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How Schools & Teachers Can Help:

Educating school staff about trauma and its effects

Promoting physical and emotional safety in relationships and the environment

Reducing trauma-related triggers in the school environment

Considering trauma in all assessment and protocol behavior plans

Ensuring students and families have voice, choice, and empowerment

By adopting trauma-informed approaches, schools can help prevent bullying and trauma at school, and provide a positive school culture for both students and staff.

Parents, caregivers, teachers, and schools all play an important role in preventing and addressing bullying and its harmful effects.

Reference: (2020, May 19). Bullying and Trauma. StopBullying.gov; StopBullying.gov. https://www.stopbullying.gov/bullying/bullying-and-trauma

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Bullying can have lasting impacts on everyone involved: the person being bullied; bystanders who witness the bullying; and the person who bullies others. In fact, bullying is considered an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE). ACEs are potentially traumatic events that can have negative, lasting effects on a person's development, the way they interact with others, and how they perform in school. Research has shown that children reporting more ACEs may be more likely to exhibit bullying behavior.

Understanding Trauma

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) defines trauma as a result of an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that an individual experiences as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening. These experiences can have lasting adverse effects on a person's mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual wellbeing.

Childhood traumatic stress occurs when traumatic events overwhelm a child's or teenager's ability to cope, such as:

Neglect and psychological, physical, or sexual abuse

Domestic violence or intimate partner violence

Community and school violence (including bullying)

Natural disasters

Terrorism, war, and refugee experiences

Serious accidents, life-threatening illness, or sudden or violent loss of a loved one

Military family-related stressors, such as parental deployment, loss, or injury

While each child may react differently to trauma, parents, caretakers, and teachers may be able to recognize some signs of traumatic stress. For example, preschool children may have nightmares or fear of separation. Elementary school children may feel shame or anxiety, or have trouble concentrating. Kids in middle and high school may show signs of depression or engage in self-harm behaviors. Child trauma survivors are more likely to have academic problems and increased involvement with the child welfare and juvenile justice systems.

The Connection between Bullying and Traumatic Stress

Every individual is different and incidents that traumatize one person may not affect another. As stated by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN), children or teens who have been exposed to trauma and violence may be more likely to bully others and be bullied.

Some children who experience trauma and bullying may have strong feelings of distress, while other children may appear desensitized. As an example, a study on bullying and post-traumatic stress found that some children may repress their thoughts or feelings about what took place. This can lead to numbness or loss of interest in activities. This study also found that children may experience intrusive thoughts, such as sudden flashbacks of their bullying experience. It is important that caregivers understand how to respond to bullying and are sensitive to possible traumatic stress.

What Helps After Trauma from Bullying

Parents, teachers, and other trusted adults can help children or teens who experience traumatic stress from bullying. According to NCTSN's Effective Treatments for Youth Trauma, some approaches that help children and teenagers who have experienced trauma, including bullying, are:

Ensuring the child or teen is safe and seek ways to prevent future bullying experiences

Talking through what happened and why, to help clear up misconceptions about their role in the traumatic event

Teaching stress management and relaxation techniques, to help them cope

Some children and teenagers may also need professional help to treat stress related from bullying and/or other traumatic experiences. Healthcare providers can make referrals for treatment.

How Schools and Teachers Can Help

Schools can adopt a trauma-informed approach, by training teachers and staff skills to handle and recognize traumatic stress or other signs of trauma. These skills allow teachers to help or find other supports and services for students in need.

Resources like the Trauma-Sensitive Schools Training Package from The National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE) may help schools adopt trauma-informed approaches to create safe and supportive learning environments. These include:

Educating school staff about trauma and its effects

Promoting physical and emotional safety in relationships and the environment

Reducing trauma-related triggers in the school environment

Considering trauma in all assessment and protocol behavior plans

Ensuring students and families have voice, choice, and empowerment

By adopting trauma-informed approaches, schools can help prevent bullying and trauma at school, and provide a positive school culture for both students and staff.

Parents, caregivers, teachers, and schools all play an important role in preventing and addressing bullying and its harmful effects.

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Childhood traumatic stress occurs when traumatic events, including bullying, overwhelm a child's or teenager's ability to cope.

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Bullying as an ACE: Adverse Childhood Experience

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Bullying as an ACE: Adverse Childhood Experience

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Reference: August 2017 FACT SHEET. (n.d.). https://www.stopbullying.gov/sites/default/files/2017-10/bullying-as-an-ace-fact-sheet.pdf

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Drug abuse and addiction can be a lifelong scourge. Covering the spectrum of society from newborns to the elderly, drugs come in a variety of forms, each of which have affected peoples' lives in undeniably adverse ways.

This Padlet submission has been created to offer insight into how drugs affect schoolchildren. Whether it be a kindergarten student haling from a home of addicts or teenagers looking for peer approval via succumbing to narcotic-flavored activity, it is important to chart WHAT drug abuse is, WHAT its symptoms are, and HOW we as teachers can assist in mitigating the harmful effects of drug abuse in the lives of school children.

- Nicholas Pansegrouw (August 3, 2022)

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#1: How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children?)

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#1: How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children?)

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'Parental drug use can have lasting effects on children who are exposed to substance misuse in the home. This can take a mental toll, emotional toll, and have effects on a child’s behavior and development. Studies show that millions of children in the United States are estimated to live with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol problem.'
(extracted from https://www.addictionresource.net/substance-abuse-in-families/effects/parental-drug-use/ on August 3, 2022)

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Studies show that millions of children in the United States are estimated to live with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol problem.
For example:

alcohol abuse

prescription drug abuse

opioid addiction

illicit drug use

What research also shows is that growing up with an addicted parent can have lasting effects on children. For instance, they may affect a child physically, emotionally, mentally, and have effects on behavior into adulthood.
Learn more about how substance abuse affects families
Effects Of Parental Substance Use On Children

Drug and alcohol abuse can have a number of effects on a person, particularly in cases where it's become severe enough to be classified as a full-blown substance use disorder, or addiction.

Substance abuse can alter how a person thinks, feels, and behaves around others. These effects can vary, depending on if a person is drunk, high, or sober.

When you're a parent, the effects of substance use can have significant implications for any children in your household, particularly during the early stages of development.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use During Pregnancy

The U.S.National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) estimates that about five percent of people who are pregnant in the U.S. use one or more addictive substances during pregnancy.

Unfortunately, abusing drugs while pregnant can have a number of effects.
Depending on the type of drug and when the drug use occurs, effects could include:

fetal development

likelihood of birth defects

risk of miscarriage

risk of stillbirth

risk of neonatal withdrawal syndrome

Research suggests that drug use during pregnancy can also be associated with other physical and behavioral problems, such as difficulties with concentration, attention span, and general conduct.

Children who develop intellectual, behavioral, or physical disabilities can also see a lifelong impact, should there be a need for long-term treatment, financial assistance, or the assistance of a caregiver.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use In The Home

Drug and alcohol abuse can make for an unstable home environment. Parents who are drunk or intoxicated may forget to pay bills, bring drugs into the home, and potentially invite other dangers.
Households affected by addiction are also at higher risk of:

domestic abuse

interpersonal partner violence

financial problems

food insecurity

child neglect

Addiction can, for young children especially, be confusing. Because they are unlikely to understand what's going on, they may become scared, uncertain, and isolative.

Children may attempt to justify, make excuses for, or cover up their parent's substance use. This can be for survival purposes, to avoid detection by authorities, as well as loyalty to their parent.

Children can also learn to adapt to a parent's substance use behaviors. Eventually, they can become accustomed to a parent's substance use, identifying drug use-and its consequences-as a fixture within the home.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use On A Child's Behavior

Substance use experts and researchers have identified a number of common personality traits and behavioral tendencies among children who have a parent with a drug or alcohol addiction.

Children of addicted parents, for instance, may be more likely to lash out, become withdrawn, have problems in school, and may be more likely to engage in risky or dangerous activities.

Effects On Children's Mental Health

Children of parents with drug or alcohol use disorder are at higher risk for developing mental health disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and certain personality disorders.
Parental drug use can put children at higher risk for:

depression

anxiety

low self-esteem

low self-worth

mood swings

effects on empathy

Children may have difficulty regulating their emotions and may be more likely to turn to unsupportive coping mechanisms in order to manage feelings about their parent's drug use.

Increased Risk For Substance Abuse

Children of parents with substance use disorder are at increased risk of developing unhealthy substance use habits in adolescence and adulthood.

Easy access to drugs, as well as the familiarity of drug use as a result of their parent's behavior, are common contributors to this.
Some of the most commonly abused drugs among teens include:

alcohol

amphetamines

prescription painkillers

marijuana

Children of addicted parents can be up to two or three times more likely than other children to develop substance use disorder at some point in their lifetime.

They're also more likely to enter into relationships with others who have a substance use disorder, and marry people who have an addiction.

Effects On Relationships

The impact of parental drug use on children can extend not only to their health and behavior, but also to their own relationships with others: peers, teachers, neighbors, and even spouses.

Living with the effects and consequences of a parent's drug use in the home can affect a person's ability to emotionally connect with, trust, and open up to others.

Children of parents with a SUD are also often very loyal-sometimes to a fault. They may, for instance, prioritize meeting the needs of others, even if it means sacrificing or neglecting their own.

How Many Children Have An Addicted Parent?

In the United States, an estimated one in eight children under the age of 17 live in a household with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol use disorder.

That's about 8.7 million children, according to survey data collected from 2011 to 2014 by the national Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).

How Can Children Heal From A Parent's Substance Use?

Recovering from the effects of a parent's drug or alcohol addiction, particularly its effects on mental and emotional health, is possible.

While children don't have control over their parent's drug use, even in adulthood, there is an opportunity for children to find healing for themselves.
Treatment and support options for children of addicted parents include:
What Type Of Treatment Is Best For Children With Addicted Parents?

Not all children of addicted parents can, or necessarily will, benefit from the same treatment approach or modality. What's best for a teen, child, or adult can depend on a number of factors.
For instance:
Children and teens of parents with an addiction will likely benefit the most from a counselor who is experienced in working with other children of addicted parents.

Adult children, too, may benefit from finding a counselor, psychologist, or social worker with specialized experience in treating trauma and substance use.

Call Today To Find Addiction Treatment

If you're ready to get help for yourself or an addicted loved one, our treatment specialists may be able to help you get started. Your happiness, and that of your family, is worth it.

Call our helpline today to learn more about addiction treatment options and how to find a drug or alcohol rehab program that's right for you.

Written by the Addiction Resource Editorial Staff

This page does not provide medical advice. See more
Article resources
Addiction Resource aims to provide only the most current, accurate information in regards to addiction and addiction treatment, which means we only reference the most credible sources available.

These include peer-reviewed journals, government entities and academic institutions, and leaders in addiction healthcare and advocacy. Learn more about how we safeguard our content by viewing our editorial policy.

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How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children? - Addiction Resource

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Parental drug use can have lasting mental and emotional effects on children who are exposed to substance misuse in the home.

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#2: The Predominance of Drug Abuse in Schools)

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#2: The Predominance of Drug Abuse in Schools)

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'Drugs and alcohol are some of the most detrimental, yet most common disruptions in teenage brain development. They manipulate the brain’s wiring and affect the way the brain processes and retains information – including the way a teen thinks, focuses, learns, remembers, and concentrates inside and outside of school. Despite the risky nature of early substance use, drug abuse in schools and among adolescents is an all too common occurrence. Studies show that by senior year in high school, nearly 50 percent of teens have already tried an illicit drug. And this is just the beginning. About 66 percent of teens have drank alcohol by the end of high school, too.'
(extracted from https://www.turnbridge.com/news-events/latest-articles/drug-abuse-in-schools/# on August 3, 2022)

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Did you know that the human brain is still developing in a person's twenties? In fact, it does not fully mature until about age 25 - around the time you finish college, start a full-time job, and begin making longer-term plans for life. Anything you do up until this point can affect your brain's progress, for better or for worse.

The brain is especially susceptible to change during adolescence - the years most often spent in the classroom, on the field, and validating friendships. This is the time in which a person's learning capacity is at its greatest. It is also the time in which the brain is most vulnerable to disruptions in cognitive development.

Drugs and alcohol are some of the most detrimental, yet most common disruptions in teenage brain development. They manipulate the brain's wiring and affect the way the brain processes and retains information - including the way a teen thinks, focuses, learns, remembers, and concentrates inside and outside of school.

Despite the risky nature of early substance use, drug abuse in schools and among adolescents is an all too common occurrence. Studies show that by senior year in high school, nearly 50 percent of teens have already tried an illicit drug. And this is just the beginning. About 66 percent of teens have drank alcohol by the end of high school, too.

If you are a parent of a high schooler, or even middle schooler, there is a great chance that your child will be (or has already been) exposed to drugs and alcohol. On average, teens choose to try drugs for the first time around 13 or 14 years old - around the start of high school. As a parent and role model, educator and caregiver, you have the ability to prolong or sway your child's desire to try drugs during his or her school years.

In fact, some of the greatest factors in keeping adolescents drug-free are parental figures themselves: having strong, positive connections with parents and having clear limits and consistent enforcement of discipline established by parents, can help reduce teens' willingness to try drugs. Combined with open education about the reality and risks of drug abuse in adolescence, parents can truly influence their child's choices regarding drugs.

This especially crucial today, when drug abuse in schools is prevalent and drugs in high school are increasingly easy to get. A survey from the Center on Addiction found that 60 percent or more of teens attend "drug infected" high schools, meaning drugs are used, kept, or sold right on school grounds. Even more scary, almost all high school students report that they know classmates who drink, smoke, or use drugs during the school day.

Drug abuse in schools, particularly illicit drugs in high school, has long been a topic of concern. And recent articles published by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) confirm that it is still an ongoing issue. Last month, the NIDA disclosed the current frequency of non-medical opioid and heroin abuse among high school seniors. They found that, among 12th graders, 11 percent had abused prescription painkiller drugs. And among the 819 seniors that used heroin, 77 percent also abused prescription opioid drugs while in high school.

Now, this is just high school seniors. The survey's research does not take into account the other students - high school, middle school, and college students - that also use opiate drugs. With the opiate epidemic coming at us full-force, high school seniors only make up a subset of the number of students and individuals abusing drugs.

While drug abuse in schools and among teens has declined in recent years, its predominance can still be seen across all grade levels - starting as early as middle school. The 2016 Monitoring the Future Survey, for example, shows that 5.4 percent of 8th graders have already tried an illicit drug such as marijuana or inhalants. Even more, about 23 percent of middle school students have already drank alcohol.

