# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
NBC News - Breaking News & Top Stories - Latest World, US & Local News

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Go to NBCNews.com for breaking news, videos, and the latest top stories in world news, business, politics, health and pop culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Maria DeDios practices in White Plains,. Specialty: Neuro-Endovascular Surgery. Learn more and make an appointment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Maria DeDios, NP | White Plains Hospital Physician Associates

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
White Plains Hospital is a 292-bed not-for-profit health care organization with the primary mission of providing exceptional acute and preventive medical care to all people who live in, work in or visit Westchester County and its surrounding areas.

A proud member of the Montefiore Health System, the Hospital serves as its tertiary hub of advanced care in the Hudson Valley, offering robust world-class capabilities including cardiac care and surgery, award-winning comprehensive cancer treatment, orthopedics, stroke care, and more. The Hospital's outpatient medical facilities across Westchester include multispecialty practices in Armonk, New Rochelle, Somers and Yorktown Heights; and Scarsdale Medical Group locations in Harrison and Scarsdale.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Dr. Rafael A. Ortiz - Neurological Surgery - White Plains, NY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
White Plains Hospital is a 292-bed not-for-profit health care organization with the primary mission of providing exceptional acute and preventive medical care to all people who live in, work in or visit Westchester County and its surrounding areas.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Dr. Ortiz practices in White Plains. Specialty: Neuro-Endovascular Surgery. Learn more and make an appointment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This information is for anyone who has had a mild head injury (also known as concussion or minor head injury) and their family and friends. The information will help both people in the early stages of recovery and those who experience ongoing problems.

In this section:

What is concussion?

Concussion is also often referred to as mild head injury, minor head injury or mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Regardless of the terminology used, the occurrence of a head injury in these cases causes the brain to shake back and forth inside the skull, causing mild damage.

Concussion is commonly caused by falls, road crashes, assaults and sports accidents. While most mild head injuries result in no long-term damage to the brain, it can cause temporary disruption to brain function that can last for at least a number of weeks.

Mild head injury/concussion is defined by:

Loss of consciousness of less than 30 minutes (or no loss of consciousness)

Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) of less than 24 hours after injury (this is a period where people are confused, act strangely and are unable to remember what has just happened)

It is important to note that only around 10% of reported mild head injuries/concussions involve a loss of consciousness - so it's important to not solely rely on this as an indicator.

What are the symptoms of concussion?

Mild head injury can leave people with a range of concussion symptoms including dizziness, nausea, confusion or an inability to process or retain information, sensitivity to light, and vision distortion.

In the early stages after a mild head injury, there is a small risk of developing complications that may require emergency treatment. Find out more about the warning signs below.

While for most people concussion symptoms will resolve themselves in a few days or weeks, some people may find that they persist for much longer. Post-concussion syndrome is the name given to the range of symptoms that continue to occur following a mild head injury or concussion.

When should I seek medical advice after concussion?
After a concussion/mild head injury, it is important that, if possible, you are accompanied by a responsible adult. While unlikely, there is a small risk of developing complications, so if you experience any of the following concussion signs and symptoms in the next few days you should go to your nearest Emergency Department as soon as possible:

Loss of consciousness

Increasing disorientation

New deafness in one or both ears

Problems understanding or speaking

Loss of balance or problems walking

Blurred or double vision

Any weakness in one or both arms or legs

Inability to be woken

Any vomiting

Bleeding from one or both ears

Clear fluid coming out of your ears or nose

Any fits (collapsing or passing out suddenly)

Drowsiness when you would normally be wide awake

Severe headache not relieved by painkillers such as paracetamol

DO make sure you stay within reach of a telephone and medical help in the next few days

DON'T stay at home alone for 48 hours after leaving hospital

DO have plenty of rest and avoid stressful situations

DON'T drink alcohol until you feel better

DO show this information to a friend or family member who can keep an eye on your condition

DON'T take aspirin or sleeping tablets without consulting a doctor

DO take painkillers such as paracetamol for headaches

DON'T return to work until you feel ready

DO find out more in our factsheet Mild head injury discharge advice (PDF)

DON'T play any contact sport for at least three weeks without consulting your doctor

DO get further information on when to seek medical attention on the NHS website

DON'T return to driving until you feel you have recovered. If in doubt, consult your doctor.

The information on this website should not replace a clinical examination. If you have not been examined then contact your GP or call 111. In case of a medical emergency, please call 999.

Post-concussion syndrome (PCS)

The effects of a concussion can be anything but mild to the person concerned. The symptoms can include nausea, headaches, dizziness, impaired concentration, memory problems, extreme tiredness, intolerance to light and noise, and can lead to anxiety and depression. When problems like this persist, they are often called post-concussion syndrome.

What are the symptoms of post-concussion syndrome?

