without appropriate legal authority. This section also examines if governments have in place laws, regulations, or practices that enable them to use technology to monitor individuals arbitrarily or unlawfully, and whether any "national security" laws are used by governments to conduct arbitrary or unlawful surveillance. If necessary, this section also reports if informer systems were employed and if authorities punished family members for offenses allegedly committed by their relatives.

Conflict-related Abuses (if applicable): This subsection applies only to countries with reported armed conflicts and describes reported abuses in such situations. It includes reports of unlawful killings and abuses, including torture, of civilians by members of the armed forces or other state organs or by organized nonstate armed groups within the state engaged in the conflict. Any reports of the recruitment or use of child soldiers by either government forces or by other organized armed groups are discussed in this subsection. Also covered are reports of attacks on health-care facilities, ambulances, and schools, which may not themselves be characterized as "human rights abuses" as such.

For countries conducting military operations in another country or engaging in peacekeeping operations in another country, the reports note any human rights concerns with the subject country's activity as well as in the report on the country where the operations took place. As a general matter, conflict-related abuses should not be characterized using the term "violations."

If there are reports of sexual exploitation or abuse by UN or other multinational peacekeeping forces, these incidents are reported in this subsection. The incidents are included in both the report on the country where the alleged abuse occurred and in the report on the country where the alleged offender originated. Also included would be investigative and, if appropriate and known, punitive action taken by the peacekeeping troop-contributing country against the alleged perpetrator.

Freedom of Expression, Including for Members of the Press and Other Media: Evaluates whether freedom of expression, including for members of the media, is respected and describes any direct or indirect restrictions, including censorship and intimidation of journalists. The subsection Internet Freedom includes discussion of monitoring or restrictions on the exercise of freedom of expression online, including the freedom to seek, receive, or impart information, ideas, and opinions. Another subsection, Restrictions on Academic Freedom and Cultural Events, includes information on restrictions, intimidation, and censorship in these fields.

Freedoms of Peaceful Assembly and Association: Evaluates the ability of individuals, including with others (such as through political parties), to exercise these freedoms. It considers instances of government failure to provide permits or licenses for meetings and demonstrations as well as information on the ability of trade associations, professional bodies, NGOs, and similar groups to register, maintain relations, or affiliate with recognized international bodies in their fields. (Section 7, Worker Rights, discusses the right of workers to associate, organize, and bargain collectively.)

Freedom of Religion: Provides a hyperlink to the Department of State's International Religious Freedom Report. Information on antisemitism appears in section 6 of the Country Reports under a heading by that name.

Freedom of Movement and the Right to Leave the Country: Discusses whether and under what circumstances governments arbitrarily removed persons from their territory; restricted internal and foreign travel, including for women or members of minority populations; and revoked passports.

Protection of Refugees: As defined in the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, refugees generally are persons outside their country of nationality or, if stateless, outside their country of former habitual residence, who are unable or unwilling to return to that country based on a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group. Under certain regional instruments, such as the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, the term "refugee" may also refer to persons who have fled their country because their lives, safety, or freedom have been threatened by, among other things, generalized violence or internal conflict. The Protection of Refugees section covers abuse and discrimination against refugees and asylum seekers. It also reviews the government's extension of assistance and protection to refugees, including protection against refoulement, the provision of temporary protection, and support for voluntary repatriation, longer-term integration opportunities, and resettlement in another country.

"Protection against refoulement" refers to whether the government refrained from (1) expelling or returning a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where their life or freedom would be threatened on account of their race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group; or (2) expelling, returning, or extraditing a person to another state where there are substantial grounds for believing that he or she would be in danger of being subjected to torture.

Status and Treatment of Internally Displaced Persons: This optional section is included if there were large numbers of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in a country. It covers the causes of displacement and number of IDPs, restrictions on their movement, targeting of specific groups, and any government failure to provide protection or humanitarian assistance to IDPs. It reports if IDPs suffered abuses of their human rights and whether the government promoted the safe, voluntary, and dignified return, resettlement, or local integration of IDPs.

Stateless Persons: This section is included if a country has a significant number of habitual residents who are stateless (not recognized as nationals by any state under the operation of its law). It reviews whether the government has implemented effectively laws and policies to provide such persons the opportunity to gain nationality on a nondiscriminatory basis. The section examines, among other matters, whether there is violence or discrimination against members of resident stateless populations in employment, education, housing, health services, marriage or birth registration, access to courts, or the owning of property.

Elections and Political Participation: Discusses whether citizens had the opportunity, without discrimination or unreasonable restrictions: to vote or to be elected in free and fair elections that are genuine, periodic, based on universal and equal suffrage, and held by secret ballot; to participate in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through chosen representatives; and to have access to public service. The subsections Recent Elections and Participation of Women and Members of Minority Groups assess whether elections were free and fair, including whether women and members of minority groups had the opportunity to participate on the same basis as men or nonminority citizens.

Corruption and Lack of Transparency in Government: Covers allegations of corruption in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government and actions taken to combat it.

Governmental Posture Towards International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights: Discusses whether the government permits the free functioning of local human rights groups (including by allowing investigations and the publication of the groups' findings on alleged human rights abuses), whether these groups are subject to retaliation by government or other forces (including for their participation in international forums), and whether government officials are cooperative and responsive to their views. The section also discusses whether the government grants access to and cooperates with outside entities (including foreign human rights organizations, the United Nations and other international organizations, and foreign governments) interested in human rights developments in the country. It reports on national human rights commissions, parliamentary commissions, and relations with international human rights organizations.

Discrimination and Societal Abuses: Contains subsections on Women; Systemic Racial or Ethnic Violence and Discrimination; Children; Antisemitism; Trafficking in Persons; Acts of Violence, Criminalization, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity or Expression, or Sex Characteristics; and Persons with Disabilities. It also includes optional subsections on Indigenous Peoples, Organ Harvesting, and Other Societal Violence or Discrimination. The Discrimination and Societal Abuses section addresses abuses and discrimination not discussed elsewhere in the report, focusing on violence or threats of violence against such individuals and laws, regulations, and state practices denying or impeding equal access to employment, education, health care, or other governmental benefits for members of specific groups.