About 10 percent of high school sophomores have also used an illicit drug in the past year, with marijuana being the most common. Notably among these 10th graders, the perceived risk of drugs like marijuana, inhalants, crack, and Vicodin has diminished. High schoolers are seeing less and less harm in trying potentially-dangerous drugs.

This is especially true of the drug marijuana, which has been deemed a gateway to other, more threatening substances. Adolescents and young adults no longer see a great risk in smoking marijuana regularly. They are also using it more regularly. This past year, daily marijuana use exceeded cigarette use among high school sophomores and seniors.

College students are also at risk. A recent national survey found that students who attend college are at a significantly higher risk of initiating marijuana than their non-college counterparts. More than half are now likely to initiate marijuana use in school (prior to 2013, that number was around 17-22 percent). This makes sense, with marijuana becoming increasingly accessible. Especially in college, where students are transitioning to a life all on their own, trying marijuana (or any drug) may seem like the right thing to do at that time and place.

Some college and high school students are also avid users of what they might call "study drugs," prescription stimulants that are misused by many students to help boost performance in school and enhance focus on school assignments. Most commonly known by the brand name Adderall, these stimulant pills are often conceived as harmless drugs with the "right" intent, which further downplays their skyrocketing risk for abuse and addiction.

With proper education about the dangers of early drug abuse in school years, however, your teen can come to understand that there is no right time or place to use drugs. Knowing the long-term impact drug use can have on his or her brain, as well as his or her academics, can far outweigh the "fun" your teen may have giving them a try. Reality is, substance abuse and academics are directly correlated. Not only can drugs impair teens' cognitive development, they can also affect students' performance in school: their ability to memorize things, concentration in the classroom, prioritization of assignments, likelihood to attend class, and even their overall IQ.

If you are concerned about your teen's exposure to drugs in high school, middle school, or college, you are not alone. But know that now is a crucial time for your teen and his or her brain, and any suspicion of drug use should be acted on. Adolescent drug use can have a lasting impact on the brain, but early intervention, proper education, and tailored drug treatment can put your teen on the path to success. For more information about drug abuse in schools, view our "Missing the Mark" infographic or call Turnbridge young adult rehab center at 877-581-1793.

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Drug Abuse in Schools | Drugs in High School | Turnbridge

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Did you know that the human brain is still developing in a person's twenties? In fact, it does not fully mature until about age 25 - around the time you finish college, start a full-time job, and begin making longer-term plans for life.

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Symptoms of this kind of traumatic stress (#1 Drug Effects on Children at all Stages of Development)

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Symptoms of this kind of traumatic stress (#1 Drug Effects on Children at all Stages of Development)

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'Drugs can affect children at all stages of development. A child can be affected before they are born, right after they are born, as young children, and as teenagers. Children can also be affected by parental drug use. This guide will discuss the impacts of drugs at each of these stages of development and how to get children the treatment they need.'
(extracted from https://www.toprehabs.com/drug-effects-on-children/ on August 3, 2022)

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Introduction

Drugs can affect children at all stages of development. A child can be affected before they are born, right after they are born, as young children, and as teenagers. Children can also be affected by parental drug use. This guide will discuss the impacts of drugs at each of these stages of development and how to get children the treatment they need.

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

What Does Neonatal Mean?

Neonatal is defined as relating to or affecting a newborn infant during the first month after birth. Neonatal is a term used in many different areas of medicine. Addiction treatment is one field of medicine to use the term neonatal because of neonatal abstinence syndrome.

What is Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome?

Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is a group of medical problems faced by newborns who were exposed to addictive drugs during their mother's pregnancy. Drugs the mother takes pass through the placenta to the baby. The baby becomes physically dependent on the drug at the same time as the mother.

If the mother continues to take drugs immediately before birth, the newborn will emerge entirely dependent on that drug. The newborn will experience withdrawal symptoms while its body is slowly getting the drug out of their system.

Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome

NOWS is the blanket term to describe a newborn with NAS caused solely by opioids. This is the most common type of NAS.

NAS With Drugs Other Than Opioids

A newborn may experience NAS and withdrawal symptoms when exposed in the womb to:

Although they won't experience NAS or withdrawal symptoms, there may be long-term health effects on babies that were exposed to:

What Are the Signs of NAS?

Signs of NAS may be different for every newborn, most occur within 3 days of birth, but some newborns may not show signs for up to 6 months. If your newborn is showing signs of NAS, contact a doctor as soon as possible. Signs may include:

Poor feeding and low weight

Initial Medical Complications for the Newborn

Babies with NAS are at increased risk of:

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). SIDS may cause the unexplained death of the baby while sleeping.

Low birthweight. If your baby weighs less than 5 lbs.

Jaundice. Your baby's eyes and skin look yellow, meaning the liver hasn't developed properly.

How is NAS Diagnosed?

A medical provider can use a few different tests to diagnose NAS. There is a NAS scoring system that assigns points based on the severity of your baby's symptoms. Urine can be tested for drugs. The baby's first stool can also be tested for drugs.

​​00:07 I'm Dr. Phoebe Thorpe and here with me today is rear Admiral Wanda Barfield, the director of the Division of Reproductive Health here at CDC. 00:16 Wanda, thank you so much for joining us. [Wanda] Thank you, Phoebe. [Phoebe] Your session that from two years ago about neonatal abstinence will be running. 00:24 Part of the reason we're rerunning it is because the opioid epidemic continues to worsen in the United States. What is neonatal abstinence? 00:35 [Wanda] So, um, it, it's great that we're doing another opportunity to talk about Beyond the Data here. 00:42 Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome is something that I know very personally in addition to directing the division of reproductive health, I'm also a neonatologist, which is a specialist in pediatrics that focuses on the care of critically ill newborns. 00:58 Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome is a withdrawal syndrome that occurs for babies who've been exposed to opioids during pregnancy. 01:08 Now, this may occur under a variety of circumstances, 01:12 but the challenge here has been more recently we've seen it 01:15 as a result of the opioid crisis. 01:18 So Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome can occur when those withdrawal 01:23 that a pregnant woman has after her baby is born 01:26 and that baby has been exposed 01:28 to either prescription substances 01:31 that include subsistence's, like Vicodin, OxyContin, 01:35 or it can be illicit substances that can also include heroin. 01:41 Or it can be exposure to medication assisted treatment 01:47 such as Buprenorphine or Methadone. 01:50 And these infants have symptoms that occur about 48 to 72 hours 01:56 after birth and these symptoms are fairly distressing. 02:01 They include things 02:02 like excessive crying, inconsolability. 02:06 They may have difficulty feeding; 02:08 they may have watery stools or diarrhea. 02:12 They may also, um, have seizures and so these particular symptoms 02:18 and signs need to be treated and they need 02:21 to be treated in a gradual method. 02:24 [Phoebe] So when these newborns have the Neonatal Abstinence 02:27 Syndrome and are going through withdrawal what, 02:29 what needs to be done to treat them. 02:31 [Wanda] So the treatment can be somewhat complicated 02:35 and protracted. 02:36 So these infants need time in terms of a gentle weaning 02:43 from these medications. 02:45 And so as a result, they're given medications 02:49 so that they can reduce these symptoms that we're seeing 02:52 when they're initially having withdrawal symptoms. 02:55 Most infants may show signs of withdrawal anywhere between 48 03:00 to 72 hours after birth. 03:03 Because it takes time for these infants to recover, 03:07 it means that they need close and careful monitoring 03:11 in either a newborn intensive care unit 03:15 or they may need very close monitoring 03:18 in a special care nursery. 03:19 And so as a result, that means they've got prolonged 03:23 hospitalization and as you know, that can be expensive. 03:27 They also need to be closely monitored for these signs 03:31 and symptoms that could potentially get them 03:34 into a lot of trouble. 03:35 We know that in the United States, in fact, that the cost 03:39 of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome is about 2.5 billion dollars 03:44 with the major burden being born by Medicaid 03:48 at about $2 billion dollars. 03:50 [Phoebe] Each year. 03:51 [Wanda] Each year. 03:52 [Phoebe] Wow. 03:53 What, what are we doing? 03:54 So I would imagine that if you, um, the increase use 03:59 of opioids while use and abuse of opioids in women 04:02 who are pregnant is part of the reason 04:04 that the Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome is going up. 04:08 What are some of the important things to help the moms, uh, 04:12 with the women who are pregnant 04:13 to prevent Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome? 04:16 [Wanda] Yes. 04:16 Phoebe, you bring up an important point. 04:18 It's important to note that we, we coined the issue 04:22 of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome 04:24 as really the tip of the iceberg. 04:26 This is really sort of the final result 04:28 of a much more complicated issue and for every baby that we see 04:34 with Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome, there's a mom who's 04:37 in great need of support. 04:39 But it goes beyond that. 04:40 This is really a life course issue and we really need 04:43 to think not only of the care and concern of the baby, 04:48 but the care and concern for mothers and even 04:50 for women prior to pregnancy. 04:53 You know, many women may not even know 04:56 that they're pregnant during the time 04:57 that they may be using a prescription drug 05:01 and as a result, they then may find themselves pregnant 05:05 and treatment during that time maybe more challenging. 05:08 However, there is an opportunity for us 05:11 to better monitor pregnancies and help women 05:15 with medication-assisted therapy. 05:19 [Phoebe] Yeah. 05:19 You bring up a point that, that was one 05:21 of the things I was going to ask about and it came 05:22 out in a session about medication, medicated, 05:26 medication assisted therapy. 05:28 What? What is that and how, what, what is being done 05:32 to help women during their pregnancy? 05:34 [Wanda] So medication assisted therapy is an opportunity 05:38 to treat women during pregnancy, 05:41 but so that they can also be monitored in terms of the use 05:46 of these substances that include either Methadone 05:49 or Buprenorphine. 05:51 And it also allows an opportunity to not only monitor 05:55 that woman during her pregnancy, 05:57 but to help to identify an infant 06:00 who may potentially have Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome. 06:04 However, it may be a much more controlled path rather than sort 06:10 of a quick withdrawal. 06:12 [Phoebe] Yeah, so it's very important to, 06:14 to try to get the women that the treatment they need while 06:17 they're pregnant. 06:17 [Wanda] Yes. 06:18 And I've had opportunities to, you know, talk with women 06:21 and talk with families who may be 06:23 on medication assisted therapy and what they might anticipate 06:28 in terms of the days of, you know, during delivery 06:31 in those subsequent days following delivery. 06:34 And I think that's a really helpful approach. 06:37 [Phoebe] What else needs to be done to reduce 06:39 or prevent Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome in the United States? 06:42 [Wanda] So when we were thinking about prevention, again, 06:45 you know, that's an important role that CDC plays 06:49 in terms of prevention. 06:50 More broadly we're really looking 06:53 at how we can collectively as an agency address the opioid crisis 07:00 and that's really through our combined efforts. 07:04 So just thinking about what we can do at CDC here, 07:08 we are really focusing on work collectively. 07:11 As you know, CDC has produced a lot of information 07:15 about appropriate prescribing and so CDC has guidelines 07:19 on appropriate prescribing guidelines for physicians 07:22 and that's a very important component that we need 07:26 to disseminate and help educate providers. 07:29 You know, the other component is surveillance. 07:31 It is so important, not only that we have good 07:34 and accurate surveillance, but that it's as rapid as possible. 07:38 And CDC is really working toward making the data available much 07:43 more rapidly. 07:44 Whether that's, you know, and this is more broadly, 07:46 I'm not just talking about Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome, 07:50 but you know, what can we do in terms of addiction, 07:52 emergency room, um, related issues, um, 07:56 the unfortunate event of overdose. 07:59 So how can we get that information out more quickly 08:02 so that people can respond? 08:04 For states, there's a lot of exciting work that's going 08:08 on in the area of what's called perinatal quality collaboratives 08:12 and these are teams of healthcare providers as well 08:15 as public health providers that are working together to think 08:19 about evidence based interventions 08:22 to really improve the care of infants 08:25 with Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome as well 08:27 as improving the care for mothers. 08:29 So specifically for example, the challenge that we have now is 08:34 that our treatment protocols are still somewhat subjective 08:39 when we're trying to treat infants with NES, 08:42 but in the context of a quality improvement framework, 08:46 we might be able to do a more standardized, regimented process 08:53 of identifying infants at risk, appropriately treating them 08:57 and then perhaps reducing those hospital lengths 09:01 of stay for those newborns. 09:03 There's also better techniques, for example, promoting um, 09:08 maternal infant bonding 09:10 and promoting breastfeeding is also a good way 09:13 to help reduce the length of stay for newborns with regard 09:17 to Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome. 09:19 [Phoebe] So what I hear is surveillance 09:21 so they can help figure out where the problem is. 09:23 [Wanda] Yes. 09:24 [Phoebe] And then also quality improvement so that they, 09:26 the solutions that we offer are better too. 09:30 And combining those to, make it better. 09:33 [Wanda] Yes. 09:34 [Phoebe] Um,prevention..If other people are interested 09:38 in knowing more about clinicians or others about, uh, 09:43 the opioid use, misuse or NAS, where can they find that? 09:48 [Wanda] Well, there are several resources. 09:50 So first for providers there, there's great opportunity 09:54 through the CDC guidelines in terms of prescribing practices, 09:59 but there's also clinical groups that are very helpful. 10:03 For example, the American Academy 10:05 of Pediatrics has guidance on the care of infants 10:09 with Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome as well 10:12 as the American Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 10:17 or the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 10:20 and they have guidances for the treatment 10:23 of women during pregnancy. 10:26 [Phoebe] Thank you so much for joining us. 10:27 This is such an important topic and it's like you said, 10:30 it's the tip of the iceberg and so it isn't always seen well. 10:33 I really appreciate your efforts to make it better now and, 10:37 and to help these children. 10:38 [Wanda] Well thank you too Phoebe 10:39 for raising this important issue. 10:41 [Phoebe] And thank you for joining us for Beyond the Data.

Newborn Intensive Care Unit (NICU)

A newborn with NAS is likely to require treatment in a NICU to stabilize its condition and manage the withdrawal symptoms. A NICU is a nursery in a hospital that provides 24-hour care for newborns that are sick or premature.

Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT)

MAT involves giving the newborn medications to treat or manage withdrawal symptoms. The dosages of the medications will be tapered as their system gets rid of the dependent drug and withdrawal symptoms ease.

Medications used may include:

Non-Medication Interventions

Non-medication interventions may include:

We are still learning about the long-term effects of NAS. Many other effects could be found after more studies are concluded, and researchers have more data.

Drug Endangered Toddlers

Many toddlers are exposed to direct or indirect exposure to illegal drugs. Drug endangered toddlers gained visibility with the rise of methamphetamine use, but meth isn't the only drug that causes issues; cocaine is the other top contributing drug.