The symptoms of post-concussion syndrome may include:

Headaches

Irritability

Feelings of dizziness

Restlessness

Nausea

Impulsivity and self-control problems

Sensitivity to light

Difficulty concentrating

Sensitivity to noise

Feeling depressed, tearful, anxious

Sleep disturbance

Fatigue

Memory problems

Difficulties thinking and problem-solving

How long does post-concussion syndrome last?

In many cases these symptoms resolve themselves within a few days or weeks. However, in some cases problems can persist for months, but still resolve themselves eventually. This can be a frustrating time, as the effects may be subtle and you may not have been told about them.

This may also be the most prolonged period of feeling ill that you have experienced and you may wonder if you will ever feel better. Following the suggestions in our booklet Mild head injury and concussion (PDF) should help to make you feel better as quickly as possible, but be patient with yourself and try not to rush things.

It is important to realise that these symptoms often happen even when there is no damage to the brain and that the fear of having brain injury, even if there is none, can be very distressing and can delay recovery. So it is sensible, if you have these symptoms for more than about two weeks after the injury, or if they are severe and not getting any better, that you see your GP.

It may be appropriate to be referred to a head injury specialist, such as a neurologist or neuropsychologist, for assessment.

Managing concussion

While there is no single treatment for concussion, with appropriate medical care, plenty of rest and specialist support where appropriate most people will make a good recovery.

It is important that relatives and employers are warned about the possible effects of a mild head injury/concussion, and for plans to be made accordingly. These might include not rushing to return to work, keeping stress to a minimum in the short term, and abstaining from alcohol.

One study showed that almost one third of people with a mild head injury were not working full-time three months after receiving the injury, although other studies have been much more optimistic. Difficulties are certainly made much worse if the person has a mentally demanding job where there is a low margin for error.

Our booklet Mild head injury and concussion (PDF) provides tips and strategies for coping with the effects of post-concussion syndrome.

Concussion in sport

As with in life in general, accidents and collisions can occur in contact sports - with head injuries commonplace in sports such as football, rugby, hockey and many others. And while rules are in place in such sports to protect players from head injuries, collisions are inevitable in contact sports.

Visit our Concussion in sport campaign page for more information on concussion in sport, including expert opinions, useful downloads, and information on what to do should you suspect concussion.

Recovery from concussion and further information

The general conclusion seems to be that the vast majority of people who experience a mild head injury make a full recovery, usually after 3-4 months. However there is a very small sub-group whose recovery is not so good.

See our booklet Mild head injury and concussion (PDF) for more details, and our factsheet Mild head injury discharge advice (PDF)for important information after sustaining a head injury.

If you would like to discuss any issues relating to mild head injury and concussion, please contact our helpline on 0808 800 2244 or helpline@headway.org.uk.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
concussion post-concussion syndrome minor head injury

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
This information is for anyone who has had a mild head injury (also known as concussion or minor head injury) and their family and friends. The information will help both people in the early stages of recovery and those who experience ongoing problems. In this section: Concussion is also often referred to as mild head injury, minor head injury or mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The brain - the central "control unit" of our bodies, repository of memories and emotions. Throughout history, philosophers have believed that the brain may even house that intangible essence that makes us human: the soul. What should we know about our brains?

In a poem written around 1892, American poet Emily Dickinson described the wonder of the human brain.

Her verses express a sense of awe, considering the brain's marvellous capacities of thought and creativity.

Musing on how this fascinating organ is able to encompass so much information about the self and the world, she wrote:

"The Brain - is wider than the Sky -
For - put them side by side -
The one the other will contain
With ease - and You - beside"

The main organ of the human nervous system, the brain manages most of our bodies' activities and processes information received from both outside and inside the body and is the very seat of our emotions and cognitive abilities, including thought, long- and short-term memory, and decision-making.

The first mention of this organ was recorded in an Ancient Egyptian medical treatise known as the " Edwin Smith surgical papyrus," after the man who discovered this document in the 1800s.

Since then, our understanding of the brain has expanded immeasurably, although still we contend with many mysteries surrounding this key organ.

In this Spotlight, we look at some of the most important facts we have uncovered about the brain - and some aspects that remain to be understood.

Brain size varies widely, depending largely on age, sex, and overall body mass. However, studies have suggested that the adult male brain weighs, on average, about , whereas the adult female brain weighs around 1,198 grams.

In terms of dimensions, the human brain isn't the largest. Of all mammals, the sperm whale - an underwater denizen weighing an impressive 35-45 tons - is known to have the biggest brain.
But, of all the animals on Earth, human brains have the largest number of neurons, which are specialized cells that store and transmit information by electrical and chemical signals.
Traditionally, it has been said that the human brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons, but recent investigations have questioned the veracity of that number.