Reluctance to report abuse - by women; children; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or intersex (LGBTQI+) persons; persons with disabilities; and members of other groups - is often a factor in the underreporting of abuses. To avoid being repetitive, we do not make this point every time we cover a particular issue, but readers should be aware that it is a significant factor in these kinds of abuses in all countries and cultures. (The Country Reports address allegations of abuses by government or opposition forces, such as killing, torture and other violence, or restriction of voting rights or freedom of expression that discriminate against specific groups, under the appropriate preceding sections.)

Women: Discusses violence against women, such as domestic violence, rape, female genital mutilation/cutting, dowry deaths, and "honor killings." Information is included on any government tolerance of, and efforts to prevent, such practices, as well as the extent to which women have access to equality of economic opportunity and protection from discrimination and sexual harassment. A restored subsection on Reproductive Rights covers maternal health issues such as maternal mortality, government policy adversely affecting access to contraception, access to skilled health care during pregnancy and childbirth, access to emergency health care, and discrimination against women in accessing sexual and reproductive health care, including for sexually transmitted infections.

Systemic Racial or Ethnic Violence and Discrimination: This subsection, introduced in 2021, covers a country's laws to protect members of racial or ethnic minorities or groups from violence and discrimination and whether the government enforced them effectively. It reports governmental or societal violence or discrimination against members of racial, ethnic, or national minorities and official action to investigate, prosecute, and punish persons complicit in violence and abuses, whether by state or nonstate actors. The section also describes government actions to mitigate factors, such as poverty, unemployment, and societal racial and ethnic biases, that contributed to the problem and, if possible, estimates their adequacy and effectiveness.

Children: Discusses acquisition of citizenship, early and forced marriage, and sexual exploitation of children. As applicable, it also addresses access to education and health care and violence or other abuses against children, as well as other issues.

Antisemitism: Covers reports of antisemitic activity and the government's response. Section 2.c. on freedom of religion provides a hyperlink to the most recent International Religious Freedom Report, which also contains material on antisemitism.

Trafficking in Persons: This section contains a hyperlink to the Department of State's most recent Trafficking in Persons Report.

Acts of Violence, Criminalization, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity or Expression, or Sex Characteristics: Notes laws and policies criminalizing and punishing consensual same-sex sexual conduct between adults, so-called cross-dressing, and de facto discrimination such as from laws covering "debauchery," and whether these laws were enforced. The subsection takes note of legislative and other progress towards the full enjoyment of human rights by LGBTQI+ persons. It also addresses violence by state and nonstate actors targeting LGBTQI+ persons such as "corrective rape," so-called conversion therapy practices, and unnecessary surgical procedures. The subsection reports on discrimination by state and nonstate actors against LGBTQI+ persons. It documents the targeting of LGBTQI+ NGOs and human rights defenders and restrictions on the exercise of freedoms of peaceful assembly, association, and expression with respect to LGBTQI+ issues.

Persons with Disabilities: Covers discrimination against persons with physical, mental, or intellectual disabilities in, among other things, access to public buildings, employment, education, housing, health care, and the provision of other government services.

U.S. law requires annual reporting to Congress on the status of internationally recognized worker rights in countries that were eligible to receive benefits under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP, which expired in December 2020). The law defined internationally recognized worker rights to include: "(A) the right of association; (B) the right to organize and bargain collectively; (C) a prohibition on the use of any form of forced or compulsory labor; (D) a minimum age for the employment of children, and a prohibition on worst forms of child labor; and (E) acceptable conditions of work with respect to minimum wages, hours of work, and occupational safety and health." See 19 U.S.C. § 2464, 2467. In addition to these rights, several U.S. free trade agreements have also included the "elimination of discrimination in respect of employment or occupation" in their definition of internationally recognized worker rights.

The International Labor Organization (ILO), in its 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, sets forth these principles and rights at work as follows: freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labor; the effective abolition of child labor; and the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation. In 2022 the Declaration was amended to include a "safe and healthy working environment."

Each country report includes reporting in the following areas: a) freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining; b) prohibition of forced or compulsory labor; c) prohibition of worst forms of child labor and minimum age for employment; d) discrimination with respect to employment and occupation; and e) acceptable conditions of work with respect to minimum wages, hours of work, and occupational safety and health, and the enforcement of wage, hour, and occupational safety and health laws, including in the informal sector. These sections report on the relevant laws and their enforcement.

The discussion is informed by internationally recognized labor rights and standards, including the conventions and recommendations of the ILO and antitrafficking provisions in the UN Organized Crime Convention Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons. Some specific guidelines derived from these are discussed below.

Freedom of Association and the Right to Collective Bargaining: "Freedom of association" includes the right of workers and employers to establish and join organizations of their own choosing without previous authorization; to draw up their own constitutions and rules; to elect their representatives; to formulate their programs; to join in confederations and affiliate with international organizations; and to be protected against dissolution or suspension by administrative authority.

"The right to organize and bargain collectively" includes the right of workers to be represented in negotiating terms and conditions of employment and the prevention and settlement of disputes with employers, the right to protection against interference by the government or employers, and the right to protection against acts of antiunion discrimination. Governments should promote mechanisms for voluntary negotiations between employers and workers and their organizations. Coverage of the right to organize and bargain collectively includes a review of the extent to which collective bargaining takes place and the extent to which workers, both in law and practice, are protected against antiunion discrimination.

The subsection on freedom of association also covers the right to strike. While it is generally accepted for strikes to be restricted in the public sector and in essential services, the interruption of which would endanger the life, personal safety, or health of a significant portion of the population, these restrictions need to be offset by adequate safeguards for the interests of the workers concerned (for example, mechanisms for mediation and arbitration, due process, and the right to judicial review of legal actions). Reporting on restrictions on the ability of workers to strike generally includes information on any procedures that may exist for safeguarding workers' interests or procedures that may limit or inhibit this right.

Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor: "Forced or compulsory labor" is defined as work or service exacted under the menace of penalty and for which a person has not volunteered. This definition does not include "work or service" where obligations to work or serve are imposed to receive education or training. "Menace of penalty" includes loss of rights or privileges as well as penal sanctions. The ILO exempts compulsory military service, normal civic obligations, emergencies, and minor communal services from its definition of forced labor. The ILO has also exempted certain forms of prison labor, but only to the extent that such labor is exacted because of a conviction in a court of law and carried out under the supervision and control of a public authority, and provided that the prisoner is not hired out to or placed at the disposal of private entities. The ILO further notes that constitutional provisions concerning the obligation of citizens to work do not violate this right so long as they do not take the form of legal obligations enforced by sanctions and are consistent with the principle of "freely chosen employment."

U.S. law defines forced labor as knowingly providing or obtaining the labor or services of a person by force or threats of force, serious harm or threats of serious harm to that person or another person, abuse or threatened abuse of law or legal process, or any scheme, plan, or pattern intended to cause the person to believe that, if that person did not perform such labor or services, that person or another person would suffer serious harm or physical restraint. The UN Trafficking Protocol also addresses forced labor by requiring state parties to criminalize the recruitment, transport, transfer, receipt, or harboring of a person for the purpose of forced labor or services extracted through coercive or fraudulent means.

Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment: "A minimum age for employment" is related to the effective abolition of child labor because it requires a minimum age for employment that is consistent with the fullest physical and mental development of young people. The "prohibition on the worst forms of child labor" looks to ILO Convention 182, which defines anyone younger than age of 18 as a child and specifies certain types of employment as "the worst forms of child labor." These worst forms of labor include slavery, debt bondage, forced labor, forced recruitment into armed conflict, child prostitution and pornography, involvement in illicit activity such as drug production or trafficking, and work that, "by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children."

Discrimination with Respect to Employment and Occupation: "Discrimination with respect to employment and occupation" may be direct or indirect. Direct discrimination exists when laws, rules, or practices explicitly cite a particular ground based on race, religion, national origin, color, sex (including pregnancy), ethnicity, disability, age, sexual orientation, gender identity, HIV or AIDS status, or refugee or stateless status to deny equal opportunities for employment or vocational training, as well as any other ground for distinction determined to impair equal opportunity. The ILO has noted that indirect discrimination occurs where rules or practices appear neutral but in practice lead to unwarranted exclusions. For example, requiring applicants to be a certain height could disproportionately exclude women and members of some ethnic groups. Unless the specified height is necessary to perform the job, this could illustrate indirect discrimination.

U.S. law prohibits discrimination in respect to employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, genetic information, or age. Many states and municipalities also have enacted protections against discrimination and harassment based on sexual orientation, status as a parent, marital status, and political affiliation.

Acceptable Conditions of Work: "Acceptable conditions of work" refers to the establishment and maintenance of appropriate mechanisms, adapted to national conditions, that provide for minimum working standards, namely: wages that provide a decent living for workers and their families; working hours that do not exceed 48 hours per week, with a full 24-hour day of rest and provisions for overtime pay; a specified number of annual paid leave days; and minimum conditions for the protection of the safety and health of workers. National laws should specify whether workers in the informal sector are covered, and whether any other group of workers or sectors of the economy are excluded or face additional challenges.

See below for resources on some issues discussed in section 6, Discrimination and Societal Abuses, in the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Reference does not indicate endorsement by the Department of State.

Women

UN Population Fund: https://www.unfpa.org/data/world-population-dashboard ; http://www.unfpa.org/gender/index.htm and www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/Preventing_gender-biased_sex_selection.pdf

Secretary's Office of Global Women's Issues, U. S. Department of State: https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/bureaus-and-offices-reporting-directly-to-the-secretary/office-of-global-womens-issues

Demographic and Health Survey: dhsprogram.com/Where-We-Work/

Systemic Racial or Ethnic Violence and Discrimination

Indigenous Peoples

Children

UNICEF: http://www.unicef.org/ and http://mics.unicef.org/

Antisemitism

Office of the Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Antisemitism: https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-civilian-security-democracy-and-human-rights/office-of-the-special-envoy-to-monitor-and-combat-anti-semitism/

Trafficking in Persons

Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, State Department: http://www.state.gov/trafficking-in-persons-report

Acts of Violence, Criminalization, and Other Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity or Expression, or Sex Characteristics

Persons with Disabilities

Other Societal Violence or Discrimination

Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world,

Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,

Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,

Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,

Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,

Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, therefore,
The General Assembly proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the security of person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
Article 11
Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense.

No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home, or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13
Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.

Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
Article 14
Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.

This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15
Everyone has the right to a nationality.

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor be denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 16
Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.

Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
Article 17
Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.

No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20
Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.

Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.

The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international cooperation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social, and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23
Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.

Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.

Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.

Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25
Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age, or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.

Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.
Article 27
Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.

Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary, or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 29
Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.

In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order, and the general welfare in a democratic society.

These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group, or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

________________________________________
Hundred and eighty-third plenary meeting
Resolution 217(A)(III) of the United Nations General Assembly,
December 10, 1948

Country Report Preparation

This report is submitted to the Congress by the Department of State pursuant to Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. 19 U.S.C. § 2464, 2467 also require that U.S. foreign and trade policy consider countries' human rights and worker rights performance and that country reports be submitted to the Congress on an annual basis.

This report includes documents on several countries that do not fall into the categories established by these statutes and thus are not covered by the congressional requirement.

The report addresses situations and events in calendar year 2022 only.

The Department of State prepared this report using information from U.S. embassies and consulates abroad, foreign government officials, nongovernmental and international organizations, jurists and legal experts, journalists, academics, labor activists, and published reports. U.S. diplomatic missions abroad prepared the initial drafts of the individual country reports.

Once the initial drafts of the individual country reports were completed by U.S. diplomatic missions abroad, the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (DRL), in cooperation with other Department of State offices with the relevant country and regional expertise, reviewed and edited the reports, drawing on its own sources of information as well as of the Department of Labor. DRL officials also consulted experts in the Department of State and elsewhere on worker rights, refugee issues, police and security issues, women's issues, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) issues, and legal matters, among many others. The guiding principles were that all information be reported objectively, thoroughly, and fairly. DRL, working with other Department of State offices as necessary, also ensured that all reports followed the same methodology and conformed to standard format and structure.

