# data[].attributes.body
Kim, 2013
Venda, 2020
Mosato, 2019

# data[].attributes.body
Explain the effect of one neurotransmitter on behaviour.

Describe how one example illustrates the effect of neurotransmitters on human behaviour.

Outline one example of an excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter

Outline one example of how an antagonist may affect a neurotransmitters influence on behaviour.
Outline one example of how an agonist may affect a neurotransmitters influence on behaviour.

Explain how excitatory and/or inhibitory neurons affect human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Describe the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
Evaluate the use of one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.

Discuss the use of one or more techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Explain one example of neuroplasticity.

Explain how one study demonstrates neuroplasticity.

Explain how neural networks are formed.

With reference to one study, explain neural pruning.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one example of neuroplasticity.

Evaluate one or more studies related to neuroplasticity.

Discuss neuroplasticity with reference to one or more studies.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one or more effects of one neurotransmitter on human behaviour.

Discuss the effects of one or more neurotransmitters on human behaviour.

To what extent does one neurotransmitter affect human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Explain one example of localization of function in the brain.

Outline how one study demonstrates localization of function in the brain.

Using one or more examples, explain localization of function.

# data[].attributes.body
Evaluate research related to localization of function.

Discuss localization of function in the brain.

# data[].attributes.body
Explain how one hormone affects human behaviour.

Outline one effect of one hormone on human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one or more effects of one hormone on human behaviour.

Discuss the effects of one or more hormones on human behaviour.

To what extent does one hormone affect human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Outline one study related to pheromones and behaviour.

Explain one example of how human behaviour may be influenced by pheromones.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss research related to pheromones and behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Outline one study related to the study of genes and behaviour.

Explain how genes may affect one behaviour.

Explain how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behaviour.

Describe one example of a twin or kinship study.

Explain how twin and/or kinship studies are used to understand the effects of genes on behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Evaluate one study or theory related to the influence of genes on behaviour.

Discuss how genes may affect human behaviour.

To what extent do genes influence human behaviour?

Discuss how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Describe one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one or more evolutionary explanations for one behaviour.

To what extent can evolution explain one behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Outline one research method used to study the brain and behaviour.

Describe the use of one research method used to study hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour.

Explain how and why one research method is used to study genetics and behaviour.

Explain the use of one research method used in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one research methods used to study the brain and behaviour.

Evaluate one or more research methods used to study the brain and behaviour.

Evaluate the use of one research method used to study hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour.

Evaluate how and why one research method is used to study genetics and behaviour.

Discuss the use of one or more research methods used in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Outline one ethical consideration related to studies on the brain and behaviour.

Explain one ethical consideration relevant to studies on hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour.

Explain one ethical consideration relevant to one study on genetics and behaviour.

Outline one ethical consideration related to studies in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to studies on the brain and behaviour.

Discuss one ethical consideration relevant to one study on hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour.

Discuss ethical considerations relevant to research on hormones and pheromones and behaviour.

Discuss one or more ethical considerations relevant to research on genetics and behaviour.

Discuss one or more ethical considerations related to research in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Kim 2013
One example of neurotransmitter, Dopamine, can affect human's motor movement through regulating excessive body movement. This function also help explains why Dopamine is related to PD, one of its symptom of which is excessive body movement. Many studies have discovered the relationship between Dopamine and PD, suggesting the effect of Dopamine of motor behavior, also the effect of neurotransmitter on human behaviors

Aim: to investigate the relationship between dopamine and PD
Design: use a Dopamine transporter to detect Dopamine: 3 typical PD patients showed a lower level of dopamine compared to normal level in other normal people.
Conclusion: Dopamine is related to PD, because it can control movements inside body, so less Dopamine means less motor control which explains the relationship with those patients and a reduced Dopamine level. This also demonstrated that neurotransmitters can affect human behavior because Dopamine is one type of neurotransmitter, and it is related to motor control, so neurotransmitter can affect human behaviors as well.
Eva: However, this study demonstrated only the correlation between Dopamine and PD symptoms with no further explanation, the exact effect of Dopamine on human behavior is still unsure.