A drug endangered toddler is defined as a toddler who suffers from physical harm or neglect when living in a house where illegal drugs are used or manufactured.

Exposure to Meth

Toddlers can be exposed to meth either by finding pieces of meth, or powdered meth, and ingesting it. Toddlers can also be exposed through second-hand meth smoke in the home.

Symptoms of a toddler exposed to meth can include:1

Exposure to Toxic Chemicals Used to Manufacture Meth

Almost every illegal meth lab contains toxic substances. Many of these substances can cause contact burns and damage the lungs when inhaled. Several of the substances can cause fires and explosions.

Substances used to make meth can include:2

Neglect and Abuse

Parents who are addicted to drugs, or who are illegally manufacturing drugs, pose a significant risk to their toddlers. The toddler may not receive the nurturing or emotional contact that are needed for development. This can lead to developmental delays, depression, or attachment disorder.

A drug endangered toddler may also be malnourished, have poor hygiene, and not receive the medical attention they need. These can all contribute to serious health concerns.

Teen Drug Abuse

In 2019, the National Institute on Drug Abuse completed a large-scale survey of more than 42,500 students from public and private schools in the United States. The results of this survey, called Monitoring the Future, have revealed important information about adolescents, their drug abuse patterns, and the drugs they choose to abuse.3

The overall theme of the survey is that drug use, specifically cigarettes and prescription opioids, is at an all-time low.3 The following describes the results by each category of substance abused:

Alcohol

Alcohol use and binge drinking have decreased among 10th-12th graders, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse.3 In 2019, an estimated 29.3% of 12th graders reported using alcohol in the last 30 days. This is a decrease from 37.4% of 12th graders in 2014.3

In addition, the amount of teenagers who report drinking at all has decreased since previous years' surveys. In 1994, an estimated 55.8% of eighth-graders reported drinking alcohol at some point in their lives. In 2019, an estimated 24.5% of eighth-graders reported drinking alcohol at some point in their lives.

Most of the alcohol that teenagers consume is in a binge drinking situation.4 This can particularly place a young person at risk for motor vehicle accidents, risky sexual behaviors, and more.

Marijuana

According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, an estimated 35.7% of teenagers in 8th-12th grade reported using marijuana in the last 30 days.3 A vast majority of students (86.4%) report using marijuana by smoking it compared to alternate options, such as edibles.3

While marijuana use overall has decreased since the early and mid-2000s, daily marijuana use has increased slightly over time, particularly among 10th-grade students surveyed.3

Reasons Why Teens Use Drugs

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, alcohol is the first substance that most young people try.4 By eighth grade, an estimated 28% of young people have tried alcohol. What's more, an estimated 12% have been drunk at least once.4

The National Institute on Drug Abuse has identified several potential reasons as to why young people may start using drugs or may become addicted to drugs.5 These include:

How to Spot Drug Use in Children

Children may be exposed to drug use at school, with friends, or in their homes. While a vast majority of children who try drugs don't become addicted, using drugs can still impact them in several different ways. Drug use can affect a young person's physical and emotional well-being. It can get them in trouble at school and with the law.

Some of the signs that a child may be abusing drugs or alcohol include:

Changes in their personal appearance, such as appearing messy or unkempt

Changes in their pupil size, such as very large or very small pupils

Exhibiting hostile behavior around the house

Showing sudden or unexplained weight loss

Finding drugs or drug accessories (pipes, straws, etc.)

Lying or seeming paranoid when asked where they are going or who they are going to be with

If they seem to be very influenced by their peers or very preoccupied by what their friends think

If their breath smells of unusual substances, such as alcohol or smoke

Exhibiting behavioral problems at school

Showing different behaviors, such as depression, fatigue, or isolation

History of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

History of anxiety or toher mental health disorders

History of struggles with school and academic performance

History of the child being chronically impulsive

Children whose parents have a low socioeconomic status are also at higher risk for substance abuse or substance experimentation.

How to Deal with a Child Who is Addicted to Drugs

Intervening, even on a low level, can help to reduce substance use and abuse in young people, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics.4 This could include simply talking to a young person about their drug use. However, if a young person shows signs of full-blown dependence to a substance or suicidal thoughts related to their substance abuse, a parent should help their child seek either rehabilitation or professional help from a therapist or counselor.

How to Help a Child Experiencing Addiction to Drugs

If a parent isn't sure where to begin when helping a child struggling with addiction or experimentation, a good place to start would be to talk to the child's pediatrician or school counselor. Teenagers are traditionally opposed to the idea of seeking help for their problems. This could be for several reasons. Some young people don't think their drug abuse is a serious problem. Others are afraid of losing their friend group, or that other people will find out they are struggling.2

What researchers do know is that the earlier a young person can receive treatment for substance abuse, the better their chance of recovery. Seeking out a family counselor or other community resource can help a young person recover from their substance abuse problem and learn to make more positive life choices.

Communication

Examples of ways to communicate with a young person about their substance use:

Provide clear advice. Being very direct and clear with a teenager is important.

Example: "I think you should stop drinking, and the time to stop is right now."

Share educational materials that come directly from reputable sources.

Example: Provide the young person with information on the harmful effects of smoking, alcohol, or other illegal substances.

Reinforce the education by showing how it affects each aspect of a young person's life.

Example: Explain how they may not be able to stay on a sports team or participate in school, work, or other group-related activities.

Help a young person make a plan to quit, and discuss how they may deal with issues that arise, such as peer pressure from friends.

Sometimes, a family member may have to reach out to a therapist or a child's doctor to start these conversations and to help hold a young person accountable.

​​ 00:06 The way that the teenagers are communicating have changed dramatically over the past 10 00:10 to 15 years, and it has been accelerated as of the past five years. 00:15 Social media has permeated the life of all the teenagers and we now know that teenagers 00:20 spend much more time with these devices and in front of the computer that they had ever, 00:25 ever done before, and that they are communicating much more electronically done in our face-to-face 00:31 perspective. 00:33 we knew from all of the epidemiological studied and the studies and lessons that mirror behavior 00:39 of observing other teenagers and the dynamic that exists on peer pressure when you are 00:45 with other teenagers contributes significantly to the initiation and repeated drug use among 00:51 adolescents among teenagers...a very powerful driver. 00:54 So the question that emerges, and we don't have answers 00:57 because this has not been investigated but the question comes to mind could these changes 01:03 in interaction be playing a role on that decreasing consumption of drugs by teenagers? 01:10 Because the probability of them being in physical presence of other teenagers has been decreased 01:16 by the fact that now they are more interacting through the web than in person, that's one. 01:21 I also think that we need to do research in terms of understanding how other types of 01:27 reinforcers that teenagers are picking up that did not exist to the same extent amongst 01:32 teenagers are actually substituting for the culture of taking drugs. 01:37 And in particular, for example the use of video games which have actually just skyrocketed 01:43 in terms of technology and the power and drive they have to capture the behavior of teenagers 01:50 to the point that in certain countries like China, Taiwan, Korea...they have established 01:56 clinics for treating addiction to these video games among teenagers. 02:00 Cause teenagers get compulsive about it and they relinquish their school activity their 02:07 social life and they stopped sleeping and then it can be quite harmful. 02:13 So you are you are changing the pattern of requiring compulsive options to teenagers 02:21 that were not there in the past.

Substance Use Disorder Treatment for Children

Treatment for a young person struggling with addiction to drugs can include therapy (both individual and family therapy) as well as rehabilitation programs, such as inpatient or outpatient therapy. If friends and family have tried to get a young person to quit abusing drugs or alcohol and the young person can't or won't stop on their own, they may need more intensive professional help to quit.

A parent can ask their child's doctor or contact area rehabilitation facilities to find out more about services offered. Some programs around the country are explicitly geared toward young people. This may help an adolescent feel more comfortable in treatment.

Drug abuse treatment for young people involves breaking the early habits that have led to a young person's dependence on drugs and trying to help them get on a healthier, safer path as soon as possible.

This may include cognitive-behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing, and other therapies that help a young person learn how to relieve stress and express themselves in a manner that isn't through drugs or alcohol. Following a rehabilitation program, a young person and their family may need to continue their recovery through participation in support groups, whether online or in person.

Help for Parents of Children Who are Addicted to Drugs

Some of the resources that can help a parent whose child is struggling with substance abuse include the following:

Partnership for Drug-Free Kids: The Partnership offers a parent hotline that parents can call at 1-855-378-4372 to share their story with experts who can help them find solutions for their child. A parent can also text their questions to 55753 for help.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA): SAMHSA offers a free and confidential National Helpline that people can call to receive information about treatments. This number is 1-800-662-HELP (4357).

Effects of Substance Abuse on Child Development

According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, there is no "safe" amount of substance use for young people, because there are numerous effects on young people who use different substances.4

Short-Term Effects

In the short-term, substance abuse can affect young people because it can lead to injuries and accidents. Some examples of short-term effects on child development include:

Intimate partner violence

These factors can all lead to unintentional injuries and even death.4

Academic and Social

Young people can also experience problems with their academic and social interactions, which can impair their future.4 One study from the American Academy of Pediatrics found that adolescents who use marijuana experience diminished lifetime achievement compared to young people that do not use marijuana.4 This may be in part because marijuana use in adolescence can cause potentially irreversible impairment in brain functioning, even if they stop smoking marijuana at a later time.

Long-Term Effects

Researchers have also identified the long-term effects of early substance use (including illegal consumption of alcohol). The American Academy of Pediatrics found that people who drink before age 15 are five times more at risk for alcohol dependence or abuse later in life.4 Adolescents who try marijuana before age 14 are also six times more likely to meet the criteria for drug dependence or abuse.

Parental Drug Use

The following section will address parental substance abuse, and how a parent who is addicted to drugs may impact a child.

Statistics on Parental Drug Abuse

According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), an estimated 1 in 8 children who are ages 17 and younger live in a household where at least one parent struggles with a substance use disorder.7 This is an estimated 8.7 million young people in the United States.

Parent with AUD

The most significant number of children who live with a parent who struggles with substance abuse have a parent who is addicted to alcohol. An estimated 7.5 million American children (about 10% of children) live with at least one parent who has an alcohol use disorder.7 SAMHSA further breaks down this group by ages:

Parent Who Abuses Illegal Drugs

An estimated 2.1 million American children live in a household where at least one parent abuses illegal drugs. This is about 1 in 35 children.7 The following is the percentage breakdown of the 2.1 million children:7

While a significantly higher amount of parents abuse alcohol compared to illegal drugs, both have the potential to cause long-lasting and harmful effects on the lives of their children.

How Parental Drug Use Affects Children

According to SAMHSA, a child whose parent struggles with a substance abuse disorder is more likely to have a substance abuse problem later in life.7

Research indicates that children of parents who use drugs are more likely to experience several concerns related to drug use. For example, children of parents who abuse drugs are more likely to experience behavioral and mental health problems compared to children whose parents do not struggle with drug addiction.7

Children of parents who drink alcohol are more likely to experience symptoms such as:

Challenges in cognitive and verbal skills

Parental abuse and neglect

Children whose parents struggle with alcohol abuse are four times as likely to struggle with alcohol abuse as a child whose parents do not, according to SAMHSA.7

Long-Term Problems from Parental Drug Use

Increased risks for mental health problems and substance abuse can lead to long-term behavioral problems in a child. A child never has the time to develop proper coping mechanisms for challenges in daily life because they have been so overloaded from an early age.8 This can lead to long-term substance abuse, violence, and a lifetime struggle with mental illness.8

Parental Neglect Due to Substance Abuse

When a parent struggles with substance abuse, the time, effort, and energy, they may have otherwise spent on their child is often replaced by whatever substance they are abusing. This can lead to neglect and abuse, such as when a child doesn't have food, a safe or clean home, or the school support they need to develop.

Factors that may contribute to child neglect and mistreatment related to substance abuse include:

Food and housing insecurities

Ineffective control of childhood behaviors

Children whose parents struggle with substance abuse are more likely to live in households that have unique problems like mental illness, low socioeconomic status, and domestic violence. These challenges can create a very negative environment for a child, and they often require a child to grow up very quickly.

Parental Abuse

According to the journal Pediatrics, children of parents who abuse drugs and alcohol are three times more likely to experience physical, emotional, or sexual abuse.8 Also, children whose parents struggle with substance abuse are four times more likely to be emotionally or physically neglected.

An estimated 27% of children born to women with a substance abuse disorder require child protective services during their preschool years.8 Also, an estimated 20% of child neglect or child abuse cases are related to a parent that has a substance use disorder.8

Help for Children of Parents Who are Addicted to Drugs

Children whose parents struggle with substance abuse are often faced with different roles growing up than most children their age. They may feel they've had to take on the role of "parent" instead of being allowed to be a child. These young people may have had to care for a parent who is hungover, high, or withdrawing from substances. They may have had to work or help find the money for food and basic needs around the house.

It is exceptionally complicated to grow up with a parent who struggles with substance abuse. A parent may be dependent on a child for love and support instead of the other way around. A child may fear to share with others that their parent has a problem because they don't want to go into the foster system or live with anybody else.

Ways for a Child to Deal with the Stress of a Parent Who Abuses Drugs

Some of the ways that a young person can start to work through these feelings include:

1. Keeping a journal of their feelings so they can start to learn how to recognize their emotions. An alternative to a journal is a creative outlet, such as music, art, dance, or other avenues that allow a person to express themselves.

2. Keeping in touch with friends. Sometimes, children of a parent who struggles with addiction may avoid making too many friends because they are embarrassed or concerned that other people will recognize that their parent has a problem. However, friends are vital to supporting a young person and also allowing them to grow up and develop.

3. Finding activities to enjoy. A young person participating in activities like sports, extracurricular clubs, or volunteer work can all provide a safe and supportive outlet outside of their parents' substance abuse.

Trusted Adult

If a young person has a parent who struggles with addiction, there are often resources in their communities to help. They should begin by talking to a trusted adult. Examples can include a teacher, pediatrician, coach, guidance counselor, or clergy member. A trusted adult can help a young person find who they should speak with that can help not only themselves but can potentially help their parent too.

Support Groups

There are support groups specifically designed for young people who have a parent who struggles with addiction. An example is Alateen, a division of Alcoholics Anonymous. Through the Alateen website, young people can find local meetings or online support groups.

National Suicide Prevention Lifeline

If a child or parent struggles with suicidal thoughts, another vital support line to know is the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline. The number is 1-800-273-TALK (8255) and is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, to help people who are struggling with suicidal thoughts.