The DRL Editorial Team

Coordinator of Human Rights Reports/Editor in Chief: Stephen Eisenbraun

Deputy Coordinators of Human Rights Reports/Assistant Editors in Chief: Dan Vernon, Jock Whittlesey

Senior Editors: Wendell Albright, Ken Chern, Doug Kramer, Stephen Eisenbraun, Victor J. Huser, David Morris, Dan Vernon, Joseph Dean Yap, Sherri Holliday-Sklar, Philip Kaplan

Editors: Maureen Ahmed, Wendell Albright, Emily Belson, Lianna Brown, Jillian Burns, Mark Campos, Alexandra Cantone, Dana Castagna, Phil Chamberlain, Ken Chern, Will Condon, Janie Esteva, Douglas Fisk, Steve Glowacki, Reggie Greer, Christopher Groth, Kala Hagen, Ian Harrison, Emma Hensley, Meghan Higgins, David Houston, Chuck Hunter, Noah Krystel, Hunter Malone, Uma Menon, Jose Mercado, Rachel Milner, Anne Molyneaux, David Morris, Greta Morris, Jake Morris, Dan Ohlstein, Anna Pascual-Lanning, Margaret J. Pride, Jack Reeves, Ereni Roess, Thomas Selinger, Wendy Silverman, Riaan Singh Dhankhar, Erica Smith, Zeynep Soyluoglu-Hoyt, Sylvia Stankova-Loomis, Steve Stark, Jessica Stern, Zachary Suhr, Sarah Swatzburg, Jennifer Topping, C. Eduardo Vargas, Rachel Waldstein, Dan Whitman, Joseph Dean Yap, Kimberly Zieselman

Regional Bureau Coordinators: Greg Bauer, Amanda Boggs, Melissa Dymek, Nick Mancini, Karen Mims, Sarah Pierson, Sylvia Yacoub, Travis Zirker

Senior Technical Editor: Janine Czarnecki

Technical Editors: Shannon Hill, Benjamin Stevenson

Technical Coordinator: Geoffrey Palcher

Public Rollout Preparation: Mary "Trina" Bolton, Ryan Burris, Karlygash Faillace, Carol Finerty, Patrick Harvey, Caitlin Hawes, Shannon Hill, Eunice Mooney, Marie Seguin, Benjamin Stevenson

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2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - United States Department of State

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For nearly 50 years, the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices have served as a vital resource for governments, researchers, advocacy groups, journalists, and voices of conscience worldwide that work to promote respect for human rights and accountability for injustice.

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Human Rights Article:-4                                 Muhammad Sherjil Raza.                            (30118756)

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Human Rights Article:-4                                 Muhammad Sherjil Raza.                            (30118756)

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Harvard Reference:

Paul Aufiero, (2020), Top Human Rights News of 2020, human rights watch

Article Review:

The news published by human rights watch organization gives huge amount of knowledge about the top human rights news of the year 2020.The news gives top 20 human rights news which helps us to have a look upon an overview of the human right acts occurring in the corresponding year. It is source of huge knowledge as it discusses COVID-19 which was clearly a hazard for the world, terrorism and sexual violence acts violating human rights. The articles main focus is COVID-19. The top 20 human rights of the year can be really informative and insightful. It helps you stay updated on the most significant human rights issues and developments that occurred during the year. By reading such an article, you can gain a broader understanding of the challenges and progress made in the field of human rights. The article is chosen as it's a great way to learn about different perspectives, raise awareness, and stay engaged with the global community. Plus, it might inspire you to take action or support causes that align with your values. The awareness spread by this article is impactful if studied. It may be very informative for a person writing report of a year on human rights. It gives education to people about different human rights and the causes behind their violation. It inspires the person reading it to learn the progress made in human rights can be inspiring and motivate to get involved in making a positive difference in your own community or globally. Engaging with human rights broadens your perspective, challenges assumptions, and encourages critical thinking, fostering personal growth and development. This give awareness of the top human rights issues and allows to understand global impact of its violation and how these affect people from different regions and backgrounds. Human rights issues often intersect with other social justice concerns, such as gender equality, racial discrimination, or economic disparities. Exploring these connections helps you develop a more holistic understanding of human rights.  It helps you appreciate diverse cultures, challenges stereotypes, and fosters a sense of global solidarity. Engaging with human rights articles can encourage personal reflection and introspection. It prompts you to examine your own beliefs, biases, and privileges, fostering personal growth and a deeper understanding of social justice.

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As we look back at the news of 2020, much of our reporting was centered on the Covid-19 pandemic and its effects on human rights. From government-imposed lockdowns to information accessibility to the pandemic's impact on children and marginalized communities, how authorities in countries around the world handled the crisis was one of the biggest human rights stories of the year.

But there was much more to cover. From China's abuses in Xinjiang to Russia's persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses, these were some of the most-read stories on our site this year.

1. Human Rights Dimension of Covid-19 Response
On March 11, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that an outbreak of the viral disease Covid-19 had reached the level of a global pandemic. This document provides an overview of human rights concerns posed by the coronavirus outbreak and includes recommendations on how governments and other actors can respect rights in their response.

2. Philippines: New Anti-Terrorism Act Endangers Rights
A law signed by President Rodrigo Duterte in July endangers human rights in the Philippines. Human Rights Watch called the draft law a "disaster in the making," opening the door to arbitrary arrests and long prison sentences for people who have displeased the president.

3. Sexual Violence Against Men, Boys, and Transgender Women in the Syrian Conflict
This July report found that Syrian state and non-state actors have subjected men, boys, transgender women, and nonbinary people to sexual violence during the Syrian conflict, resulting in severe physical and mental health consequences.

4. India: Covid-19 Lockdown Puts Poor at Risk
On March 24, the Indian government announced a three-week nationwide lockdown to contain the spread of coronavirus in the country. The lockdown disproportionately hurt marginalized communities due to loss of livelihood and lack of food, shelter, health, and other basic needs.