# data[].attributes.body
Agonists are biochemicals that can affect the working of neurotransmitters. It can also affect human behaviors through neurotransmitters. Different neurotrasmitters have different agonists. It was found that Dopamine agonist can effect the working of dopamine through promote more of its effect, thus affect human behaviors. This also help explains why Dopamine agonists can be used as one treatment for PD, one of its symptom  of excessive movement can be lead by lacking Dopamine

Aim: how agonist affect PD symptoms of excessive body movements
Measure: semi-Parkinsonian monkeys received Rotigotine (one type of Dopamine agonist) show repaired motor control and reduced limb usage and turning behaviors. This is because Rotigotine can affect the working of Dopamine through acting on Dopamine D1, D2 and D3 receptor, and repair normal motor movement
Conclusion: Agonists can affect behaviors through changing the effect of neurotransmitters.
Eva: However, this is an animal study on monkeys, though primates share common similarities with human, the exact effect of agonist on human behavior is still unsure

# data[].attributes.body
Aim: study brain anatomy for different age groups.
Measure: using MRI, Sowell found that there is a difference in brain density between two age group, that there is a higher brain density in synaptic density in visuo-spatial and executive function in the younger group of age 14, than another group of young adults at their early 20s.
Conclusion: MRI can provide a detailed brain image with different neuronal density shon which can allow researchers to detect the difference in brain function and help other biological field as well.
Eva: better than other scanning technique such as CT, since CT can provide only X-Ray, 3D image of the brain but not a specific image, whereas fMRI could be better to trace full brain activity, but it is too expensive and can be hardly used. Thus, MRI is a better and more applicable scanning techniqe

# data[].attributes.body
However, though MRI can be useful in most of the field in biological approach to study brain and behavior, since it can provide only a brain image with correlation to behavior but no exact detail or explanation, it is not applicable in diagnose field as it is in other, because sometimes the brain image produced by MRI cannot accurately diagnose the patient's situation lead to serious diagnose problem while studying brain and behavior

A 26 yrs old aymptomatic male with a right parietal lobe lesion diagnosed by MRI. 18 months later MRI showed a progression of the lesion but the male still remain asymptomatic. His family and himself suffer great emotional damage due to the MRI diagnose
Thus, since MRI cannot diagnose the patient' situation, an additional method is required to check the diagnose, a clinician should check all brain image produced and patient' s situation carefully to make sure the reliability of MRI  diagnose. Therefore, since additiona method is required, MRI may not be that applicable in studying brain and behavior and so the use of brain scanning technique is still unsure

# data[].attributes.body
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter neural connection and develop another neural pathway. One example of the effect of neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to develop a better cognitive skill, such as learning, writing and  spatial function through the development of neural networks. Two of the ways that have been found can promote neuroplasticity are neural network formation and neural pruning, and both of them can be studied through observing changes in neurons in the brain. Many studies discovered the role of both kind of neural movement in enhancing cognitive skill, suggesting that neuroplasticity plays a role in learning skill, which can be formed through both neural connection formation and neural pruning. recognizing things

Aim: to investigate the role of enriched environmental stimulation in promote neural network and spatial skills for rats
Measure: 2 groups of rats, one in an enriched environment with some stimulating toys and a maze, one in an inpoverished environment with no such things.
Results: Rats in the enriched environment have thicker and heavier parietal lobe cortex than those in the impoeverised ones.
Conclusion: Challenging, engaing interesting environment can promote neuroplasticity through a denser neural network. Thicker cortex means larger synapse, means those rats have more neurons made up of more neural movement and a denser neural neiwork, thus enhance their learning and spatial skill. Neural network can promote neuroplasticity in learning skill through denser neuronal  movements
Eva: animal study with ony correlation between brain cortex and better learnign skill but no explanation

# data[].attributes.body
Aim: investigate the role of neural network in promote cognitive learning skill

Measure: Using MRI, Squeglia found that people with thinner parietal lobe cortex showed a better learning skill. This can be account for neural pruning, that is, loss in neuronal density and neurl network can build up neural connection and network in another area and enhance learning skill, provided a new aspect to understand brain neuroplasticity in learning skill.

conclusion: neural pruning, as a form of neuroplasticity, can also promote learning skills.

Eva: Still, this finding is only correlational with no explanation, the exact working of how can cellular losses in one area enhance the formation of network and neuroplasticity in another, the working of both of the neural movement in enhance neuroplasticity in learning requires further investigations

# data[].attributes.body
Aim: to study the neural process of both neural network and neural pruning in enhance neuroplasticity in learnig skills
Measure: using stereological fractionation to study the brain of 8 new-born and adults
Results: adults have 41% less neural estimation in thalamus; but significantly more glial cells and grey matters than new-born. This is because though cells that are died during development cannot be reused, bt rather can be replaced by new cells occur alongside the structural change in subcorticol area of the brain, and make up neural connection, form neural network in other brain, promote brain neuroplasticity.
Conclusion: Neural pruning can enhnce neural network in another area of the brain and develop neuroplasticity.