Instead, Brazilian neuroscientist Suzana Herculano-Houzel has discovered - by using a method that required liquefying donated human brains and turning them into a clear solution - that the number is closer to 86 billion neurons.

The human brain makes up, alongside the spinal chord, the central nervous system. The brain itself has three main parts:

the brainstem, which, like a plant's shoot, is elongated, and which connects the rest of the brain with the spinal chord

the cerebellum, which is located at the back of the brain and which is deeply involved in regulating movement, motor learning, and maintaining equilibrium

the cerebrum, which is the largest part of our brains and fills up most of the skull; it houses the cerebral cortex (that has a left and a right hemisphere separated by a long groove) and other, smaller structures, all of which are variously responsible for conscious thought, decision-making, memory and learning processes, communication, and perception of external and internal stimuli

Brains are made of soft tissue, which includes gray and white matter, containing the nerve cells, non-neuronal cells (which help to maintain neurons and brain health), and small blood vessels.
They have a high water content as well as a large amount (nearly 60 percent) of fat.
The brain of the modern-day human - Homo sapiens sapiens - is , unlike the brains of other early hominids, which were slightly elongated at the back. This shape, research suggests, may have developed in Homo sapiens about 40,000-50,000 years ago.

Despite the fact that the human brain is not a very large organ, its functioning requires a whole lot of energy.
"Although the [human] brain weighs only 2 percent of the body [mass], it alone uses 25 percent of all the energy that your body requires to run per day," Herculano-Houzel explained in a presentation.
And why does the brain need so much "fuel?" Based on studies of rat models, some scientists have hypothesized that, while most of this energy is expended on maintaining ongoing thought and bodily processes, some of it is probably invested in the upkeep of brain cells' health.

But, according to some researchers, at first sight, the brain, seemingly inexplicably, uses up a lot of energy during what is known as the "resting state," when it is not involved in any specific, targeted activities.

According to James Kozloski, "Inactivity correlated networks appear even under anesthesia, and these areas have very high metabolic rates, tipping the brain's energy budget toward a large investment in the organism's doing nothing," he writes.

But Kozloski's hypothesis is that no large amount of energy is spent for no reason - so why does the brain seem to do it? In fact, he says, it doesn't.

Energy spent "doing nothing," he says, is actually put toward assembling a "map" of accumulating information and experiences that we can fall back on when making decisions in our day-to-day lives.

One long-circulating myth has it that humans typically use only 10 percent of their brain capacity, suggesting that, if only we knew how to "hack into" the other 90 percent, we might be able to unlock amazing abilities.

While it remains unclear exactly where this myth originated and how it spread so speedily, the idea that we could somehow tap into as yet unclaimed brain power is certainly a very attractive one.

Still, nothing could be farther from the truth than this piece of urban lore. Just consider what we discussed above: even in a resting state, the brain is still active and requires energy.
Brain scans have shown that we use pretty much all of our brains all of the time, even when we're asleep - though patterns of activity, and the intensity of that activity, might differ depending on what we're doing and what state of wakefulness or sleep we're in.
"Even when you're engaged in a task and some neurons are engaged in that task, the rest of your brain is occupied doing other things, which is why, for example, the solution to a problem can emerge after you haven't been thinking about it for a while, or after a night's sleep, and that's because your brain's constantly active," said neurologist Krish Sathian, who works at Emory University in Atlanta, GA.

"If it were true that we only use 10 percent of the brain, then we could presumably sustain damage to 90 percent of our brain, with a stroke [...] or something like that, and not [experience] any effects, and that's clearly not true."

Krish Sathian

Are you right-brained or left-brained? Any number of Internet quizzes will claim to be able to assess whether you predominantly use the right or left hemisphere of your brain.

And this has implications about your personality: allegedly, left-brained people are supposed to be more mathematically inclined and analytical, while right-brained people are more creative.

But how true is this? Once more the answer, I'm afraid, leans toward "not at all." While it is true that each of our hemispheres has slightly different roles, individuals do not actually have a "dominant" brain side that governs their personality and abilities.
Instead, research has revealed that people use both of the brain hemispheres pretty much in equal measure.
However, what is true is that the left hemisphere of the brain is more concerned with the use of language, while the right hemisphere is applied more to the intricacies of nonverbal communication.

As we age, parts of our brain begin to shrink naturally and we begin to gradually lose neurons. The frontal lobe and the hippocampus - two key brain regions in regulating cognitive processes, including memory formation and recall - start shrinking when we hit 60 or 70.

This means that we could naturally begin to find learning new things, or performing several tasks at the same time, more challenging than before.

There is some good news, as well, however. Till not too long ago, scientists used to believe that once we started to lose neurons, that would be it - we would be unable to create new brain cells and had to resign ourselves to that.
However, it turns out that this isn't true. Researcher Sandrine Thuret, from King's College London in the United Kingdom, has explained that the hippocampus is a crucial part in the adult brain in terms of generating new cells.
(And this makes sense if you consider that it plays an important role in processes of learning and memory.)