5. Covid-19 Fueling Anti-Asian Racism and Xenophobia Worldwide
Since the outbreak of the pandemic, Asians and people of Asian descent have been targets of derogatory language in media reports and statements by politicians as well as on social media platforms, where hate speech related to Covid-19 also appears to have spread extensively.

6. Millions of Ethiopians Can't Get Covid-19 News
Millions of Ethiopians living under a months-long government-imposed shutdown of internet and phone services in western Oromia were left in the dark about the health risks associated with Covid-19. Even before Ethiopia confirmed its first coronavirus case on March 13, people in the region, where the military has conducted operations against a rebel force, faced significant challenges.

7. More Evidence of China's Horrific Abuses in Xinjiang
"His wife wore veils." "He has one more child than allowed by the family planning policy." "He prayed after each meal." These are some of the reasons people in China's Xinjiang region are being detained in "political education" camps. Nothing done was illegal, but in Chinese authorities' eyes, living the life of a Turkic Muslim is punishable.

8. How Covid-19 Could Impact the Climate Crisis
Early in the Covid-19 pandemic, satellite images showing dramatic drops in air pollution in coronavirus hotspots around the globe circulated widely, offering a silver lining to an otherwise very dark story. But when life returns to what it once was, so too will the pollution that clouds the skies and with it the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming.

9. Russia Escalating Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
A year after President Vladimir Putin said that Russian authorities' crackdown against Jehovah's Witnesses should be "looked into," the numbers of house raids and people under criminal investigation have more than doubled, and dozens of worshipers are behind bars for peacefully practicing their faith. More than 300 people face charges, are on trial, or have been convicted of criminal "extremism" for engaging in Jehovah's Witnesses' activities, or are suspects in such cases.

10. Covid-19's Devastating Impact on Children
In early April, Human Rights Watch looked at the state of children's rights around the world and urged governments to make choices that could mitigate the worst harms of the Covid-19 pandemic and benefit children over the long term.

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As we look back at the news of 2020, much of our reporting was centered on the Covid-19 pandemic and its effects on human rights. From government-imposed lockdowns to information accessibility to the pandemic's impact on children and marginalized communities, how authorities in countries around the world handled the crisis was one of the biggest human rights stories of the year.

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Article 2 :

Human Rights

Fakhar Qazi
( 30116578 )

https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i8PoDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT10&dq=info:L0gI8r2EXbkJ:scholar.google.com/&ots=ysw_cgcrrb&sig=knvX4ZoD3bcEz56Vojq9vdXPMBs&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

Harvard Reference :
International Human Rights
By Jack Donnelly, Daniel J. Whelan
Publish year 2020
Publisher : Routledge

Article review :

In the field of human rights literature, "International Human Rights" by Jack Donnelly and Daniel J. Whelan is a valuable resource for a number of strong reasons. This book gives readers a thorough understanding of the intricate field of international human rights while also offering useful applications and theoretical explanations. This book is a smart choice for the following reasons:

Authority and Skill: Renowned experts in the field of human rights, Jack Donnelly and Daniel J. Whelan are well-known for their contributions and competence. Whelan contributes a plethora of expertise and scholarship, while Donnelly, in particular, is well known for his foundational works on human rights philosophy. Their combined experience gives the book's content legitimacy and authority.

Extensive Coverage: "International Human Rights" provides an extensive analysis of the topic, encompassing all aspects of human rights, such as its philosophical underpinnings, legal frameworks, historical development, current issues, and practical ramifications. In order to provide readers a comprehensive grasp of the subject, the book explores both theoretical ideas and actual case examples.

Accessible Language and Structure: The book's accessibility is one of its strong points. The writers handle difficult ideas and legal nuances, but they do it in a way that is easy to understand and entertaining for readers of all skill levels. The logical organisation of the material ensures a seamless and coherent reading experience, with each chapter building upon the ideas covered in the previous one.

Donnelly and Whelan take an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating ideas from sociology, political science, law, and ethics, among other disciplines. The book provides a more nuanced view of human rights concerns by embracing numerous perspectives, recognising the subject's multidimensional nature and its relevance across all fields.

Critical Analysis: The writers promote critical thinking and analysis rather than just providing information and theories. They participate in discussions and disputes pertaining to human rights, urging readers to consider other points of view and establish their own well-informed conclusions. This critical approach encourages meaningful discourse and intellectual research.

Current Relevance: "International Human Rights" is still current and relevant as the field of human rights changes. The authors make sure that the book represents the current reality of the human rights discourse by incorporating recent advancements and developing trends. This guarantees that readers will obtain understanding of the potential and problems that the field is currently confronting.

Practical Implications: In addition to theoretical debates, the book looks at how human rights ideas are used in real-world situations. It looks at how governments, non-governmental organisations, people, and international organisations all contribute to the advancement and defence of human rights. The book encourages readers to take an active role in human rights advocacy and activism by emphasising workable tactics and solutions.

Finally, "International Human Rights" by Jack Donnelly and Daniel J. Whelan is an excellent option for anyone looking for a thorough, reputable, and approachable examination of the intricate field of human rights. Understanding and addressing today's pressing human rights issues requires the knowledge, thorough coverage, accessibility, interdisciplinary approach, critical analysis, current relevance, and practical implications that this book delivers.

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Human Rights Article 2, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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Human Rights Article 2, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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Harvard Referance: Edward Elgar, David Keane, Yvonne McDermott, 2012

Article Review:

The 2012 book "The Challenge of Human Rights: Past, Present, and Future" by Edward Elgar is a classic that is essential to the conversation on human rights. Elgar provides insightful analysis of the development, applicability, and future prospects of human rights that should be carefully considered by academics, decision-makers, and activists alike.
Elgar's book is worth reading since it provides a thorough examination of the historical foundations of human rights. Through his historical analysis of the evolution of human rights laws from antiquity to the present, Elgar sheds light on the various philosophical, legal, and cultural pillars that support modern concepts of human rights. This historical viewpoint highlights the universality and continuing significance of human rights while also improving our understanding of their beginnings.