# data[].attributes.body
One example of hormones refers to oxytocin. It was reported that oxytocin can promote pro-social behavior, such as trust, and it is also related to personal attachment between people. Many studies demonstrated the role of oxytocin in promote pro-social behaviors, suggesting the role of hormone on behaviors.

Participants with oxytocin intake show behavior of trust, that they continued to trust and invest even social risks are arising in an economic game, that even the game environment suggesting that they will lose and experience an economic loss if they continue.
This suggest the role of oxytocin in promote pro-social behavior of trust, that it can make people less risk adversed ot trust others since those in the test group still choose to trust.

# data[].attributes.body
2 Groups: one placebo, one oxytocin intake
Test group with oxytocin tablet showed forgiveness and trust in an economic game even they were betrayed by their partners
That's because oxytocin inhaled into brain can stimulate muscle contraction and protastaglandian production, create sense of trust. This study provided an explanation on how can oxytocin affect pro-social behavior through enabling trust, suggest the effect of oxytocin, also hormone on behaviors.
However, thoughthe effect of ocytocin on trust behaviors has been well-demonstrated, since it isolated only the effect of oxytocin, but ignore other factor, for example, other chemicals that can also create sense of trust; also, since it is lab experiment with trust based on economic game but not other situation, the effect of oxytocin in promote trust may not be applicable to every real-life situation. More investigation is needed to examine the role of oxytocin further, whether it is the only chemical that can promote sense of trust, and also whether trust is its only effect

# data[].attributes.body
People with psychopathic characteristics such as selfishness, callousness, and remoreseless use of other all showed a depressed oxytocin level compared to normal level in other 15 normal people.
Oxytocin can also affect human's emotional behavior of sympathy and compassion, beside from trust.

Also, since these experiments focused only on trust based on economic game, it is unsure whether the same effect of oxytocin in promote economic trust is paralleled to other real-life situation that involves trust, for example, restoring relationships ad well. Thus, the effect of oxytocin were not fully discovered

Though the effect of oxytocin on pro-social behaviors have been largely found in several ways, since all studies examining hormone were lab experiments with participants given hormones before the test, it is possible that the oxytocin given in the experiment and naturally produced one maybe different, and it is possible people will not excrete oxytocin in some real life situation and thus, choose not to trust.
Also, though oxytocin can promote pro-social behavior of trust and empathy, it is still possible that other factors, such as cognitive factor and socio0cultural influence, can also promote trust and pro-social behavior even without the working of hormones. Thus, the role of hormone on behavior still requires further investigations.

# data[].attributes.body
female participants received pheromone tablets showed intimate behaviors such as passionate kissing and body contact to their male partners.
This is because that the production of pheromone, GnRH, can trigger intimate behaviors and arise sexural arousal, thus promote sex-driven behaviors of kissing and hug.

Wyart 2013
women smell shirt with male adrostadienone pheromone showed excited mood toward their partner.
This is because male pheromone, adrostadienone entered into brain can stimulate their sympathetic nervous system and arise sexual attraction. This also demonstrated the role of pheromone in promote sexual arousal, which, willeventually lead to intimate behaviors

However, though the effect of pheromones on human, especially female has been largely demonstrated, that there is a significant result in arising sexual attraction for female partners, still, all of them were done in lab with low real-life generalizability, since people rarely smell pheromone tablets in real life and show intimat behavior for purpose. Also, though the two research demonstrated the role of pheromones on sexual attraction for female, since there are many different pheromones, it is possible that some may work differently in sexual attraction. Thus, since the two studies focused mainly on male pheromone in promote sexual arousal, they did not fully demonstrated the role of pheromone on behaviors.

# data[].attributes.body
Using fMRI, G found that people with sadness-produced human tears showed lower sexual arousal while rating partners with opposite sex evidenced by fMRI. This suggest that there are actually different pheromones can work differently, that sadness produced tears contain pheromones that can lower sexual arousal instead of enhancing it. Thus, since this study pointed out a different effect of pheromone, the two studies on male pheromone are not enough to explain the effect of pheromones on behaviors. However, though pheromones may have diferent effect on human behavior, since no bio chemical produced by humans can be identified as pheromones, it is still unsure whether human can influence other biologically.

