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Brazilian Independence | 3 Minute History

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Leaders of the Brazilian Revolution article

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Leaders of the Brazilian Revolution article

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Mexican War of Independence | 3 Minute History

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Porfiriato, the period of Porfirio Díaz's presidency of Mexico (1876-80; 1884-1911), an era of dictatorial rule accomplished through a combination of consensus and repression during which the country underwent extensive modernization but political liberties were limited and the free press was muzzled. The Díaz government, like other "progressive dictatorships" in Latin America, worked to promote railroad construction, to force reluctant peasants and indigenous groups to work on rural estates, to repress popular organizing, and in other ways to benefit the dominant elites.

During his presidency (1867-72), Benito Juárez gave Mexico its first experience of stable, good government since it won its independence from Spain in 1821, though there were those who accused him of being a dictator. Porfirio Díaz, a mestizo of humble origin and leading general during Mexico's war with the French (1861-67), became disenchanted with the rule of Juárez. In 1871 Díaz led an unsuccessful revolt against the reelection of Juárez, claiming that it had been fraudulent and demanding that presidents be limited to a single term in office. In January 1876 Díaz led another unsuccessful revolt, against Juárez's successor, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. After then living in exile in the United States for about six months, Díaz returned to Mexico and decisively defeated government forces at the Battle of Tecoac on November 16, 1876. Having won support from a wide variety of discontented elements, Díaz took over the government and was formally elected president in May 1877.

As president, Díaz adopted a "policy of conciliation," endeavouring to end political conflicts and inviting the adherence of all important elements, including the church and the landowning aristocracy. He also began building a political machine. Because he had opposed the reelection of Tejada, Díaz stepped down as president after the end of his term, but not until he had engineered the election of an ally, Gen. Manuel González, as his handpicked successor. Dissatisfied with González's performance in office, Díaz again sought the presidency and was reelected in 1884.

Press censorship, the role of the , and foreign investment during the Porfiriato

Díaz would continue to govern Mexico until 1911. The focus of a growing cult of personality, he was reelected at the end of each term, usually without opposition. Constitutional processes were assiduously maintained in form, but in reality the government became a dictatorship. Díaz's rule was relatively mild, however, at least in contrast to 20th-century totalitarianism. Nonetheless, by the mid-1880s the Díaz regime had negated freedom of the press through legislation that allowed government authorities to jail reporters without due process and through its financial support of publications such as El Imparcial and El Mundo, which effectively operated as mouthpieces for the state. Meanwhile, the army was reduced in size, and order was maintained by an efficient police force. In particular, the Díaz regime increased the powers of the rurales, the federal corps of rural police, which became a kind of praetorian guard for the dictatorship and intimidated Díaz's political opponents.

Until near the end of his rule, Díaz seems to have retained the support of most literate Mexicans. The benefits of the Díaz regime, however, went mostly to the upper and middle classes. The mass of the population, especially in rural areas, remained illiterate and impoverished. Díaz's principal objective was to promote economic development by encouraging the introduction of foreign capital, most of it from Britain, France, and especially the United States. By 1910 total U.S. investment in Mexico amounted to more $1.5 billion. Foreign investment financed the construction of some 15,000 miles (24,000 km) of railroads. Industries, especially textiles, also were developed, and a new impetus was given to mining, especially of silver and copper. Moreover, after 1900, Mexico became one of the world's leading oil producers.

This economic growth resulted in a tenfold increase in the value per annum of foreign trade, which approached $250 million by 1910, and in a similarly vast increase in the revenue of the government. Much of the success of Díaz's economic policies was due to the científicos, a small group of officials who largely dominated the administration in its later years. Influenced by French positivist philosopher Auguste Comte, the científicos sought to solve Mexico's problems of finance, industrialization, and education through the practical application of social scientific methods, Their leader, José Yves Limantour, served as secretary of finance after 1893. If the army and the rurales were the bedrock of the Díaz dictatorship, the científicos were its intellectual window dressing. But the wealth of the científicos and their affinity for foreign capitalists made them unpopular with the rank-and-file Mexicans. On the other hand, Díaz, who personally connected little with the científicos, sought to win the favour of the uneducated masses.