Furthermore, Elgar deftly negotiates the treacherous terrain of modern human rights concerns, which range from problems of political persecution and economic disparity to environmental deterioration and technological breakthroughs. Elgar challenges readers to face hard realities and consider novel ideas for resolving newly raised human rights issues in the twenty-first century by analysing the shortcomings and inconsistencies present in the human rights frameworks that are now in place.

Elgar's prospective research also provides insightful information on how human rights rhetoric and practice will develop in the future. Elgar argues that in an ever-evolving global context marked by geopolitical upheavals, technological innovations, and socioeconomic changes, the advancement and defence of human rights necessitate innovative flexibility and strategic vision. Elgar encourages readers to conceive audacious tactics for realising the full potential of human rights as a transformational force for justice and dignity by highlighting possible paths for advancing human rights objectives in a world that is becoming more interconnected and uncertain.

In conclusion however this book written by Edward Elgar's important work "The Challenge of Human Rights: Past, Present, and Future" is a bit old now as compared to new uprising challenges to human rights but this book still deserves careful consideration from academics, decision-makers, and practitioners involved in the study and promotion of human rights. We are inspired to actively participate in the ongoing fight for a more just and equitable world by Elgar's work, which also deepens our understanding of the complexities surrounding human rights through its critical examination of contemporary issues, forward-looking perspective, and rich historical analysis. These are some main aspects of choosing this article as the challenge of human rights.

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'This volume represents a genuine attempt to think beyond the realms of what exists, to reflect on ideas postulated in the past that could be of great salience in the future. It presents the reader with a key question; to what extent are the contempor

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39;This volume represents a genuine attempt to think beyond the realms of what exists, to reflect on ideas postulated in the past that could be of great salience in the future. It presents the reader with a key question; to what extent are the contempor

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Human Rights Article 3, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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Human Rights Article 3, Muhammad Owais (30119340)

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https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rnhr20

Harvard Referance: Special Issue: The Future of Human Rights, Gentian Zyberi,Johan Karlsson Schaffer,Carola Lingaas & Eduardo Sánchez Madriga, Published online: 20 Sep 2022

Article Review:

The Nordic Journal of Human Rights is pleased to publish "The Future of Human Rights," a provocative Special Issue co-curated by Eduardo Sánchez Madrigal, Carola Lingaas, Johan Karlsson Schaffer, and Gentian Zyberi. This multidisciplinary compilation provides a thorough examination of the current issues, opportunities, and developments influencing the human rights sector. This evaluation examines the importance of the Special Issue in question and supports the notion that it should be embraced by academics, professionals, and decision-makers.

The excellent editorial board of this publication, which consists of professionals with a range of backgrounds and specialties in political science, international relations, and human rights legislation, is one strong argument in favour of choosing it. Their combined knowledge guarantees a complex and comprehensive analysis of the future of human rights, enhancing academic conversation and encouraging multidisciplinary interaction.

Furthermore, a broad range of urgent human rights concerns are covered within the Special Issue's thematic scope, from the effects of developing technology on human rights to the changing role of international institutions in promoting and defending human rights. Through its examination of these intricate and diverse issues, the magazine provides insightful information about how human rights government and advocacy are changing.

Moreover, the articles included in this Special Issue demonstrate a creative and thorough approach to human rights research. By utilising empirical data, theoretical models, and case studies from various geographic settings, the articles present novel viewpoints and insightful evaluations that enhance academic knowledge and influence policy discussions.

Significantly, the Nordic Journal of Human Rights is well known for its dedication to intellectual rigour and academic brilliance. The journal ensures the quality and authenticity of the research featured in this Special Issue by upholding strict editorial standards and peer-review procedures. This increases the study's relevance and effect within the academic community.

To sum up, the Nordic Journal of Human Rights Special Issue on "The Future of Human Rights" is an invaluable tool for academics, professionals, and decision-makers who are debating the intricate issues that the field of human rights is confronting. This journal provides an invaluable forum for knowledge advancement, critical thought, and moulding the future of human rights practice and discourse because of its interdisciplinary approach, subject breadth, and dedication to scholarly excellence.

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Article 3

Human Rights

Fakhar Qazi

( 30116578 )

Business and Human Rights Journal

Harvard Reference;

Authu ; Judith Schrempf-Stirling, Harry J Van Buren

Business and Human Rights Journal 5 (1), 28-55, 2020

Published by Cambridge University

Article Review :

Reputable academic journal "Business and Human Rights Journal" focuses on the relationship between corporate operations and human rights concerns. This particular paper, written by Harry J. Van Buren and Judith Schrempf-Stirling, is important for a number of reasons.

First off, the article has credibility because of the qualifications of its writers, Harry J. Van Buren and Judith Schrempf-Stirling. Since both authors are probably authorities in their respective domains, the information offered is probably intelligent and thoroughly studied. Harry J. Van Buren, a specialist in business ethics and sustainability, and Judith Schrempf-Stirling, well-known for her work in corporate social responsibility and business ethics, both contribute insightful viewpoints to the discussion.

The article's inclusion in the "Business and Human Rights Journal" lends further legitimacy, to boot. The strict peer-reviewing procedure at Cambridge University Press guarantees that only superior research is accepted for publication in their journals. The journal's reputation for publishing scholarly work that is reputable and authoritative is upheld by this stringent screening procedure.

Fourth, readers who are interested in the ethical aspects of business activities would find the specific issue covered in the article—which is probably indicated in the title, abstract, or keywords—interesting. It's difficult to go into further detail without access to the exact content, but papers that are published in respectable journals frequently address important topics including social justice, environmental sustainability, labour rights, and corporate accountability.

In conclusion, selecting a piece from the "Business and Human Rights Journal" written by Judith Schrempf-Stirling and Harry J. Van Buren gives readers a reliable, pertinent, and timely examination of the relationship between corporate operations and human rights concerns. For readers who are interested in this area of study, the topic is a fascinating pick because of the authors' and the journal's reputable standing.