Treatment for Substance Use Disorder

Treatment programs exist specifically for parents who struggle with substance abuse who may not be able to leave their homes on a full-time basis to seek care. These programs may include going to a substance abuse treatment center for the equivalent amount of time as a part-time or full-time job. These programs can be vital in helping a parent receive necessary therapy and support to recover.

Rehabilitation may involve taking medications to avoid using prescription opioids or alcohol. Parents may also be able to receive social work help, such as help identifying how to find a job, pay for bills, and find safe housing after rehabilitation.

Following addiction treatment, a parent must participate in some form of an addiction aftercare program. These programs (such as Alcoholics Anonymous or SMART Recovery) help a person continually engage in their sobriety. Through these programs, many people find parents just like them who have struggled but are committed to overcoming their problems for their children and themselves.

Resources

1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9881979

2. https://epdf.pub/handbook-of-forensic-drug-analysis.html

3. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/monitoring-future-survey-high-school-youth-trends

4. https://www.aap.org/en-us/Documents/substance_use_screening_implementation.pdf

5. https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/principles-adolescent-substance-use-disorder-treatment-research-based-guide/frequently-asked-questions/why-do-adolescents-take-drugs

6. https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=how-to-spot-drug-use-in-kids-1-2409

7. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/report_3223/ShortReport-3223.html

8. https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/2/e20161575

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Drug Effects on Children at All Stages of Development - Top Rehabs

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Drugs can affect children at all stages of development. A child can be affected before they are born, right after they are born, as young children, and as teenagers. Children can also be affected by parental drug use. This guide will discuss the impacts of drugs at each of these stages of development and how to get children the treatment they need.

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Symptoms of this kind of traumatic stress (#2 Student Drug and Alcohol Awareness)

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Symptoms of this kind of traumatic stress (#2 Student Drug and Alcohol Awareness)

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'This presentation covers many different reasons why students may use drugs or alcohol. It outlines some of the teacher responsibilities in terms of their student becoming addicted and using drugs or alcohol in the classroom. Some of the drugs covered in the presentation include heroin, cocaine, marijuana, meth, Adderall, mushrooms, and more.  This video is part of a playlist by teachings in education and meant to help both teachers with instruction and students with learning.'
(extracted from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HxXgVbYXVEs on August 3, 2022)

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Response strategies to this type of traumatic stress (#1 Responding to Students With Addiction)

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Response strategies to this type of traumatic stress (#1 Responding to Students With Addiction)

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'Young people who repeatedly get caught using alcohol and drugs are often labeled as “troubled,” “bad influences,” or “kids who are making bad choices.” Maybe an adult in the picture recognizes that a student might have a problem, but it can be difficult for that adult to understand why the student doesn’t seem to want to get better. As educators, we have a job to do—and not many options for helping students like these without also having to punish them. How can we better support students who might be struggling with alcoholism and addiction?'
(extracted from https://www.edutopia.org/article/responding-students-addiction on August 3, 2022)

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Supporting students with drug and alcohol dependency isn't easy-but some strategies are more helpful than others.

Young people who repeatedly get caught using alcohol and drugs are often labeled as "troubled," "bad influences," or "kids who are making bad choices." Maybe an adult in the picture recognizes that a student might have a problem, but it can be difficult for that adult to understand why the student doesn't seem to want to get better.

As educators, we have a job to do-and not many options for helping students like these without also having to punish them. How can we better support students who might be struggling with alcoholism and addiction?

What Is Addiction?

Yes, each individual makes that first choice to pick up a drink or drug. But numerous studies suggest that up to 50 percent of a person's risk of becoming addicted can be attributed to genetic factors. For one teen, taking a drink is fun, relaxing, and enjoyable in moderation. For another, a drink is the missing link: It makes him feel more like himself, like he belongs-so the more, the better.

Although people abuse drugs for a variety of reasons, most experts agree that the persistent abuse of drugs or alcohol despite adverse consequences can be a primary disease. That is, addiction isn't always caused by something else, and you don't have to have a co-occurring disorder, like depression or post-traumatic stress disorder, to be afflicted. But even those who believe addiction is a disease often look at a person abusing drugs or alcohol and think: "You need to get this under control. Don't you know you're hurting yourself?"

For any caring educator, watching a young person destroy his or her future with drugs or alcohol is a problem. But for any addict-adolescent or otherwise-drugs and alcohol are a solution: to anxiety, depression, unresolved trauma, social angst, or any number of conditions that make daily life intolerable.

Since adolescents experience these feelings intensely, it's no wonder they are willing to sacrifice so much just to feel OK inside. That is: Using is not a choice when the alternative is not getting your deepest emotional needs met.

When and Why Consequences Don't Work

We know addicts are not deterred by consequences. Yet what do we do when a kid gets caught drunk or high at school again and again? We escalate the consequences. For a non-addict who gets caught vaping in the bathroom, a consequence will work.

But educators should recognize that a student who doesn't stop using despite getting in serious trouble, upsetting their parents, and disappointing their teachers has likely reached a point at which the choice to use is no longer really a choice.

How Consequences Can Help

It's disheartening when the only motivation a young person has to stop abusing drugs or alcohol is to stay out of trouble and keep adults off his back. A young person may abstain-or try to-for a brief time in order to avoid consequences or to please someone he cares about. But if the choice to stay clean isn't truly his own, it's more likely than not that he will relapse.

In these situations, however, we have a real opportunity to get out of the way and let substances become the user's problem, not ours. This means letting those consequences speak for themselves, without adding our two cents about "bad choices," how the student is hurting himself, or the like.

When administered fairly and kindly, without shame or judgement, consequences can keep an adolescent focused on her own behavior-and help her move closer to asking, "Is this really what I want my life to look like?"

The Road to Recovery

I have a friend who was taken to his first recovery meeting by the dean of students at his high school. He did not get sober for many years, but that act of kindness from a man who went out of his way to do something he absolutely did not need to do planted a seed that later flowered. Today, my friend is over 50 years old-and over 15 years sober.

We would never say to someone with a deadly disease, "It's on you to get better-stop making so many bad choices." Young adults can-and do-recover from addiction. But the hard truth is that for most teenage substance abusers, adolescence is just the beginning of a long, painful journey. As counterintuitive as it may seem, we need to show these students that we are not invested in whether they stop using-but we are 100 percent invested in them.

This doesn't mean we shouldn't express our fears or concerns. It only means that putting pressure-even positive pressure-on addicts to change does not help in the long run. Maybe we ask them about their using. Or maybe we just ask them about their weekend. We give consequences for their behavior, but we don't take that behavior personally. We can let them know recovery is possible and that we are there to help. As a result, they may open up to us more, and find healing just a little bit sooner.

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Supporting students with drug and alcohol dependency isn't easy-but some strategies are more helpful than others. Young people who repeatedly get caught using alcohol and drugs are often labeled as "troubled," "bad influences," or "kids who are making bad choices."

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Response strategies to this type of traumatic stress (#2 Drug use prevention - school programming and protective factors)

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Response strategies to this type of traumatic stress (#2 Drug use prevention - school programming and protective factors)

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There are multiple response strategies for dealing with schoolchildren and drug abuse. These depend on the context and severity of a case, together with what resources are available to either prevent or rehabilitate drug abuse. This Khan Academy video covers both social and in-home practices, the sum of which aim to eliminate the scourge of drug abuse within home and educational environments.
(extracted from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LunoLU3XFKc on August 3, 2022)

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Drug use prevention - school programming and protective factors | NCLEX-RN | Khan Academy

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New Intervention Procedure for Improving Classroom Behavior of Neglected Children

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New Intervention Procedure for Improving Classroom Behavior of Neglected Children

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Pino, M. J., Herruzo, J., & Herruzo, C. (2019). A New Intervention Procedure for Improving Classroom Behavior of Neglected Children: Say Do Say Correspondence Training. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15), 2688. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152688

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Abstract

Although neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment, a review of the literature since 1980 reveals a lack of controlled child neglect intervention programs. The aim of this study is to assess a new intervention program to improve the classroom behavior of children exposed to neglect only, by reducing disruptive conduct and promoting adaptive conduct. Two matched groups were selected with children of the same ages, sex, and social class (cultural and economic level) and with mothers of similar ages. The experimental group comprised of five children suffering from neglect and no other type of maltreatment. The control group had five children not abused or neglected. All the children were in the same class at school. The percentage of time per session that each child spent engaged in disruptive behavior was measured (baseline) and was found significantly higher among neglected children. Say-Do-Say Correspondence Training was applied with the neglected children and a rapid, significant reduction in their disruptive behavior was observed (and statistically confirmed), bringing such behavior down to the level of the control (i.e., non-neglected) children. These results were maintained when the intervention was halted. We concluded that the adaptive and classroom behavior of neglected children can be improved with this non-intrusive intervention.

Keywords: neglect, intervention, say-do-say correspondence training

1. Introduction

Child neglect is a highly prevalent form of child maltreatment and has been repeatedly identified in many studies [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. It is defined as the failure of a parent or another person with responsibility for a child to provide the food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or supervision required to ensure that the child's health, safety, and well-being are not harmed [ 4, 6]. It is estimated, for example, that approximately 8 out of 1000 children in the USA and approximately 6 out of 10,000 children in Spain are neglected. However, figures vary considerably depending on the region, the source of information, the age range considered, and the definition and instruments used [ 3, 8]. Even so, despite its high prevalence, neglect has received relatively little attention [ 3, 7, 8, 9, 10].

Despite the difficulty of studying pure typologies, neglect has been associated with negative social, behavioral, and cognitive consequences [ 11, 12, 13, 14]. During childhood, slow development problems have been reported, with most behavioral areas being affected (e.g., [ 15]). Issues reported include attention deficit and cognitive problems, difficulties with communication and expressive skills, lower academic achievement, altered emotional behavior, fewer social skills like empathy and interpersonal relationships, and more difficulties in social interaction, with distorted patterns of interaction with carers and peers [ 16, 17]. All this can alter children's brain development and physiology, impact learning and behavior, and increase their risk of poor physical and mental health [ 18, 19].

According to numerous studies, children who grow up in neglectful or abusive homes suffer from impairments to their basic trust, self-esteem, and ability to form and maintain relationships, and to their affective development (see reference [ 20]). Later, as adults, they are also prone to serious personality disorders and other psychopathologies [ 21]. Their academic performance tends to be poor and their cognitive development delayed. They run a higher risk of severe behavior problems, from non-compliance and temper tantrums through delinquency, violence, and other forms of anti-social behavior [ 17, 22, 23, 24, 25]. In contrast to physically abused children, neglected children have more serious cognitive deficits and socialization problems, and appear to display more internalizing behavior patterns as opposed to externalizing patterns [ 12, 26, 27, 28].

Neglected children have been found by both parents and teachers to display more internalizing behavior problems than other children [ 29, 30]. Kotch et al. [ 31] found that children who have been abused or neglected are at high risk of displaying externalizing behavior problems, and this may later snowball into aggressive and criminal behavior [ 32], especially if it occurs before the age of five [ 31]. The severity of physical neglect, particularly during the preschool period, has been associated with internalizing symptomatology and withdrawn behavior [ 33]. Woodruff and Lee [ 34] found that in neglected children with internalizing behavior problems, those problems tended to grow worse. As Oh and Song [ 12] recently found, childhood abuse and neglect have a significant, direct negative effect on school adjustment, the impact of neglect being bigger than that of abuse.

As Lemkin, Kistin, Cabral, Aschengrau, and Bair-Merritt [ 23] pointed out, supporting educational success provides a great opportunity to help maltreated young people make positive progress since educational achievement and health are positively correlated. This last aspect emphasizes the importance of intervening as soon as possible to prevent behavior problems from developing or worsening. As some reviews of the literature since 1976 [ 2, 3, 35] indicate, however, there is a considerable lack of controlled child neglect intervention programs, including programs focusing on victims of childhood neglect and (or) their caregivers. The conclusion is that the effectiveness of treatment for children exposed to neglect only (without the co-occurrence of abuse, as is often the case in marginal areas, where caregivers lack the skills to effectively care for their children and, as a result, neglect them but do not physically abuse them) cannot be determined from the existing literature.

Another key challenge for research in the area of child neglect is the obtention of samples in which exposure to neglect and exposure to abuse do not overlap [ 2, 3, 36].

The main results obtained have come from play behavior. Thus, Fantuzzo et al. [ 37] used play therapy, which involved pairing a resilient peer with a target child for 15 play sessions, supervised by an adult assistant, to improve the withdrawn child's social interaction and to increase positive, interactive peer play. Two months after the treatment, improvements were observed in social interaction among the children treated, with fewer internalizing and externalizing behavior problems.

Udwin's [ 38] intervention consisted of group training sessions in imaginative play, conducted over five weeks. Preschool children in the experimental group were found to have improved in terms of imagination, cooperation, and interaction with peers, and their aggressive play had decreased in comparison with the control subjects. Play therapy programs have, therefore, had positive results and it is important to replicate them in order to determine which specific aspects of such programs might help children exposed to neglect, although this falls outside the scope of this work.

Although improvements have been demonstrated in play behaviors, no intervention has yet been conducted to improve classroom behaviors [ 39]. It has been suggested in the literature [ 23, 30, 31, 32, 33] that supporting educational success provides a great opportunity to help maltreated young people make positive progress and halt the usually worsening evolution of these children, thus, the aim of this study is to assess a new intervention program to improve the classroom behavior of children exposed to neglect only, reducing disruptive conduct and promoting adaptive conduct. There is one behavioral modification procedure that has been demonstrably efficient in improving classroom behavior among delayed and non-delayed children and reducing disruptive behaviors in educational settings. This procedure is known as correspondence (saying-doing) training [ 40]. It is a strategy used in applied research to increase self-management skills in young children. Its aim is to teach a child to do what he or she has said they will do. This procedure, first used by Risley and Hart [ 41], has been employed both to promote adaptive behaviors and reduce disruptive behaviors [ 42], addressing such issues as on-task behavior [ 43, 44, 45], social behaviors [ 46, 47, 48], compliance [ 49, 50], self-care skills [ 51], and verbally mediated responses [ 52]. However, it has not yet been used with neglected children in an applied context.

One particular type of correspondence training procedure, known as say-do-say or say-do-report correspondence training [ 53, 54], could swiftly reduce problematic behaviors without disrupting daily classroom activities or being too intrusive. The say-do-report procedure has been seen to have the highest level of empirical support [ 36, 53, 55] of all correspondence training procedures. Herruzo, Luciano, and Pino [ 56] applied this procedure to eliminate disruptive behaviors in groups during free time activities.