The process in which new nerve cells are created in the adult brain is called neurogenesis, and, according to Thuret, estimates suggest that an average adult human will produce "700 new neurons per day in the hippocampus."

This, she suggests, means that when we reach middle age, we will have replaced all the neurons that we had in this brain region in the beginning of our lives with ones that we produced during adulthood.

A great mystery of the human brain is linked with consciousness and our perception of reality. The workings of consciousness have fascinated scientists and philosophers alike, and though we are slowly inching closer to an understanding of this phenomenon, much more still remains to be learned.

Anil Seth, a professor of cognitive and computational neuroscience from the University of Sussex in the U.K., who specializes in the study of consciousness, has suggested that this intriguing process is based on a sort of "controlled hallucination," which our brains generate to make sense of the world.

"Perception - figuring out what's there - has to be a process of informed guesswork in which the brain combines these sensory signals with its prior expectations of beliefs about the way the world is to form the best guess of what caused those signals."

Prof. Anil Seth

According to him, in delivering perceptions of things to our consciousness, our brains often make what you might call "informed guesses," based on how it "expects" things to be.

This explains the uncanny effect of many optical illusions, including the now-notorious " blue and black, or white and gold dress," when, depending on how we think the light in the picture is, we may see a different color combination.

Below, you can watch Prof. Seth's 2017 TED talk. He explains how our brains make sense of the world around us - and within us.

Despite the many advances in research and clinical technology, a lot of questions about the brain remain unanswered. For example, we still don't quite understand how complex information is processed in the brain.

Every day, we take who we are, what we perceive, and what we are able to do for granted, without sparing so much as a thought for the marvellous organ that helps to make it all possible.

So, the next time you pick a flower and smell it or rummage for the ripest apple at the market, take a moment to acknowledge how truly wonderful each and every one of your smallest actions is.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Top 7 things you need to know about the brain

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The brain - the central "control unit" of our bodies, repository of memories and emotions. Throughout history, philosophers have believed that the brain may even house that intangible essence that makes us human: the soul. What should we know about our brains?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is the brain?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body's vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for "bark," and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain's weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson's disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.

Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for "bridge," the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.

Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum ("little brain") is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum's roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.

The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.

The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca's area, which is associated with speech ability.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke's area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

Sometimes called the "master gland," the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain's reward system, stress, and the "fight or flight" response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer's disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.

Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.

Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.

Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.

Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.

Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.

Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.

Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.

Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.

Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.

Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, respiration, and every process that regulates your body.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
LYING WON'T STRETCH YOUR NOSE, BUT IT WILL STEAL BRAINPOWER.

# data[].attributes.body
University of Washington

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Brain Development

The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! At birth, a person's brain will have almost all the neurons that it will ever have. The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born and by the age of 2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size.

You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply. Glia carries out many important functions for normal brain function including insulating nerve cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many new connections after birth.

The Brain During Development

The nervous system develops from embryonic tissue called the ectoderm. The first sign of the developing nervous system is the neural plate that can be seen at about the 16th day of development. Over the next few days, a "trench" is formed in the neural plate - this creates a neural groove. By the 21st day of development, a neural tube is formed when the edges of the neural groove meet. The rostral (front) part of the neural tubes goes on to develop into the brain and the rest of the neural tube develops into the spinal cord. Neural crest cells become the peripheral nervous system.

At the front end of the neural tube, three major brain areas are formed: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencepalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). By the 7th week of development, these three areas divide again. This process is called encephalization.

Average brain weights (BW)

AGE          BW - Male (grams)   BW - Female (grams)
--------     -----------------   -----------------
Newborn           380                  360
1 year            970                  940
2 years         1,120                1,040
3 years         1,270                1,090
10-12 years     1,440                1,260
19-21 years     1,450                1,310
56-60 years     1,370                1,250
81-85 years     1,310                1,170

(Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology, 4:345-356, 1978)

Brain Weight

The top graph on the left shows the brain weights of males and females at different ages. The bottom graph shows the brain weight to total body weight ratio (expressed as a percentage). The adult brain makes up about 2% of the total body weight.
(Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology, 4:345-356, 1978)

DID YOU KNOW? Touch is the first sense to develop. The developing fetus responds to touch of the lips and cheeks by 8 weeks and to other parts of its body at 14 week. The sense of taste may develop by 12 weeks and that of sound at 22-24 weeks. (Reference: Hepper, P., "Unraveling our beginnings", The Psychologist, 18:474-477, 2005.)

More about Brain Development

Copyright © 1996-2015, Eric H. Chudler, University of Washington

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! At birth, a person's brain will have almost all the neurons that it will ever have.