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Human Rights:-                                                     Article: 2                                                                                Saqib Nawaz(30114830)   

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Human Rights:-                                                     Article: 2                                                                                Saqib Nawaz(30114830)   

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Harward Referance :
Jim Ife, Karen Soldatić, Linda Briskman.

Year of publication(2022)

Title: Human Rights and Social Work

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Article Review:

This book looks at the three generations of human rights and the oppressive structures that keep people from being treated equally in society and the author covers all the aspects of human rights in this book which need of life. Therefore, the main aspects of this article are about recent movements and human rights crises with different aspects.

This book takes the stance that, in any situation, social workers can accomplish their aims of social justice by using a human rights viewpoint, which can enrich social work. But human rights are also a contentious and challenging issue. The final stage addresses human rights issues related to social work worldwide, including the state's role, children's rights, the effects of childhood trauma, and the costs to society. Furthermore, human rights and globalization are strongly connected in different ways. On one hand, globalization has the potential to promote and protect human rights by providing the exchange of ideas and information and creating opportunities for economic development and improved living standards.

On the other hand, globalization can also present challenges to human rights. However, globalization and human rights have a complicated and nuanced relationship overall. To ensure that globalization is used to advance and defend human rights for everyone, regardless of origin or location, constant efforts are needed.

A human rights framework is often necessary when addressing social issues because it offers a set of guiding principles and standards for advancing justice, equality, and dignity for all. We may endeavor to address and resolve societal concerns and guarantee that everyone has equal opportunities and a chance to live a life of dignity by recognizing and respecting human rights. According to this article, social issues and problems that impact society as a whole, include poverty, discrimination, inequality, and access to healthcare and education.

In conclusion, Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that every individual should have, like the right to be treated fairly and with dignity. Social work is a profession that aims to help people and make society better. Social workers are essential to the advancement and defense of human rights. They strive to guarantee that everyone has access to the resources and assistance required to lead fulfilling lives.

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Human Rights and Social Work: Towards Rights-Based Practice helps students and practitioners understand how human rights concepts underpin the social work profession and inform their practice. This book examines the three generations of human rights and the systems of oppression that prevent citizens from participating in society as equals. It explores a range of topics, from ethics and ethical social work practice, to deductive and inductive approaches to human rights, and global and local human rights discourses. The language, processes, structures and theories of social work that are fundamental to the profession are also discussed. This edition features case studies exploring current events, movements and human rights crises, including the Black Lives Matter movement, the Northern Territory Emergency Response, and homelessness among LGBTIQA+ young people. This edition is accompanied by online resources for both students and instructors. Human Rights and Social Work is an indispensable guide for social work students and practitioners.

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HUMAN RIGHTS:-                                                   ARTICLE: 1                                                             SAQIB NAWAZ (30114830)

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HUMAN RIGHTS:-                                                   ARTICLE: 1                                                             SAQIB NAWAZ (30114830)

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Harward Reference:

Michael Goodhart,

Year of publication(2013)

Human rights: politics and practice

Article Review:

The book "Human Rights" illustrates the detailed concepts of human rights and their impacts on politics, the public, and practice. Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that everyone should have. The book " Human Rights Politics and Practice" provides an accessible exploration of the intricacies surrounding human rights. It explores the political dimensions of human rights, the epitome of how different causes have developed and influenced them. Many examples in this book show how human rights are implemented. The key factor of this article is how politics is involved in implementing of human rights regime on humans. They prove that every human being is born free, equal in dignity, and with the same rights, regardless of their nation, culture, or environment. General elections, steps to bolster and safeguard each person's capacity for influence, and actions to advance and ensure human rights compliance are all part of democracy policy. The rule of law, democracy, and human rights will also be central to all aspects of foreign policy. The practice of human rights can take many forms, such as legal frameworks, advocacy campaigns, grassroots activism, and international cooperation. It's all about translating human rights ideals into concrete actions that improve the lives of individuals and promote a more just and equitable society. Human rights are basic rights that belong to all of us simply because we are human. They embody key values in our society such as fairness, dignity, equality, and respect. Every human has some fundamental requirements, the most important of which is a need for safety and aliment. Moreover, the fulfillment of this need depends on freedom, such as freedom of movement, freedom of speech, and freedom of association. An example of human rights in practice is the right to freedom of speech. So, it means that everyone has the right to express their thoughts, feelings, arguments, and ideas without any threats or punishments. Human rights politics and Practice is a field of study that examines the intersection of politics and the practical implementation of human rights principles .it explores how political systems, institutions, and actors influence the promotion, protection, and realization of human rights. It also analyzes the impact of politics on human rights, including the influence of governments, civil society, and global actors. In conclusion, it seeks to understand how politics shape the practice of human rights and how human rights can be effectively advanced in diverse political contexts.

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Human Rights: Politics and Practice provides a comprehensive introduction to human rights that takes students beyond a purely legal perspective to look at theoretical issues and practical approaches. It brings together international experts including political scientists, philosophers, lawyers, and policy-makers, and is up to date with a constantly evolving field. The second edition sees an expansion of theoretical content, and introduces students to areas of growing importance, including non-western approaches to human rights. It also looks at feminist approaches, and includes more material on group and individual rights. In addition, the book includes more critical perspectives, and there is more material on global civil society and children's human rights. A new concluding chapter charts the possible future development of human rights and ensures that students are up to date. The book includes carefully considered pedagogical features to aid student learning, and the practical chapters each contain a case study which explores a concrete example in depth. The book is accompanied by an Online Resource Centre, which enhances student learning and provides valuable support for lecturers. For Students: Links to key documents Web links Flashcard glossary For Lecturers: Test Bank PowerPoint slides

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Human Rights: Politics and Practice provides a comprehensive introduction to human rights that takes students beyond a purely legal perspective to look at theoretical issues and practical approaches. It brings together international experts including political scientists, philosophers, lawyers, and policy-makers, and is up to date with a constantly evolving field.