In this study, a group of 10 children between the ages of 9 and 12 verbalized ("say") that they were not going to behave inappropriately (they specified the behaviors and the situation) and were then encouraged to carry out ("do") what they had verbalized. A series of questions was then formulated aimed at fostering the child's understanding of what he had said, what he had then done, and the relationship between the two (the correspondence between saying and doing). As Herruzo and Pino [ 57] demonstrated in an experimental study, neglected children did acquire the say-do correspondence repertoire for simple behaviors, but a significantly greater number of trials were required than for other more resilient peers. However, implementing this technique in the classroom with younger children could be more problematic, since individual attention is required. Specifically, the time needed to learn the correspondence repertoire (several attempts at least) could be an issue, especially for children with attention deficit disorders. As Pino and Herruzo [ 20] suggested, it might, therefore, be better to carry out specific training in this repertoire outside the classroom on a more individual basis, thus that the correspondence repertoire could be learned and generalized to other behaviors in a session lasting between 30 and 60 min. Thus, once the repertoire has been acquired and generalized at an individual level, the procedure could then be implemented by the teacher in the classroom, since it would simply be a question of generalizing the pre-acquired repertoire to new behaviors and contexts.

The aim of this study is, therefore, to improve classroom behaviors of neglected children using say-do-say correspondence training. First, the experimenter will apply the procedure outside of the classroom until the children manage to acquire and generalize the say-do correspondence to other, new, simple behaviors. Once the children have generalized the correspondence repertoire, it can then be applied in the classroom by the teacher with behaviors that would lead to an improvement in the child's adjustment and school performance (reducing disruptive behaviors and improving adaptive behaviors). It is also hoped that the teacher him/herself will apply this procedure in the classroom, thus making its application more economical and less intrusive. The main hypothesis is that if neglected children learn say-do correspondence with a simple behavior outside of the classroom and generalize it to other, new, simple behaviors when the teacher applies the correspondence training in the classroom, a more rapid improvement will be observed in the children's behavior, making the intervention less intrusive. Changes in classroom behavior are only expected to occur in those children who received the intervention, not in the control group of peers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

In the second year of kindergarten, 10 of the 18 children (aged between 4 and 5; average = 4 years 4 months) at a school in a city in Andalusia (Spain) took part in the study. Of the intervention group, 5 of them suffered from the neglect subtype of maltreatment and all 5 were included in the study. The kindergarten was in a poor neighborhood of the city and Social Services were able to provide a lot of information about all the pupils at the school. Neglect was diagnosed using the Abuse Indicators designed by Arruabarrena, De Paúl, and Torres [ 58] (see Appendix A) and a great deal of data recorded during very frequent Social Services visits to monitor the children's families. The other 5 children (the control group) were recruited from the other 13 children in the class group, who had not been neglected or exposed to any other form of maltreatment. These 5 were randomly selected from the 13 to make up a group analogous to the intervention group in terms of age, sex, social class (cultural and economic level), and their mother's age. Their level of development was measured using the Inventory for Client and Agency Planning, ICAP [ 59]. The development of the 5 subjects suffering from neglect was on average 12 months behind that expected level for their age, whereas for the 5 subjects in the control group it was 7 months ahead of that expected for their age. All information was provided by local social workers, the children's teachers, and the authors' own assessment. The control group made up of non-neglected children was included in the study in order to improve internal validity and to give the researchers a point of reference for normal behavior inside the classroom in this specific context.

All subjects' parents/caregivers gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Andalusian Govern Research Group HUM775.

2.2. Measurements, Settings, and Instruments

The problematic behaviors displayed in the classroom by the target children were as follows:

Standing up: Being out of their chair when an activity required them to be seated.

Absent: Talking to other children or looking in a different direction from the focus of attention of the activity that was being carried out. Absence was also taken to mean when the child was absorbed by an individual activity (for example looking at or playing with a small toy they had in their pocket or turning around in their chair and playing with school material behind them).

Disruptive: Fighting with, shouting at, or disturbing other pupils.

All 3 types of behavior were observed during 3 activities carried out in the kindergarten classroom in the morning for 2 hours (the duration of each session) before playtime. The first activity was Assembly, in which dialogue was conducted between the teacher and the children, on various topics. A Psychomotor task was then carried out, in which the teacher gave instructions that the children had to follow. Finally, there was a Worksheet activity (taken from a Kindergarten textbook).

The intervention was carried out in different rooms at the aforementioned kindergarten: The children's usual classroom, where the teacher implemented the intervention regarding inappropriate behavior; and outside the classroom, in an office area, and some adjacent rooms that were familiar to the children.

In this study, a recording device was also used to record the interactions in the office, and paper to write down these entries. Different toys, surprise envelopes, and sweets were used as reinforcers.

2.3. Design

The study was divided into 3 stages, sequenced as follows. (I) Baseline study of disruptive behaviors in the classroom. (II) Intervention outside the classroom: S-D-S Correspondence Training outside the classroom with a simple behavior (B1: Touching an abstract picture on a panel) and generalization to another two behaviors (B2: Putting something inside a box, and B3: Picking an object up from the floor). (III) Intervention inside the classroom: Say-Do-Say (S-D-S) correspondence training for several behaviors carried out by the teacher and partial withdrawal from the intervention.

The intervention inside the classroom was assessed using a single case experimental design for 10 participants (divided into 2 groups) with 3 stages A (I) B1 (II) B2 (III) serving as a group design with a control group and pre-test or baseline measurements and post-test or intervention measurements. The intervention was carried out with the experimental (intervention) group (5 children suffering from neglect). The control group was made up of 5 non-neglected children similar to the first group in terms of age, sex, social class, and their mothers' ages.

The dependent variable was the percentage of time each child spent behaving inappropriately, engaging in any of the 3 inappropriate behaviors defined previously (standing up, being absent during the task, and being disruptive) per session.

Intervention outside the classroom to acquire and generalize the say-do correspondence repertoire constituted an experiment in itself and followed the stages described in Herruzo and Pino [ 57]. For the sake of concision, therefore, please see the open access references listed at the end of this article. This intervention took place between sessions 10 (the last baseline session) and 11 (the first session of intervention inside the classroom). This enabled the subjects to acquire the say-do correspondence for Behavior B1 (touching a picture in a panel) and generalize it to the two new behaviors (B2: Putting something inside a box, and B3: Picking an object up from the floor).

2.4. Procedure

2.4.1. Baseline Disruptive Behaviors in the Classroom

For 10 sessions, 3 trained observers recorded the occurrence of the behaviors "Standing up", "Being Absent", and "Being Disruptive", described in the section on behaviors. The recording method used was systematic sampling at 25 s intervals. In other words, every 25 s, a mobile device indicated that it was the time for observation and recording, which was done for the next 5 seconds. During these 5 seconds, the observers checked off what the children were doing in the relevant box (standing up, disruptive, absent). The 3 observers acted as follows: Observer 1 recorded the experimental group children every day, Observer 2 recorded the control group children every day; and Observer 3 recorded both groups alternately: One day the experimental group and the following day the control group. In the end, the percentage of time spent engaged in each behavior was estimated based on the number of intervals in which the occurrence of these behaviors had been recorded. For 2 days after the 10 pre-test sessions, no observational measurements were recorded inside the classroom and the children from the experimental group were taken out of class one by one to receive "intervention outside the classroom".

2.4.2. Intervention outside the Classroom (Conducted by the Authors)

This intervention was only conducted with the children from the experimental group. As has been described in the Design section, S-D-S Correspondence training was applied outside the classroom in spaces that were familiar to the children. The procedure was very like that applied inside the classroom, which will be described in the next section, but here it was conducted individually. It was applied in short sessions of 10 to 15 minutes and continued until each child achieved the correspondence repertoire in B1 and generalized it to B2 and B3. These sessions took place over 2 days.

2.4.3. Intervention inside the Classroom (Conducted by the Teacher)Say-Do-Say Correspondence Training for Several Behaviors, Conducted by the Teacher, and Partial Withdrawal from the Intervention

One day before the intervention began, the teacher was shown the procedure and several trial runs were carried out (as roleplays). Since the session was divided into the 3 activities indicated above (assembly, psychomotor functions, and worksheet activity), the S-D correspondence interactions were programmed with the children in relation to these actions. The psychomotor tasks usually took place during the assembly, when 4 predefined interactions were set: Assembly (part one), psychomotor tasks, Assembly (part two), and worksheet activity. Thus, when the assembly was about to start, the teacher got the 5 experimental children into a little group, and the following verbal interaction took place (see Table 1 ).

These questions were then repeated with the other children. From the 3rd day on (session 13), however, the question was asked to one of the children, and the others were then immediately asked "And what about you?", thus the verbal interaction with the children was quicker. When this verbal interaction (the saying period) was finished, the teacher began the assembly, or doing period. When the first part of the assembly was over, and she considered it an opportune moment to begin a psychomotor activity, she went over to the 5 experimental children (or called them together if they were not already sitting together) and applied the consequences for correspondence or lack thereof (see Table 1 above).

If one of the children had not stood up and had followed the teacher's instructions, but had fought, then the teacher would socially reinforce the tasks the child had done correctly but would tell him that she could not give him the token.

She then asked the children to put the tokens in their uniform pocket and began to ask them questions (saying) relating to the next activity (the psychomotor function).

The procedure followed was similar to the other two situations (psychomotor function and worksheet activity). At the end of the morning, the children swapped their tokens for surprise envelopes the teacher had prepared beforehand. The intervention procedure was withdrawn partially from session 14 onwards. During this session, the teacher administered social consequences (approval, verbal feedback), but did not give the children tokens for two of the four activities that took place. The children were told that the teacher could not give them the tokens at that time, but that she would later on. In sessions 15 and 17, the surprise envelope element was also suppressed (the teacher told the children she had forgotten them). The consequences were not withdrawn totally because they were not disruptive, and neither was it necessary to do so; there are several references in the literature that support the use of these procedures with only intermittent use of consequences [ 56, 60].

The interobservers' reliability was calculated at 50% of the intervention sessions outside and inside the classroom using the formula [(Number of agreements/Number of agreements + disagreements) × 100]. For intervention outside the classroom, it was 100% for all 3 behaviors (B1, B2, and B3). For intervention inside the classroom conducted by the teacher, reliability was over 85% in all sessions, with an average of 91%.

2.5. Data-Analysis

To evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention, the average percentage of time per session each child spent behaving inappropriately (standing up + being absent from the task + being disruptive) by phase (baseline, intervention) was calculated. The non-parametric Wilcoxon test was then computed for related samples, comparing the baseline and intervention stages within each group. The non-parametric Mann-Whitney U Test for independent samples was calculated to compare the control group with the experimental groups during each stage.

3. Results

The left side of the graph in Figure 1 shows the average percentages of time per session that the children in the control and the experimental groups spent behaving inappropriately (standing up + being absent from the task + being disruptive) during the pre-test or baseline period. These percentages varied: In the experimental group, between 23.75% and 46% of the total time the activity lasted was spent behaving inappropriately, whereas in the control group (non-neglected children) it was between 5% and 12%.

Intervention outside the classroom, conducted by the authors, took place between sessions 10 and 11 with the five neglected children in the experimental group. It consisted of training them in the S-D-S correspondence using the same procedure as that used by Herruzo and Pino [ 57]. The five children acquired the say-do correspondence for the trained behavior (B1) and then generalized it to the two new behaviors (B2 and B3). The process was completed with an average of 16.6 trials. The right part of Table 2 shows the results for each child.

Table 2

SUBJECTS

Intervention Inside the Classroom

Intervention Outside the Classroom

Average Percentages of Time Spent Behaving Inappropriately

Number of Correct/Incorrect Trials of Say-Do Correspondence

Number of Trials to Reach the Criterion of Say-Do Correspondence

(Baseline)

(Intervention)

Baseline

Intervention S-D-S

NEGLECT GROUP

S1

39.6

9

0/9

5/8

13

CONTROL GROUP

S6

5.2

4.5

-

Once the intervention outside the classroom was finished, intervention inside the classroom began with the experimental group, this time conducted by the teacher herself. This can be seen on the right of the graph in Figure 1 , from session 11 onwards. The group was trained in the S-D-S correspondence: The children verbalized that they were not going to fight or stand up and that they were going to do whatever the teacher said, and they were encouraged when they kept their word, making them aware of the relationship between saying and doing. A drastic reduction was observed in the percentage of time spent behaving inappropriately, which fell to between 7.14% and 2.8%, whereas the children from the control group, where no intervention was carried out, maintained the levels shown in the pre-test or baseline stage.

The left part of Table 2 shows the mean amounts of time per session each child spent behaving inappropriately (standing up + being absent from the task + being disruptive) in the different stages (baseline, intervention).

The non-parametric Wilcoxon test on related samples revealed significant differences in the percentage of time spent behaving inappropriately (the dependent variable) between the baseline and the intervention stages ( p = 0.043) within the intervention group, whereas none were found for the control group ( p = 0.08). There were significant differences between the control group and the neglected group in the dependent variable during the baseline stage (Mann-Whitney U p = 0.008), but not during the intervention (Mann-Whitney U p = 0.151).

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to improve classroom behaviors of neglected children using say-do-say correspondence training, firstly to learn say-do correspondence with a simple behavior outside of the classroom and generalize it to other, new, simple behaviors, and then with the teacher applying the correspondence training in the classroom to reduce out-of-task behaviors and improve in-task behaviors. After the intervention, a group of five neglected children who had originally spent a third of the time behaving inappropriately had this average percentage reduced to 4.5%, a normal level, equivalent to the percentage (7.6%) shown by the children in the control group (non-neglected children with whom no intervention was carried out).

The results of this study illustrate a promising new intervention procedure for children suffering from neglect only. They demonstrate the feasibility of the intervention and provided preliminary support for its potential benefits in reducing problematic classroom behaviors. They show that neglected children could improve their behavior in the classroom using say-do-say correspondence training. The study also confirms that in spite of the significantly delayed development these children displayed (associated with their situation of neglect), they can be treated and their behavior at school improved, with no need for any other change agent except their teacher. This means the intervention technique used can be classed as simple and easy to use. Above all, it is applicable over a short period of time and has very quick results. This is of great importance since techniques like this provide kindergarten teachers with an excellent tool to improve both the behavior of these children and their prognosis and because one of the major concerns for teachers is classroom management [ 23, 38, 60]. Nevertheless, as has been stated, this study constitutes only preliminary support. It must not be forgotten that it has several limitations (i.e., a very small sample size, non-randomization, generalizability), and thus further study, with rigorous research design such as randomized controlled trials to test the effectiveness of the intervention, is needed before this intervention can be recommended for use as an instrument to alleviate the negative effects of abuse.