# data[].attributes.body
Aim: To investigate the extent to which genes can affect human behavior
Measure: Interviewed 137 pairs of twins including both MZ and DZ twins reared together and apart

Bouchard et al. 's twin study found a significant effect of genes on behavior. They found that genetic similarity among twins contributed significantly to the degree of intelligence behaviors. They interviewed all twins, and found that there is a significantly higher concordance rate in intelligence and behaviors among MZ twins, about 81% similar compared to only 50% in DZ twins. This results indicated that similar genes played an important role in intelligence, that MZ twins are identical and have the same gene, and thus have higher genetic similarity and will be more likely to show similar behaviors; whereas DZ twinsshare only half of the genetic material and thus, will less likely to behave similarly. Thus, from this result, researchers concluded that 70% of intelligence and behaviors can be attributed to shared genetic material and genetic influence. However, though there is a significant effect of similar genes on intelligence and behaviors, since there is no 100% concordance rate among twins, genetic factor account only some of the behaviorial influence, other factors such as environmental influence should also be taken into account. Thus, the extent to which genes can affect human behavior is stil unclear, and more investigation is required to understand it better.

# data[].attributes.body
Wedekind 1995
Markey and MARKEY 2007

Evolutionary theory claims that the only aim for animal specieis and human being is to survive and produce the strongest generation for survival purpose as well. one of its explanation refers to survival for the fittest, suggeted that animals or human should only produce offspring that has the greatest survival value. This explanation can affect human behavior on choosing partners, since people may follow the evolutionary explanation and select those with stronger survival potential as partners to produce the best offspring. Many studies adequately supported how can this approach affect mating behavior. However, though evolutionary theory is a strong consideration for mating preference, since it is still possible that people may choose their partner base on other reasons, such as cognitive similarity, the extent to which survival for the fittest, as one evolutionary theory in explain mating is still unsure

# data[].attributes.body
Hormones and pheromones: lab experiment
Brain: scanning techniques
Genes: twins studies and GWAS

# data[].attributes.body
Hormones and pheromones: deception and harm
(deception can also help researchers to establish a control group through placebos to control their result, even generalize the finding to other psychological field as well)
genes: deception and psychological harm, deprivation of privacy

# data[].attributes.body
Kim 2012
Woo 2018
Chaudhari 2021
Kim: use MRI found a decrease in number of cerebellar cells and lose in cerebellar connection from normal peope with normal motor control to PD non-fallers without the behavior of frequently fall and PD fallers.
This showed the effect of cerebellum in motor control, that it is related to motoe movement, since a loss in cerebellur movement means less motor control, indicating the effect of cerebellum in control well body movement. Also, the behavior of frequently fall is a typical motor example that requires fine motor control, which also help explains the effect of cerebellum in motor movement

# data[].attributes.body
Discovered the role of GABA in regulating neuronal excitability of cerebellar granule cells. A reduced amount of GABA produced can enhance both neuronal excitability and relevant motor movement, whereas an excessive amount of GABA produced reduce both of them. This help explain the correlation in Kim's study since a loss in cerebellar connection is positively correlated to less motor control, since they experienced an excessive GABA produced and thus, lesser fine movement

Chaudhari et al. 2021
Cerebellar lesion is related to impaired performance of baance and fine motor movement. Also, there is a loss in cerebellar cells and connection observed on both Parkinsonian rats and post-mortem Parkinsonian human cells. This demonstrated the finding above since loss in cerebellar connection is related to poor motor movement, suggesting the effect of cerebellum in regulating motor control.

# data[].attributes.body
MRI
Wang 2013
Sowell 1999
Chou, 2020

# data[].attributes.body
Rosenzweig 1974
Squeglia, 1981
Abitz, 2007

# data[].attributes.body
Dopaminergic cells has died through the nigrostrial pathway on its way to midbrain, leadinf to a degenration of motor movement. This help explain the effect of Dopamine on body motor control further, since Dopamine works through sending signals from mid-brain, and the death of Dopaminergic cells means motor signals were not being passed through the midbrain to body effectively, leading to excessive motor impairments and PD symptoms. Therefore, since the working of Dopamine in sending signals were discovered, it is possible to conclude neurotransmitters can affect human behaviors