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Human Rights Article 4, Muhammad Owais (30119340): 

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Human Rights Article 4, Muhammad Owais (30119340): 

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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14649880500120491

Harvard referance: Amartya Sen Lamont University Professor, Published online: 17 Aug 2006

Article Review:

The "Human Rights and Capabilities" journal article by Amartya Sen offers a thorough examination of the relationship between the capability approach and human rights, as well as priceless insights into the theoretical underpinnings and real-world applications of these two vital facets of human growth. Sen, a professor at Lamont University known for his proficiency in social choice theory and welfare economics, contributes a plethora of knowledge and experience to this discussion, which makes it essential reading for academics, decision-makers, and practitioners alike.

Sen's ability to persuasively argue for the necessity of capacities in the realisation of human rights is one of his work's main strengths. Sen persuasively illustrates how a capabilities perspective enhances our understanding of human rights by moving the focus from basic entitlements to the real freedoms and opportunities that people need to lead fulfilled lives, drawing on his substantial research and expertise. Sen proposes a more inclusive and comprehensive framework for advancing human well-being by challenging traditional views on human rights and highlighting the significance of agency, variety, and pluralism.

Sen's study also shows the practical significance of his concepts by addressing important real-world challenges beyond theoretical abstraction. He demonstrates how a capacities perspective may guide policy actions meant to advance social justice, foster human development, and fight various types of injustice and inequality using case studies and empirical data. Through shedding light on the connections between human rights and capacities, Sen offers academics and professionals insightful advice on how to create interventions and policies that are more just and efficient.

Sen's writing is also distinguished by its clarity, rigour, and intellectual depth, which makes his views understandable to a broad audience while upholding academic complexity and rigour. His interdisciplinary approach enriches the conversation and promotes interdisciplinary debate by drawing on concepts from political science, economics, philosophy, and other subjects.

In summary, Amartya Sen's important work "Human Rights and Capabilities" might be an old journal as it was written in 2006 but most of its aspects are still relevant in today's life and it still provides a convincing and perceptive explanation of the relationship between the capability approach and human rights. Sen's claims are supported by his experience and academic repute as the Lamont University Professor, which makes this journal article a must-read for anybody concerned in furthering social justice, human growth, and human rights. These are the main reasons why I chose this journal.

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ARTICLE:3                                                                     HUMAN RIGHTS:                                                          SAQIB NAWAZ(30114830)

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ARTICLE:3                                                                     HUMAN RIGHTS:                                                          SAQIB NAWAZ(30114830)

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Harvard Reference:

Title: Nationalism and Human Rights

Author: Emir Yazici

Published year: Mar 2019

Publisher: SAGE Publications

Article Review:

The article "Nationalism and Human Rights" is a great resource to read if you're trying to figure out how human rights function in the real world. This page explains the key concepts of the book, giving a vital summary of it. The book analyzes a wide range of topics, including nationalism, the principles of international human rights law, and the violations of democratic governments for the protection of human rights. The relationship between nationalism and human rights is an interesting subject addressed by the author in this article. It argues that nationalism emphasizes national unity and interests over all other considerations, which may lead to the violation of some human rights. The author argues that democratic institutions, such as government policy, may be able to reduce these effects. They also challenge the idea that, in terms of human rights, social nationalism significantly exceeds cultural nationalism. This article claims that nationalism as an ideology may develop a political agenda that affects human rights procedures. It's critical to consider how nationalist debate, regulations, and policies may affect a nation's efforts to defend and promote human rights. The article explains why it is necessary for human freedom of expression and movement. This article's numerous examples demonstrate how nationalism impacts society's fundamental human rights. According to this article, nationalism can have a variety of effects on human rights. For example, excessive nationalism can lead to the exclusion and discrimination against particular communities because of their nationality, religion, or ethnic background. The article illustrates how nationalism significantly affects fundamental human rights in partial democracies, based on database information. In truly democratic societies, nevertheless, nationalism has no statistically significant effect on any human right.

As a result, the relationship between nationalism and human rights is complicated. Nationalism can promote cooperation and an awareness of identity, yet it can also lead to discrimination and social exclusion. We must maintain a balance between national pride and respect for the rights of every individual, regardless of background. Nationalism and human rights may exist freely as long as diversity and tolerance are encouraged.

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Article:-4                                                                           Human Rights:                                                                  Saqib Nawaz(30114830)

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Article:-4                                                                           Human Rights:                                                                  Saqib Nawaz(30114830)

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Harvard Reference:

Authur: Alberto Quintavalla & Klaus Heine

Published year: 2019

Title: Priorities and Human Rights

Article Review:

In the book " Priorities and Human Rights" Alberto Quientavalla and Klaus Heine provide a wide range of knowledge and expertise about human rights and which priorities are essential for their rights. According to this article, it's critical to set fundamental priorities for nations and human rights organizations to follow during implementation. It's more important to start discussing the necessity of having shared objectives to improve human rights than to condemn the present structure. Furthermore, the writer's point of view is focused on divisible, connected, and dependent upon all others in priorities. The rights of humans must be treated equally, fairly, and with equal focus on all levels by the international community. Regardless of their political, economic, and religious systems, States should promote and defend every aspect of fundamental liberty, even as they acknowledge the importance of regional and national uniqueness and diverse historical, cultural, and religious backgrounds. This article suggests that human rights should be implemented in a shared order, with shared priorities providing states with a concrete and attainable plan. This approach can be particularly beneficial for developing and transitioning states, which need to improve their human rights record and develop an effective implementation plan. The research is not advocating for a major change in the current legal framework. Moreover, the main content of this article is to discuss and cover the contemporary structure of human rights law, the consequences of deficiency, the lack of explicit priorities, and the instrumentality principle. Another thing in this article is equality, which distinguishing between organization types fails to solve short-term inequality. Still, consistent implementation objectives can reduce concerns about states having too much freedom.

In summary, establishing priorities for fulfilling human rights can be difficult and demanding. Although every human right is significant, establishing common goals and providing funds can assist direct efforts. It might be challenging to maintain cooperation among parties and establish an agreement between different goals. However, it is achievable to move toward a society with greater equity and inclusion where everyone's human rights are recognized and protected by having open discussions and considering the particular requirements of communities.