Yet despite the impressive achievements of dictatorship, popular discontent began to accumulate, leading ultimately to revolution. This resultant upheaval was partly a peasant and labour movement directed against the Mexican upper classes. It was also a nationalist response to foreign ownership of much of the country's wealth. Díaz continued the La Reforma policy of breaking up the ejido (the communally held land under the traditional Indian system of land tenure) but did not take adequate measures to protect the Indians from being deprived of their holdings by fraud or intimidation. By a law of 1894, Díaz also allowed public lands to be transferred to private ownership at insignificant prices and without any limit upon the acreage that an individual might acquire. As a result, by 1910 most of the land in Mexico had become the property of a few thousand large landowners, and at least 95 percent of the rural population (some 10 million people) were without land of their own. About 5,000 Indian communities, which had held land since before the Spanish conquest, were expropriated, and their inhabitants mostly became labourers on the haciendas (large landed estates).

Díaz's agrarian policy was defended on the grounds that private ownership would promote more efficient use of the land. But, although there was a considerable increase in some commercial crops, production of basic foodstuffs remained inadequate. Indeed, despite the fact that more than two-thirds of the total population was engaged in agriculture, Mexico had to import food during the later years of the Díaz regime. Industrial workers fared better than the peasants, but they were denied the right to form unions, and on several occasions strikes were broken by government troops.

The Mexican Revolution and the end of the Porfiriato

As a consequence of these developments, socialist and anarchist ideas began to spread. Meanwhile, businesspeople and members of the Mexican middle class began to feel that Díaz had allowed foreigners to acquire too much economic power and privilege. Resentment was directed especially against the U.S. and British oil companies, who were owners of what had become the country's most valuable resource. In the autumn of 1910 a revolutionary movement was initiated by Francisco Madero, an idealistic liberal from an upper-class family. Largely because of the support of Pancho Villa, a former bandit chieftain, the revolutionaries won victories in Chihuahua. When it became apparent that Díaz, now age 80, was unable to suppress them, there were popular uprisings throughout the country. In May1911 Díaz fled into exile, and Madero was elected president. The Porfiriato had ended.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Jeff Wallenfeldt.

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Porfiriato | History, Facts, & Mexican Revolution

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Porfiriato, the period of Porfirio Diaz's presidency of Mexico (1876-80; 1884-1911), an era of dictatorial rule accomplished through a combination of consensus and repression during which the country underwent extensive modernization but political liberties were limited and the free press was muzzled.

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Risorgimento, (Italian: "Rising Again"), 19th-century movement for Italian unification that culminated in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The Risorgimento was an ideological and literary movement that helped to arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people, and it led to a series of political events that freed the Italian states from foreign domination and united them politically. Although the Risorgimento has attained the status of a national myth, its essential meaning remains a controversial question. The classic interpretation (expressed in the writings of the philosopher Benedetto Croce) sees the Risorgimento as the triumph of liberalism, but more recent views criticize it as an aristocratic and bourgeois revolution that failed to include the masses.

The main impetus to the Risorgimento came from reforms introduced by the French when they dominated Italy during the period of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars (1796-1815). A number of Italian states were briefly consolidated, first as republics and then as satellite states of the French empire, and, even more importantly, the Italian middle class grew in numbers and was allowed to participate in government.

After Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Italian states were restored to their former rulers. Under the domination of Austria, these states took on a conservative character. Secret societies such as the Carbonari opposed this development in the 1820s and '30s. The first avowedly republican and national group was Young Italy, founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831. This society, which represented the democratic aspect of the Risorgimento, hoped to educate the Italian people to a sense of their nationhood and to encourage the masses to rise against the existing reactionary regimes. Other groups, such as the Neo-Guelfs, envisioned an Italian confederation headed by the pope; still others favoured unification under the house of Savoy, monarchs of the liberal northern Italian state of Piedmont-Sardinia.

After the failure of liberal and republican revolutions in 1848, leadership passed to Piedmont. With French help, the Piedmontese defeated the Austrians in 1859 and united most of Italy under their rule by 1861. The annexation of Venetia in 1866 and papal Rome in 1870 marked the final unification of Italy and hence the end of the Risorgimento.

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Risorgimento | Italian Unification, Nationalism & Revolution

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Risorgimento, (Italian: "Rising Again"), 19th-century movement for Italian unification that culminated in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The Risorgimento was an ideological and literary movement that helped to arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people, and it led