# data[].attributes.body
Baumgartner et al (2008) did a study using a trust game to check this hypothesis. They got 49 participants. Then, divide them into two groups—the experimental group which received the placebo through a nasal spray, and the control group which received the oxytocin through a nasal spray. All participants acted as an investor. First, they played the trust game, in which they got money, and then decide how much to give to the trustee, and how much the participants give to the trustee is triple. Then the trustee decides whether to share the money with the investor or keep it for themselves. Half of the time, the trustee will keep all money themselves. Then, play the risk game, in which the participants then played the same game with another trustee and then with a computer. The computer is random to give money back. The result shows that those who had taken oxytocin continued to invest. Their behavior showed forgiveness and the same degree of continued to trust despite betrayal. In contrast, the control group which is given the placebo invested less once they knew that they had been cheated. In conclusion, people who have more oxytocin are more likely to trust others.

# data[].attributes.body
The real mechanism for how Dopamine is related to PD symptoms is not because of lacking Dopamine itself, but rather the death of its neuronal cells. A lack in Dopamine is a result of the death of the neuronal cells in the midbrain that should produce them. Therefore, it is more precisely to say that Dopamine is related to motor control because it is related to neuronal cells that can send signals to regulate motor movements inside body. Thus, since Dopamine cannot reduce motor control directly, the extent to which neurotransmitters can affect human behavior, such as Dopamine, is still unsure and requires further investigations

# data[].attributes.body
Kosfeld, 2005
Baumgartner, 2008
Mitchell, 2011

# data[].attributes.body
Cutler 2009
Wyart, 2013
Gelstein, 2011

# data[].attributes.body
Aim:
To examine the roles of the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala in determining undergraduate students’ attitudes towards drug addicts and homeless people.

Its wider objective was to investigate the biological correlates of stereotypes and prejudice, which would underlie any discriminatory behaviour.

Harris and Fiske (2006)did a study. This study includes 22 participants from Princeton University,  New Jersey, USA. Each of them will see pictures of social outsiders like drug addicts or homeless people. They will not cause others to elicit sympathy or jealousy. Each of these students will get an fMRI scanner. The result indicates that the emotional reaction to pictures of objectives was confined in the amygdala and there was no reaction from the prefrontal cortex. Pictures of human-being show varying reactions in both amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. However, the out-groups only succeeded in activating the brain regions registering ‘disgust’. This study shows that fMRI is used to determine the activation of the parts of the brain, which shows that In addition, it uses fMRI to show the emotion of participants related to the activation of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. It uses fMRI through our brain, not a particular region.

# data[].attributes.body
Maguire et al. did a study. The test group is 16 male London driver taxi drivers who passed The Knowledge which is an examination for the professional driver. These drivers had been driving for at least 18 months. Then, these people will take the MRI scan, their scan will be compared with 50 male non-taxi drivers of similar age. The researchers found more grey matter in the brains of test drivers in the right posterior hippocampus whose volume seemed to correlate with how many months these men worked as taxi drivers. This shows that although the hippocampus does not support navigation in isolation from other brain regions, it seems to be crucial to the storage and use of mental maps of our environments. Based on these, we can know that the hippocampus can help people to set up the map in mind for their surroundings and help people’s navigation indirectly. We can see that when people develop new information or a new skill, there will be some change in our brains we can see the difference between taxi drivers and normal men.

# data[].attributes.body
L.J.: amnesia and memory impairment- MRI showed a damage in hippocampus that gthe size of hippocampus has reduced 46%.'
Help researchers to form and come up with a correlation between brain structure- hippocampus and cognitive function- memory ability, even contribute more understanding on the role of hippocampus on memory

# data[].attributes.body
Baumgartner et al (2008) did a study using a trust game to check this hypothesis. They got 49 participants. Then, divide them into two groups—the experimental group which received the placebo through a nasal spray, and the control group which received the oxytocin through a nasal spray. All participants acted as an investor. First, they played the trust game, in which they got money, and then decide how much to give to the trustee, and how much the participants give to the trustee is triple. Then the trustee decides whether to share the money with the investor or keep it for themselves. Half of the time, the trustee will keep all money themselves. Then, play the risk game, in which the participants then played the same game with another trustee and then with a computer. The computer is random to give money back. The result shows that those who had taken oxytocin continued to invest. Their behavior showed forgiveness and the same degree of continued to trust despite betrayal. In contrast, the control group which is given the placebo invested less once they knew that they had been cheated. In conclusion, people who have more oxytocin are more likely to trust others.