On the other hand, the results obtained with the individual intervention used in this study replicate those obtained by Pino & Herruzo [ 57] and Ruiz et al. [ 49] in an applied context; this intervention successfully teaches neglected children self-control by training them in S-D-S correspondence, showing that this simple tool can be adapted in order to teach self-control to children who lack a repertoire in many areas. It is important to bear in mind that behaviors B1, B2, and B3, as has been demonstrated by Luciano et al. [ 54] and Herruzo and Pino [ 57], involved a self-control repertoire, since the subject has several toys in front of him and does not play with them, but does what he said he was going to; in other words, the child behaves in accordance with delayed consequences as opposed to other, more immediate ones. He manages to control his impulses.

The application of this procedure in groups, following individual intervention, achieved clearly visible results from the first session onwards, making it a useful and relatively unintrusive technique. The procedure is improved by a short intervention by the psychologist outside the classroom, preparing the child thus that the teacher can then modify his/her behavior more fundamentally. This obviates the tedious, costly stage of generalizing clinical interventions to the classroom. The authors believe that this technique is a promising instrument, suitable for children exposed to neglect and other types of maltreatment. The intervention can be used in schools and thus to alleviate the effects of abuse without the child having to be institutionalized. The teacher can carry on using the procedure to achieve other objectives in the classroom, and it could undoubtedly be adapted to specific objectives within a child's own home, with or without parental collaboration, using the family educator as co-therapist. However, this is clearly beyond the scope of this study and will certainly be the subject of future research.

Another advantage of this intervention is the fact that the teacher's perception of the pupils changed. As Little and Akin-Little [ 61] say, it is very important for classroom management procedures to improve teacher behavior, lowering teacher stress and enhancing student outcomes. The teacher spontaneously expressed a high level of satisfaction with the intervention because "it did not involve a lot of work and the children had improved a great deal". She particularly highlighted subject S3, who went from being 'absent' for most of the time to being attentive all the time and participating more in activities. The child also began to complete the worksheets at the appropriate time, instead of standing up.

5. Conclusions

This article presents a promising new intervention procedure for reducing disruptive behaviors of neglected children in educational settings. Neglect is the most common, and the least researched type of maltreatment, and research into intervention techniques is particularly necessary. Since this technique can be easily implemented by teachers, it could be useful to professionals and paraprofessionals working with neglected children as a means of improving classroom behavior, helping children adapt better to school and, probably, also improving their future social adjustment. Nevertheless, this study provides preliminary support for the potential benefits of the intervention in reducing problematic classroom behaviors. Further study is needed before recommending that this intervention can be recommended for use as an instrument to alleviate the negative effects of abuse.

Appendix A

Table A1

Age

Subject

Neglect Indices

4

S1

1,2,3,4,5,7

4

S2

1,2,5

4

S3

1,2,3,4,5,7

4

S4

2,3,4,5,6,7,8

4

S5

1,2,3,5,6,7

Indices:

1. Feeding: Adequate feeding has not been given to him or her. Hungry.

2. Clothing: The clothes are inadequate for the weather, badly kept from the cold.

3. Hygiene: Dirty all the time. Grimy. Insufficient hygiene.

4. Health care: Physical diseases without medical attention (e.g., infected injury or without care) or lack of control of usual medical needs.

5. Supervision: The child is frequently alone for a long time (or with another child) without adult surveillance.

6. Supervision: Accidents at home are usual due to the parent or care-taker neglect.

7. Safety and hygiene at home: Hygienic and/or physical condition of the home are dangerous to the child.

8. Educational area: Repeated and unjustified absence from school.

Author Contributions

Writing-review and editing, M.J.P., J.H., and C.H.

Funding

This research received no external funding

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Articles from International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

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A New Intervention Procedure for Improving Classroom Behavior of Neglected Children: Say Do Say Correspondence Training

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Although neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment, a review of the literature since 1980 reveals a lack of controlled child neglect intervention programs. The aim of this study is to assess a new intervention program to improve the classroom ...

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Five Ways to Support Students Affected by Trauma

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Five Ways to Support Students Affected by Trauma

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WATERS, L. E. A. (2018, August 13). Five Ways to Support Students Affected by Trauma. Greater Good. Retrieved July 31, 2022, from https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/five_ways_to_support_students_affected_by_trauma

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For some students, school is not just a place of learning and growth but also a refuge from abuse.

Data suggest that, on average, every classroom has at least one student affected by trauma. According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network, close to 40 percent of students in the U.S. have been exposed to some form of traumatic stressor in their lives, with sexual assault, physical assault, and witnessing domestic violence being the three most prevalent.

These types of stressors, known as complex trauma, have the added wound of being perpetrated by a person with whom the child or teen has an ongoing relationship. The very people who are supposed to support and protect are those who wound and abuse. This leads to continuing states of grief, loss, abandonment, and neglect as well as persistent anxiety, fear, and depression-all at a time when the brain is in crucial stages of development.

For some young people, school is the only place in their lives where they know they are safe and can form trusted, enduring relationships. It is, therefore, a cruel irony that many students who are affected by trauma also have trouble engaging at school. They may attend school with the best of intentions, hoping to form friendships, feel connected to their teachers, and succeed at the day's tasks. Yet they can find themselves defiant, demanding, and disengaged -unable to learn and confused about why they can't relate and bond with others.

What do the latest scientific findings from the fields of traumatology, neuroscience, and positive education tell us about how to best help students who are affected by trauma? Below, we highlight some of the new practices that teachers can use to not only help students heal but also help them grow.

Healing and repair

The new field of "trauma-informed learning" has made great strides in helping teachers to better understand the developmental, emotional, and social challenges that students who are impacted by trauma face at school. While teachers are not mental health professionals, trauma-informed learning trains teachers in therapeutic approaches that can be woven into the classroom to redress the delayed development, underdeveloped neural pathways, and over-regulated nervous systems that students experience as a result of trauma.

For example, teachers can directly teach students about their body's own stress activation response and help them find techniques to regulate their heart rate, body temperature, and blood pressure. Teaching through rhythm-for example, learning about math to the beat of a drum, reading an English text while riding an exercise bike, or having a disciplinary conversation while walking around the school yard together-is now an accepted classroom technique that assists trauma-affected students to regulate their nervous system through rhythmic movement.

Feeling calmer in class has the knock-on effects of helping students get along better with others, think more clearly, and stay on task. These approaches nurture students' stamina and persistence, allowing them to better deal with frustration, which benefits their social behavior in class and their capacity to take on greater academic challenges. This is indeed a hopeful approach.

Growth and strength

Trauma-informed education has helped teachers to evolve from the question of "What is wrong with this student?" to "What has this student been through?" In the field of positive psychology, we add a further question: "What does this student need to reach their potential?" This allows teachers to extend the focus from what is wrong, to what is needed, to what is possible. Building the mental health and academic capacities of students affected by trauma requires more than repairing psychological disorder and developmental delays-it requires the dual mantra of healing and growth. Of repairing and rising up.

Research by Corey Keyes shows us that healing and growth can be simultaneous processes. We don't always need to wait until something is fixed before we work on building our strengths. Indeed, growing the psychological strengths of a student affected by trauma can be a core part of healing their psychological struggles.

Working with students who are affected by trauma requires schools to assist in providing individual counseling services, safety and crisis planning, behavior plans, self-care plans to address triggers, and case management. Most of these services are not provided by the classroom teacher, yet the teacher is the person who spends the most time with trauma-affected students. A key way in which positive psychology adds to the trauma-informed strategies above is by empowering teachers in the classroom to help their students on a daily basis.

Here are five teaching techniques that you can use in your class, knowing that these approaches also assist your mainstream students.

1. Positive relationships. Trauma-affected students have more relationship challenges to navigate than most. These students can be dealing with harmful relationships at home and then come to school to manage relationships not only with their teachers but also with social workers, police officers, and clinicians-all while living out their daily lives.

It is critical that we help these students feel safe and trusting where possible, so they learn to develop social intelligence and seek out positive bonds with others. Teachers may be the only people who help these students learn what a healthy, supportive relationship feels like. Building relational trust involves simple teaching practices such as smiling, sharing parts of your life with your students, getting to know your students as individuals, and using yourself as a role model of a reliable and regulated adult.

2. Positive physical space. The physical layout and look of your classroom can be used to build positive emotions. Putting up positive visuals and quotes can inspire creative thinking and teamwork in your students. Increased natural light or soft lighting can enhance an open, warm, and relaxing environment.

Consider how the furniture and seating is arranged in your class. Is it helping students to feel safe and connected? You could also bring plants into the room or create a mindfulness corner, a dedicated space that students can visit when they need to regulate their stress response. The corner can include a bean bag, mindful coloring books, squeeze toys, noise-cancelling headphones, and more.

3. Positive priming. Following the research of Barbara Frederickson, you can use simple priming techniques to foster positive emotions such as contentment, pride, awe, and wonder in class.

Brain breaks are one helpful technique. The teachers who work with us have found that brain breaks are most effective when students reflect on the type of energy they need at that moment for learning: Escalating brain breaks build positive energy and emotions such as joy, happiness, and wonder (e.g., clapping games, thumb wars, laughter yoga, racing around the desk), while de-escalating brain breaks build calm emotions such as contentment and serenity, which help a student to feel safe and focused (e.g., silently tracing the movements of a partner, triangle breathing, playing music or repeating mantras, and body movements such as shoulder shrugging or pumping your toes inside your shoes).

You can also use positive primers to boost positive emotion when students first enter the classroom (such as by greeting them with the healthy touch of a handshake or a high five), during transitions (by turning transition routines into a silent game such as "follow the leader"), or during independent work breaks (by having students deliberately savor their accomplishment and share with a peer).

According to Fredrickson's theory, helping your students build up their bank account of positive emotions over time changes their brain to help them learn more effectively, form better relationships, and become more resilient. Next time you are planning a lesson, think about how you can use positive primers throughout the learning experience.

4. Using character strengths. Teaching strengths in schools has been shown to increase achievement and well-being. All students, especially trauma-affected students, need opportunities to identify, recognize, practice, and use their character strengths, which include qualities like kindness, humor, creativity, and bravery.

Ways to help students learn about their own strengths and the strengths of others include strengths surveys (if their literacy skills allow), strengths cards, and strengths spotting exercises-like identifying strengths in their heroes or playing a secret agent game where they are invited to "spy" on a fellow student to identify the strengths of that student. To teach about particular strengths, you could focus on stories in English and Humanities curriculums where characters or historical figures displayed those strengths. Strengths can also be developed through performing arts, sports, and other co-curricula.

5. Building resilience. Sadly, you cannot always impact the life of a student outside of school, but you can teach resilience strategies that help a student affected by trauma to gain a better understanding of their situation and to counteract the negative messages of shame they often internalize.

Students can practice resilience skills through role plays that help them to act out skills such as setting boundaries and verbalizing their feelings, all while in the safety of a classroom. Literature, poetry, and song lyrics can help students identify examples of resilient thinking-for example, Ariana Grande's song "No Tears Left to Cry" following the London terrorist attack at her concert. Analyzing the ways in which media figures, sports heroes, and other high-profile people explain their successes and failures showcases the difference between optimism and pessimism.

Teachers can also use moments in the learning process when students feel frustration or self-doubt to coach them on how to dispute their pessimism and automatic negative thinking ( "I can't do this"; "I'm dumb") to make room for optimism and constructive thinking ( "Maybe I'm tired and I need a break"; "I solved the problem last week and I can do it again"; "It takes me a little longer than others, but I've come a long way"). Learning resilience skills can provide an internal psychological buffer for students when they are outside of school, as well as providing empowering experiences at school.

Every teacher wants to positively impact the lives of their students. For students who are affected by trauma, the teacher plays an even more vital role. The introduction of positive psychology into the classroom has huge potential to change the trajectories of the lives of many of these young people by moving beyond repair to also inspire growth.

Greater Good wants to know: Do you think this article will influence your opinions or behavior?

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Five Ways to Support Students Affected by Trauma

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Teachers can help students recognize their strengths and build resilience.

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7 Signs of Possible Trouble at Home Teachers Should Know

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7 Signs of Possible Trouble at Home Teachers Should Know

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Lewis, B. (2019, March 10). 7 Signs of Possible Trouble at Home Teachers Should Know. ThoughtCo. Retrieved July 31, 2022, from https://www.thoughtco.com/7-signs-of-trouble-at-home-child-depression-or-abuse-2081929

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As teachers, we aren't only in charge of our students' homework assignments and spelling tests. We also need to be aware of the signs of possible trouble at home. Our vigilance and responsible action help our young students be happy and healthy both at home and in the classroom.

It can feel uncomfortable to bring up touchy subjects with a student's parents. But as responsible adults in our students' lives, it is part of our duty to look out for their best interests and help them live up to their full potential.

Sleeping at School

Sleep is exceedingly important to the health and well-being of young children. Without it, they can't concentrate or perform to the best of their abilities. If you notice a student regularly catching up on sleep during school hours, consider talking to the school nurse for help in formulating a plan of action in conjunction with the parents.

Sudden Change in Behavior

Just like with adults, an abrupt change in behavior usually signals a cause for concern. As teachers, we get to know our students very well. Keep an eye out for sudden changes in behavior patterns and work quality. If a formerly responsible student completely stops bringing his or her homework, you may want to broach the subject with the student's parents. Working as a team, you can enlist their support and implement strategies to get the student back on track.

Lack of Cleanliness

If a student shows up at school in dirty clothes or with substandard personal hygiene, this can be a sign of neglect at home. Again, the school nurse may be able to support you in addressing this concern with the student's guardians. Not only is dirtiness a health issue, but it can also cause isolation and teasing from classmates if it's readily noticeable. Ultimately, this can contribute to loneliness and depression.

Visible Signs of Injury

As mandated reporters in some states, teachers can be legally required to report any suspected child abuse. There is nothing more important (and morally imperative) than saving a helpless child from harm. If you see bruises, cuts, or other signs of injury, don't hesitate to follow your state's procedures for reporting suspected abuse.

Lack of Preparedness

Observant teachers can notice the outward signs of neglect at home. These signs can come in many forms. If a student mentions not eating breakfast each day, or you notice the student doesn't have lunch (or money to buy lunch), you may need to step in as an advocate for the child. Alternatively, if a student doesn't have basic school supplies, make arrangements to provide them, if at all possible. Small children are at the mercy of adults at home. If you notice a gap in care, you may need to step in and help make it right.