# data[].attributes.body
Bouchard et al.(1990) did a longitudinal study in Minnesota State to check out the relation between the genes twins share and their intelligence. He found 137 pairs of twins, from all over the world. 81 pairs of them are identical and 56 pairs of them are non-identical. Some of them reared apart and some of them reared together. The participating twins went through 50 hours of interviewing and testing in the period leading to 1990. Then he got the result. Identical twins who reared together have very high similarities in intelligence. Identical twins who were reared separately have high similarities in intelligence. Non-identical twins reared together have moderate similarity in intelligence; if they are reared separately, they have low similarity in intelligence relatively. And if they are biological siblings reared together, they have low similarities in intelligence. In conclusion, we can see that 70% of intelligence and behavior appropriate to that degree of intelligence may be attributed to genetic inheritance and 30% percent to other factors.

As a result, we know that the gene they shared or the kinds of twins will influence the similarities of their intelligence. This study shows that identical twins or non-identical twins are reared together or separately.

# data[].attributes.body
McClintock (1971) did a study. This study includes 135 females in total, all college students living in the same dormitory complex participated. Each of the participants will be asked about when the periods took place once two months between September and April. In addition, the participants will give information about who associated with them regularly and closely on order to compare their respective menstrual cycles. McClintock also recognizes people who live in the same dorm as them, they are not that kind of close friends but are still within her social groups. The result indicates that statistically menstrual synchrony for both very close friends and slightly more distant females friends. In a conclusion, McClintock suggested that pheromones could have influenced menstrual synchrony.

This study is regular for the same groups which are the girls, which makes this study more valuable. And the sample of the competition is relatively large. It investigated that menstrual synchrony is influenced by close friends or their roommates. So I consider this is a great example of the influence of pheromones on human behavior.

# data[].attributes.body
To investigate whether or not women were attracted to men with dissimilar rather than similar genes without knowing the reason why Weekend et al.(1997) did a study. They have 49 female and 44 male university students as the participants. All males will get a new t-shirt and wear it for two ninths in a row without contact with anything that might interfere with their natural body odor. Then they put the T-shirts in a clean box which has a hole on the top of the box to smell. The women were at the midpoint of their menstrual cycle when their sense of smell are the keenest. The shirts were chosen by each woman according to their MHC, seven shirts which are unwashed in total, and three of them are similar genes to the woman and another three are different genes from the woman. The last one is the control group which is shirts that not be worn. The resell shows that women showed a significant preference for the scent of men with different genes, as long as they were not taking oral contraceptives. Those who have preferred men who have similar genes. In conclusion, it shows that human-making patterns are influenced by evolutionary considerations.

# data[].attributes.headline
Wijdick et al.(2001)Dieter Woischneck et al.(2013)

# data[].attributes.subject
Wijdick et al.(2001)Dieter Woischneck et al.(2013)

# data[].attributes.body
To check out our spontaneous respiration is controlled by medulla oblongata in our brain, Wijdick et al.(2001)  use a case study shows that a patient whose brain stem was completely damaged except the medulla oblongata. In this situation, he can still cough. This study did not say the respiration center is in the medulla oblongata, but it shows that medulla oblongata is related to respiration which is proved by the patient's cough when only medulla oblongata works in his brain. To work out more exactly if the respiration center is in the medulla oblongata, Dieter Woischneck et al.(2013) use fMRI to compared the respiration functions of the patients who have lesions in the medulla oblongata. It is possible that they can breathe spontaneously when they do not get lesions on two sides of the medulla oblongata, this is proved by one patient that has a lesion on one side and can breathe spontaneously. In conclusion, the respiration center is in the medulla oblongata, which proved by the study that patients can not breathe spontaneously. Thus, the medulla oblongata that controls respiration is a great example of brain localization.

# data[].attributes.body
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter neural connection and develop another neural pathway. One example of the effect of neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to develop a better cognitive skill, such as learning, writing and  spatial function through both neural network and neuronal pruning, as two examples of neuroplasticity. Many studies discovered how Neuro plasticity can be caused in terms of neuronal connection and its effect on cognitive functions.

Rosenzwieg: One way that can cause neuroplasticity to happen is through the exposre to an enriched environment.
...exposure to a challenging, engaing environment can promote neurop through a denser neuronal network and cause neurop to happen in relative to an impoverished environment. Therefore, it is sure to conclude that neuronal network, as one example of neuroplasticity, can be caused by more neuronal connections from an enriched environment.

Squeglia: After the cause of neuronl network, as one example of neuroplasticity was found, later studies focused on the effect of different kind of neuroplasticty such as neuronal network and neuronal pruning on cognitive skills. One effect of neuroplas is that neuronal pruning through thinner cortex can lead to a better cognitive function. Squeglia found that people with thinner cortex have better learning skill...
It was also found that neuronal pruning and neuronal connection, as two examples of neuroplasticity, can all be caused and affect cognitive skill. Abitz found that...this suggest that both types of neuroplas can happen durng brain development, and can thus all impact people's later cog skill

# data[].attributes.body
Inherited genes may affect human behaviors. One example of how inherited can genes may affect behavior is how similarities between twins can lead to similarities in intelligence behaviors in IQ tests.
The famous Minnesota twin study by Bouchard has discovered the role of genetic similarity on intelligence behaviors of problem-solving and pattern recognition.
...This finding is significant, because it also incorporated findings from many previous research.

Shield's ealier research suggested that environ is less important than genetic inf, since MZ twins showed a strong similariity in problem-solving behaviors from IQ tests even they were reared apart. Investigated 44 pairs of MZ twins reared apart via media, Shield discovered that those MZ twins reared apart still showed a strong similar correlation in their IQ test in relative to DZ twins, even greater than those who were reared together. Thus, it was suggested that environmental have only little impact on intelligence behaviors such as problem-solving skills, whereas genetic similarities play a much more important role in determine intelligent behaviors, since MZ twins who shared more genetic materials both reared together and apart showed a significantly higher concordance rate in IQ socres. However, though many studies clearly support how genes may affect intelligence behaviors to a great extent, there are still many other factors that may also affect their IQ scores and similar problem-solving skills. For example, Kamin 1977 argued that MZ twins may still spend a substantial amount of time together even they were reared apart, suggesting their environment were not completely different; Thus, since there are still environmental factors uncontrolled, it is still possible that other factors beside from genetic inf still account for intelligence such as prob solving behaviors.

Since there is no full concordance between even MZ twins, other factors such as environmental effect, especially maternal environment of the time when the child was born was not controlled, and thus could also impact intelligence behaviors. For example, Ho 2013's literature review found no solid support for how gene is related to intelligence behavior, and how inherited genes between biological related members such as twins can affect problem-solving skills. Rather, he concluded that maternal effect such as environmental diff of mothers when the child was born account for the most. Also, other environmental factors such as race have also been found to have an inf on intelligence levels such as IQ scores and problem-solving skills. Still, since genetic inf might be hard to separate, the theory that genes can affect human intelligence behavior can still remain as a hypothesis and requires further investigations.

# data[].attributes.body
Brain and behaviour

Discuss the value of animal models in psychological research on the brain and behaviour.

To what extent can animal models provide insight into the relationship between the brain and human behaviour?

Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on the brain and behaviour.

Hormones and pheromones and behaviour

Discuss the value of animal models in psychological research on hormones and/or pheromones and behaviour.

Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on hormones and pheromones and behaviour.

To what extent can animal models provide insight into relationships between hormones and/or pheromones and human behaviour?

Genetics and behaviour

Discuss the value of animal models in psychological research on genetics and behaviour.

Discuss ethical considerations in animal research on genetics and behaviour.

To what extent can animal models provide insight into the relationship between genetics and behaviour?

General

Discuss the role of animal research in understanding human behaviour.

Discuss ethical considerations in animal research in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.

To what extent can animal models provide insight into human behaviour?

# data[].attributes.body
Aim:
To test the effectivenesses of pramipexole for the treatment of major depressive disorder.
Method:
Double-blind placebo control study
60 participants are divided into two groups randomly then took either placebo or pramipexole. Both participants and researchers measuring the effects of the drugs without knowing the condition of patients.
All participants were "treat-resistant", which means they used to take other forms pf treatments but does not work in the past. Depression symptoms were measured using the MADRS questionaries( Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale)
Result:
Significant reduction of MDD symptoms in the pramipexole.
Pramipexole could be a possible treatment or people with MDD who have not been successful with other frontline of drugs to help.

# data[].attributes.body
the brain’s ability to alter a change in neural connection