Inappropriate or Inadequate Clothes

Be on the lookout for students who wear the same outfit virtually every day. Similarly, watch out for students who wear summer clothes in the winter and/or lack a proper winter coat. Worn-out or too-small shoes may be additional signs that something isn't right at home. If the parents aren't able to provide appropriate clothing, you may be able to work with a local church or charity to get the student what he or she needs.

Mentions of Neglect or Abuse

This is the most obvious and clear sign that something is wrong (or maybe even dangerous) at home. If a student mentions being home alone at night or getting hit by an adult, this is definitely something to investigate. Again, you should report these comments to a child protective services agency in a timely manner. It is not your job to determine the veracity of such statements. Rather, the relevant government agency can investigate according to ​its procedure and figure out what's really going on.

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7 Signs of Possible Trouble at Home Teachers Should Know

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As teachers, we are responsible for more than our students' learning. Learn possible signs that your student might be experiencing trouble at home.

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"Emotional or psychological child abuse is a pattern of behavior that impairs a child's emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance."

Identification of Emotional Abuse - Child Welfare Information Gateway. (n.d.). Childwelfare.Gov. https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/can/identifying/emotional-abuse/#:%7E:text=Emotional%20or%20psychological%20child%20abuse,love%2C%20support%2C%20or%20guidance.

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#1: How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children?)

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Theory/Articles relating to this type of traumatic stress (#1: How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children?)

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'Parental drug use can have lasting effects on children who are exposed to substance misuse in the home. This can take a mental toll, emotional toll, and have effects on a child’s behavior and development. Studies show that millions of children in the United States are estimated to live with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol problem.'
(extracted from https://www.addictionresource.net/substance-abuse-in-families/effects/parental-drug-use/ on August 3, 2022)

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Studies show that millions of children in the United States are estimated to live with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol problem.
For example:

alcohol abuse

prescription drug abuse

opioid addiction

illicit drug use

What research also shows is that growing up with an addicted parent can have lasting effects on children. For instance, they may affect a child physically, emotionally, mentally, and have effects on behavior into adulthood.
Learn more about how substance abuse affects families
Effects Of Parental Substance Use On Children

Drug and alcohol abuse can have a number of effects on a person, particularly in cases where it's become severe enough to be classified as a full-blown substance use disorder, or addiction.

Substance abuse can alter how a person thinks, feels, and behaves around others. These effects can vary, depending on if a person is drunk, high, or sober.

When you're a parent, the effects of substance use can have significant implications for any children in your household, particularly during the early stages of development.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use During Pregnancy

The U.S.National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) estimates that about five percent of people who are pregnant in the U.S. use one or more addictive substances during pregnancy.

Unfortunately, abusing drugs while pregnant can have a number of effects.
Depending on the type of drug and when the drug use occurs, effects could include:

fetal development

likelihood of birth defects

risk of miscarriage

risk of stillbirth

risk of neonatal withdrawal syndrome

Research suggests that drug use during pregnancy can also be associated with other physical and behavioral problems, such as difficulties with concentration, attention span, and general conduct.

Children who develop intellectual, behavioral, or physical disabilities can also see a lifelong impact, should there be a need for long-term treatment, financial assistance, or the assistance of a caregiver.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use In The Home

Drug and alcohol abuse can make for an unstable home environment. Parents who are drunk or intoxicated may forget to pay bills, bring drugs into the home, and potentially invite other dangers.
Households affected by addiction are also at higher risk of:

domestic abuse

interpersonal partner violence

financial problems

food insecurity

child neglect

Addiction can, for young children especially, be confusing. Because they are unlikely to understand what's going on, they may become scared, uncertain, and isolative.

Children may attempt to justify, make excuses for, or cover up their parent's substance use. This can be for survival purposes, to avoid detection by authorities, as well as loyalty to their parent.

Children can also learn to adapt to a parent's substance use behaviors. Eventually, they can become accustomed to a parent's substance use, identifying drug use-and its consequences-as a fixture within the home.

Effects Of Parental Drug Use On A Child's Behavior

Substance use experts and researchers have identified a number of common personality traits and behavioral tendencies among children who have a parent with a drug or alcohol addiction.

Children of addicted parents, for instance, may be more likely to lash out, become withdrawn, have problems in school, and may be more likely to engage in risky or dangerous activities.

Effects On Children's Mental Health

Children of parents with drug or alcohol use disorder are at higher risk for developing mental health disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and certain personality disorders.
Parental drug use can put children at higher risk for:

depression

anxiety

low self-esteem

low self-worth

mood swings

effects on empathy

Children may have difficulty regulating their emotions and may be more likely to turn to unsupportive coping mechanisms in order to manage feelings about their parent's drug use.

Increased Risk For Substance Abuse

Children of parents with substance use disorder are at increased risk of developing unhealthy substance use habits in adolescence and adulthood.

Easy access to drugs, as well as the familiarity of drug use as a result of their parent's behavior, are common contributors to this.
Some of the most commonly abused drugs among teens include:

alcohol

amphetamines

prescription painkillers

marijuana

Children of addicted parents can be up to two or three times more likely than other children to develop substance use disorder at some point in their lifetime.

They're also more likely to enter into relationships with others who have a substance use disorder, and marry people who have an addiction.

Effects On Relationships

The impact of parental drug use on children can extend not only to their health and behavior, but also to their own relationships with others: peers, teachers, neighbors, and even spouses.

Living with the effects and consequences of a parent's drug use in the home can affect a person's ability to emotionally connect with, trust, and open up to others.

Children of parents with a SUD are also often very loyal-sometimes to a fault. They may, for instance, prioritize meeting the needs of others, even if it means sacrificing or neglecting their own.

How Many Children Have An Addicted Parent?

In the United States, an estimated one in eight children under the age of 17 live in a household with at least one parent who has a drug or alcohol use disorder.

That's about 8.7 million children, according to survey data collected from 2011 to 2014 by the national Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).

How Can Children Heal From A Parent's Substance Use?

Recovering from the effects of a parent's drug or alcohol addiction, particularly its effects on mental and emotional health, is possible.

While children don't have control over their parent's drug use, even in adulthood, there is an opportunity for children to find healing for themselves.
Treatment and support options for children of addicted parents include:
What Type Of Treatment Is Best For Children With Addicted Parents?

Not all children of addicted parents can, or necessarily will, benefit from the same treatment approach or modality. What's best for a teen, child, or adult can depend on a number of factors.
For instance:
Children and teens of parents with an addiction will likely benefit the most from a counselor who is experienced in working with other children of addicted parents.

Adult children, too, may benefit from finding a counselor, psychologist, or social worker with specialized experience in treating trauma and substance use.

Call Today To Find Addiction Treatment

If you're ready to get help for yourself or an addicted loved one, our treatment specialists may be able to help you get started. Your happiness, and that of your family, is worth it.

Call our helpline today to learn more about addiction treatment options and how to find a drug or alcohol rehab program that's right for you.

Written by the Addiction Resource Editorial Staff

This page does not provide medical advice. See more
Article resources
Addiction Resource aims to provide only the most current, accurate information in regards to addiction and addiction treatment, which means we only reference the most credible sources available.

These include peer-reviewed journals, government entities and academic institutions, and leaders in addiction healthcare and advocacy. Learn more about how we safeguard our content by viewing our editorial policy.

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How Does Parental Drug Use Affect Children? - Addiction Resource

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Parental drug use can have lasting mental and emotional effects on children who are exposed to substance misuse in the home.

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Delayed or inappropriate emotional development

Loss of self-confidence or self-esteem

Social withdrawal or a loss of interest or enthusiasm

Depression

Avoidance of certain situations, such as refusing to go to school or ride the bus

Appears to desperately seek affection

A decrease in school performance or loss of interest in school

Loss of previously acquired developmental skills

www.mayoclinic.org
Retrieved August 2, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/child-abuse/symptoms-causes/syc-20370864

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Center for Violence Prevention: Bullying in Schools

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Center for Violence Prevention: Bullying in Schools

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Reference: Bullying in Schools. (2022, February 15). Center for Violence Prevention. https://violence.chop.edu/bullying-schools

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Bullying in Schools

Although bullying is sometimes seen as "a part of growing up" or "kids being kids," imagine the kid who is picked on every day, whether physically, socially, or through cyber-bullying. Think about Rebecca Sedwick, the 12-year-old who committed suicide in Florida following a year of bullying at the hands of two young girls. To Rebecca, the bullying was so serious and distressing that she took her own life.

Students need school to be a positive climate where they feel safe.

Or consider the 8-year-old boy who writes to Santa Claus about his twin sister bullied over her weight: "Dear Santa ... I wanted a (remote control) car and helicopter, but I don't want that anymore. Kids at school are still picking on my sister and it's not fair ... I prayed that they will stop, and she needs your help."

Bullying is a prevalent form of youth violence, particularly in school settings. As illustrated in the examples above, it is defined by aggressive behavior (i.e., behavior that is intentional and mean) that occurs repeatedly over time and within the context of a power imbalance. Although both are harmful to youth, there is an important distinction between bullying and aggression - if there is an occasional conflict or fighting between two children of equal strength, size, and social status, this is aggression, but not bullying.

Most school-aged children are exposed to bullying in some form due to the unequal balance of power and influence that is so common in youth relationships and peer groups. Research shows that bullying and harassment in schools increases in late childhood and peaks in early adolescence, specifically during middle school and typically takes place in unstructured settings such as the cafeteria, hallways, and playground during recess.

Students need school to be a positive climate where they feel safe. This reduces their own stress and potential aggression, allowing them to focus on the learning necessary for them to be successful in their lives.

Fortunately, there are actions that students and school staff can take to prevent bullying and harassment in schools and to create a more positive school climate. The culture of school violence cannot be impacted by only working with bullies and victims alone. It takes consistent and united action by everyone - students, school staff, administrators, and parents.
Click here to learn more about the power of a positive school climate.
Program Details

Types of Bullying

To better understand how positive efforts can be made, it is important to understand the various types of bullying:

Physical: Related to dominance and is the most prevalent form of aggression and bullying among boys (as compared to relational). Behaviors can include hitting, kicking, and threatening violence.

Relational: Involves the manipulation of social standing or reputations and is the most prevalent form of aggression and bullying among girls (as compared to physical). Behaviors can include starting rumors and social exclusion. Click here to learn more about relational aggression.

Cyber: Involves using electronics to harm others. This type of bullying can be especially harmful because the perpetrators are more difficult to identify, it can more quickly and impulsively be spread to larger audiences, and the physical evidence of the bullying cannot be easily erased from cyberspace. Victims of cyber bullying are often also victims of traditional off-line bullying. Click here to learn more about cyberbullying.

Regardless of the type of bullying, there are several key roles that typically participate in the behavior.

The bully has a power advantage as compared to the victim, whether the bully is physically stronger, more popular, and/or more socially influential.

The bystanders, or other peers that witness the bullying event, play a particularly important and perhaps underrated role in bullying.

Certain sub-groups of adolescents may be at a higher risk for bullying. Click here to learn more.

Facts and Statistics About Bullying and Harassment in Schools

Between 21 and 49% of youth adolescents report being bullied in the past year

70.6% of youth are bystanders to bullying.

In a 2010 study, 20% of girls and 25% of boys said they were bullied, bullied others, or both in the last month.

In the same study, 90% of third to fifth grade students said they felt sorry for students who are bullied, but sympathy often does not translate into action.

A 2009 study estimated that at least 20.8% of youth in the US were physically bullied, 53.6% were verbally bullied, 51.4% were socially bullied, and 13.6% were cyber bullied at least once over a two-month period.

Victims of cyber bullying often do not report their victimization and are eight times more likely to carry a weapon to school.

A 2011 study showed that bullying at age 14 predicted violent convictions between ages 15 and 20, self-reported violence at age 15 to 18, low job status at age 18, and drug use at 27 to 32 years of age.

Related CVP Programs

Recommended Resources

Relevant Publications

Leff SS, Waasdorp TE, Paskewich, BS. The Broader Impact of Friend to Friend (F2F): Effects on Teacher-student Relationships, Prosocial Behaviors, and Relationally and Physically Aggressive Behaviors. Behavior Modification. 2016;40(4):589-610.

Leff SS, Paskewich BS, Waasdorp TE, Waanders C, Bevans KB, Jawad AF. Friend to Friend: A Randomized Trial for Urban African American Relationally Aggressive Girls. Psychology of Violence. 2015;5(4):433-443.

Leff, SS., Waasdorp, TE., & Mehari, KR. An Updated Review of Existing Relational Aggression Programs. In S. M. Coyne & J. M. Ostrov (Eds.), The Development of Relational Aggression 2018, pp. 283-317: Oxford University Press.

Leff SS, Waasdorp TE, Paskewich BS, Gullan RL, Jawad AF, MacEvoy JP, Feinberg BE, Power TJ. The Preventing Relational Aggression in Schools Everyday Program: A Preliminary Evaluation of Acceptability and Impact. School Psychology Review, 2010, Volume 39, No. 4, pp. 569-587.

Leff SS, Costigan T, Power TJ. Using Participatory Research to Develop a Playground-based Prevention Program. Journal of School Psychology. 42 (2004), 3-21.

Leff SS, Gullan RL, Paskewich BS, Abdul-Kabir S, Jawad AF, Grossman M, et al. An Initial Evaluation of a Culturally-adapted Social Problem Solving and Relational Aggression Prevention Program for Urban African American Relationally Aggressive Girls. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community. 2009;37(4):260-274.

Waasdorp, TE., & Bradshaw, CP. Examining Variation in Adolescent Bystanders' Responses to Bullying. School Psychology Review, 2018 Volume 47, No. 1, pp.18-33.

Waasdorp, TE., Pas, ET., Zablotsky, B., & Bradshaw, CP. Ten-Year Trends in Bullying and Related Attitudes Among 4th- to 12th Graders. Pediatrics, 2017 Volume 139, No. 6, pp. 1-8.

Learn More

Watch this webinar for teachers and school staff about understanding the issue of bullying and how to prevent it:

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Learn more about the types of bullying and harassment in schools (physical, social, or cyber) and why bullying is a prevalent form of youth violence.

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Indicators a child may be bullied:

Unexplainable injuries

Lost or destroyed clothing, books, electronics, or jewelry

Frequent headaches or stomach aches, feeling sick or faking illness

Changes in eating habits, like suddenly skipping meals or binge eating. Kids may come home from school hungry because they did not eat lunch.

Difficulty sleeping or frequent nightmares

Declining grades, loss of interest in schoolwork, or not wanting to go to school

Sudden loss of friends or avoidance of social situations

Feelings of helplessness or decreased self esteem

Self-destructive behaviors such as running away from home, harming themselves, or talking about suicide

Reference: (2019, September 24). Warning Signs for Bullying. StopBullying.gov; StopBullying.gov. https://www.stopbullying.gov/bullying/warning-signs

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There are many warning signs that may indicate that someone is affected by bullying-either being bullied or bullying others. Recognizing the warning signs is an important first step in taking action against bullying. Not all children who are bullied or are bullying others ask for help.

It is important to talk with children who show signs of being bullied or bullying others. These warning signs can also point to other issues or problems, such as depression or substance abuse. Talking to the child can help identify the root of the problem.

Signs a Child Is Being Bullied

Look for changes in the child. However, be aware that not all children who are bullied exhibit warning signs.

Some signs that may point to a bullying problem are:

Unexplainable injuries

Lost or destroyed clothing, books, electronics, or jewelry

Frequent headaches or stomach aches, feeling sick or faking illness

Changes in eating habits, like suddenly skipping meals or binge eating. Kids may come home from school hungry because they did not eat lunch.

Difficulty sleeping or frequent nightmares

Declining grades, loss of interest in schoolwork, or not wanting to go to school

Sudden loss of friends or avoidance of social situations

Feelings of helplessness or decreased self esteem

Self-destructive behaviors such as running away from home, harming themselves, or talking about suicide

If you know someone in serious distress or danger, don't ignore the problem. Get help right away.

Signs a Child is Bullying Others

Kids may be bullying others if they:

Get into physical or verbal fights

Have friends who bully others

Are increasingly aggressive

Get sent to the principal's office or to detention frequently

Have unexplained extra money or new belongings

Blame others for their problems

Don't accept responsibility for their actions

Are competitive and worry about their reputation or popularity

Why don't kids ask for help?

Statistics from the 2018 Indicators of School Crime and Safety - PDF show that only 20% of school bullying incidents were reported. Kids don't tell adults for many reasons:

Bullying can make a child feel helpless. Kids may want to handle it on their own to feel in control again. They may fear being seen as weak or a tattletale.

Kids may fear backlash from the kid who bullied them.

Bullying can be a humiliating experience. Kids may not want adults to know what is being said about them, whether true or false. They may also fear that adults will judge them or punish them for being weak.

Kids who are bullied may already feel socially isolated. They may feel like no one cares or could understand.

Kids may fear being rejected by their peers. Friends can help protect kids from bullying, and kids can fear losing this support.

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Recognize the warning signs for bullying to help prevent it.

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Response Strategies to Bullying: Top Tips from Students for Teachers

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Response Strategies to Bullying: Top Tips from Students for Teachers

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Reference: Anti-Bullying Alliance. (2018). Anti-Bullying Top Tips for Teachers [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=146&v=pzKXRuKNd8Q&feature=emb_title

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Top Tips for Teachers and School Staff from Anti-Bullying Alliance

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Top Tips for Teachers and School Staff from Anti-Bullying Alliance

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Reference: TOP TIPS FOR TEACHERS AND SCHOOL STAFF. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2022, from https://anti-bullyingalliance.org.uk/sites/default/files/uploads/attachments/TOP%20TIPS%20FOR%20TEACHERS%20AND%20SCHOOL%20STAFF_1.pdf

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TOP TIPS FOR TEACHERS AND SCHOOL STAFF_1

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Before we can began to identify any traumatic stress experience a child may be facing we must first understand what is a child trauma, then start to understand a child trauma.

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Fast Facts

At least 1 in 7 children have experienced child abuse and/or neglect in the past year, and this is likely an underestimate. In 2019, 1,840 children died of abuse and neglect in the United States.

Each day, more than 1,000 youth are treated in emergency departments for physical assault-related injuries.

In 2019, about 1 in 5 high school students reported being bullied on school property in the last year.

8% of high school students had been in a physical fight on school property one or more times during the 12 months before the survey.

Each day, about 14 youth die from homicide, and more than 1,300 are treated in emergency departments for violence-related injuries.
It's important to recognize the signs of traumatic stress and its short- and long-term impact.
The signs of traumatic stress may be different in each child. Young children may react differently than older children.

Preschool Children

Fear being separated from their parent/caregiver

Cry or scream a lot

Eat poorly or lose weight

Have nightmares

Elementary School Children

Become anxious or fearful

Feel guilt or shame

Have a hard time concentrating

Have difficulty sleeping

Middle and High School Children

Feel depressed or alone

Develop eating disorders or self-harming behaviors

Begin abusing alcohol or drugs

Become involved in risky sexual behavior

The Body's Alarm System

Everyone has an alarm system in their body that is designed to keep them safe from harm. When activated, this tool prepares the body to fight or run away. The alarm can be activated at any perceived sign of trouble and leave kids feeling scared, angry, irritable, or even withdrawn.

Healthy Steps Kids Can Take to Respond to the Alarm

Recognize what activates the alarm and how their body reacts

Decide whether there is real trouble and seek help from a trusted adult

Practice deep breathing and other relaxation methods

Impact of Trauma

The impact of child traumatic stress can last well beyond childhood. In fact, research has shown that child trauma survivors may experience:

Learning problems, including lower grades and more suspensions and expulsions

Increased use of health and mental health services

Increase involvement with the child welfare and juvenile justice systems

Long-term health problems (e.g., diabetes and heart disease)

Trauma is a risk factor for nearly all behavioral health and substance use disorders.
There is hope. Children can and do recover from traumatic events, and you can play an important role in their recovery.
A critical part of children's recovery is having a supportive caregiving system, access to effective treatments, and service systems that are trauma informed.

Get Help Now
SAMHSA Behavioral Health Treatment Services Locator The National Child Traumatic Stress Network: Get Help Now Healthcare Toolbox: Basics of Trauma-Informed Care
Not all children experience child traumatic stress after experiencing a traumatic event. With support, many children are able to recover and thrive.

As a caring adult and/or family member, you play an important role.

Remember To:

Assure the child that he or she is safe.

Explain that he or she is not responsible. Children often blame themselves for events that are completely out of their control.

Be patient. Some children will recover quickly while others recover more slowly. Reassure them that they do not need to feel guilty or bad about any feelings or thoughts.

Seek the help of a trained professional. When needed, a mental health professional trained in evidence-based trauma treatment can help children and families cope and move toward recovery. Ask your pediatrician, family physician, school counselor, or clergy member for a referral.

Visit the following websites for more information:

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Recognize the signs of child traumatic stress and the impact that trauma may have on children. The infographic developed by SAMHSA's National Child Traumatic Stress Initiative (NCSTI) provides information on the prevalence and impact of traumatic events on children, and what actions can be taken to support children who experience traumatic events.

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You must start here in your efforts and path of helping, identifying, and guiding a student through a traumatic stressor. Then after you have mastered knowing the many related stressors then you move on to the next phase of understanding it.

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Although there are many traumatic stressors that can play a major role in effecting a child's/student behavior in school I choose death which falls under Traumatic Grief. School-related trauma (death of a parent or close relative, bullying or unfair punishment) often leads to school avoidance, leaving the most vulnerable students behind academically. Trauma also negatively impacts young people's sense of self, making it difficult for those students to feel motivated, proud, and engaged in their learning.

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The National Child Traumatic Stress Network

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While many children adjust well after a death, other children have ongoing difficulties that interfere with everyday life and make it difficult to recall positive memories of their loved ones.

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What most people don't realize is that more children than one expects goes through traumatic stress of death. Some are able to deal and properly cope but a large portion of students suffer majorly and their entire life is flipped upside down.

You know far too often when a child / student is acting out we don't take enough time to seek the underlying issue. We jump to the conclusion that this is a bad child/student.

They too have rights and deserve to be assisted, aided and or helped in recovering / coping. Children/Students don't ask for death. They are just victims of the situation
Signs a Child Is Grieving

Clinginess. Children may be extra clingy after a loss.

Developmental Regression. Toddlers and preschoolers may start wetting the bed or stop sleeping through the night.

Academic Issues.

Sleeping Problems.

Difficulty Concentrating.

Feelings of Abandonment.

Behavioral Reactions.

Guilt.

Were you aware that poor school outcomes could be based on the loss of a child's mother. Maternal orphans are significantly less likely to be enrolled in school and have completed significantly fewer years of schooling, conditional on age, than children whose mothers are alive.

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Just because a student is grieving and suffering from a traumatic stress event caused by death of a loved one doesn't mean they don't have rights. 

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Resources

What is child Traumatic Stress

https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/programs_campaigns/childrens_mental_health/what-is-child-traumatic-stress.pdf

Understanding Child Trauma

https://www.samhsa.gov/child-trauma/understanding-child-trauma

The impact of parental death on school outcomes - PubMed

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ›

Death in the family - helping children to cope

https://www.rcpsych.ac.uk › parents-and-young-people

What are the signs that a child is not coping?

When Students Grieve, How Can Educators Help? | NEA

https://www.nea.org › new-from-nea › when-students-g...

Nov 1, 2021 — Grieving students will have trouble learning new information, applying concepts they already know, and demonstrating knowledge on tests,

BEREAVEMENT EXPERIENCES AFTER THE DEATH ... - NCBI

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › books › NBK220798

IMPACT OF THE DEATH OF INFANTS, OLDER CHILDREN, AND ADOLESCENTS · by MJ Field · 2003 · Cited by 1 — As with many losses, depressed feelings are accompanied

Tips for Teachers: Helping a Grieving Student at School

http://petersplaceonline.org › uploads › 2015/05

PDF

card to the family. A personal show of support can send an important message to the student and his/her family that there is a clear acknowledgment of the death

4 pages

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The Role of Educators in Preventing and Responding to Child Abuse and Neglect

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The Role of Educators in Preventing and Responding to Child Abuse and Neglect

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This manual covers several different forms of child abuse and neglect. It discusses legal issues surrounding these topics, defines different forms of abuse, highlights how to recognize abuse, how to report abuse to proper authorities, and how to support victims of abuse.

https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubpdfs/educator.pdf

Crosson-Tower, C. & U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families Administration on Children, Youth and Families Children’s Bureau Office on Child Abuse and Neglect. (2003). The Role of Educators in Preventing and Responding to Child Abuse and Neglect. https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubpdfs/educator.pdf

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Supporting Someone in an Emotionally Abusive Relationship: Do’s and Don'ts

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Supporting Someone in an Emotionally Abusive Relationship: Do’s and Don'ts

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·     DO Listen
·     DON’T Shame, Judge, or Critique
·     DO Believe Someone About Emotional Abuse
·     DON’T Make Excuses for the Abuser
·     DO Share and be Honest About Your Concerns
·     DON’T Make it All About You
·     DO Research Resources
·     DON’T Pressure or Force your Opinions or Views
·     DO Take Care of Yourself

https://www.safehorizon.org/programs/supporting-someone-emotionally-abusive-relationship/

R, D. (2021, July 29). Supporting Someone in an Emotionally Abusive Relationship: Do’s and Don’ts. Safe Horizon. https://www.safehorizon.org/programs/supporting-someone-emotionally-abusive-relationship/

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Do You Know the Warning Signs of Domestic Abuse?

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Fear or shame can make people try to hide or deny domestic abuse. Still, there are usually several key warning signs when someone is being abused.

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Domestic violence, unfortunately, doesn't restrict itself to adults. Sixty-five percent of adults who abuse their partner also physically and/or sexually abuse their children. It's heart-wrenching to read statistics like these and realize the trauma children endure when experiencing domestic violence.

Children of all ages experience physical, sexual, and emotional abuse in their homes and communities. Without the support of capable adults, caring educators, and advocates for our children's well-being, they'll be unable to heal and move forward from such experiences.

Teachers play a dynamic role in recognizing when something is wrong, putting a stop to it, and providing crucial support for coping with and healing from trauma, especially in domestic violence cases. The global COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns triggered a surge in domestic violence cases. So, teachers must be knowledgeable in identifying the signs of domestic violence.

Here are three ways to identify the signs of domestic violence in your students and actionable tips for helping them heal.

Three ways to identify domestic violence in your students

It's important to note that domestic violence is more than physical abuse and is not always noticeable without further investigation. Victims also may not see their partners or household members as abusive or violent. So, it's common for students to protect their abuser or be less than willing to come forward about abuse.

You'll need to be patient, caring, and intentional about creating a safe space for students to seek support. It starts with learning the warning signs for domestic violence and being conscious of them in your students. Here are three ways to identify if a student is experiencing domestic violence.

Keeping a close eye on school performance

Children suffering from domestic violence face obvious challenges at home but also noticeably so in the classroom. While you should always keep a close on how well each of your students is performing in school, a sharp decline in grades, attendance, or engagement could be a sign of domestic violence.

Children experiencing any form of domestic violence have isolation issues and trouble focusing on tasks in front of them, completing assignments, and forming healthy relationships with educators and classmates.

When a student's performance is suffering, schedule some one-on-one time with them to explore potential challenges. Ask questions surrounding their home life and see if you can identify any potentially abusive situations. Reach out to colleagues such as the school counselor for some questions you can ask that will glean more information. Also, be sure to ask them how you can further support them.

Paying attention to physical signs of abuse

Teachers are in an excellent position to be especially mindful of physical signs of abuse because of how much time they spend with their students. Early detection of and prevention of any future domestic violence can be attributed to how fast you notice something is wrong with a student's physical well-being.

According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway, "Physical signs of maltreatment are those that are readily observable. They may be mild or severe, such as numerous, deep bruises or broken bones, or more subtle, such as malnutrition or the wearing of inappropriate clothing (e.g., a lack of warm clothing in winter)."

If you see consistent physical signs of abuse, initiate a conversation with your student to identify the source of those signs. Gauge how willing they are to share the story of what happened and if it makes sense. If physical abuse is confirmed or you're highly suspicious this is the case, you're required to report it to authorities.

As a teacher, you're classified as a mandatory reporter because of your frequent involvement with children. Mandatory reporters are required to report the facts and circumstances that led them to suspect that a child has been abused or neglected. Be sure you're following your institution's internal guidelines for suspected child abuse and your state's guidelines for reporting with the help of the next level of leadership.

Recognizing extreme emotional reactions or moods

Take note of any students acting out emotionally, displaying aggressive behavior, or showing extreme mood swings throughout the day. All these behaviors are related to domestic violence exposure in the home.

Emotional responses in students experiencing domestic violence vary by age. Preschool-aged children could cry uncontrollably, startle easily, or have trouble with nightmares. Elementary-aged children can be physically aggressive with other children or become overly-attached to an educator. Teenagers usually rebel, participate in risky behavior, and have a hard time with authority.

When you notice a student is displaying any of the above behaviors, battling heightened anxiety and depression, or disproportionately responding to specific situations, ensure that you're taking it upon yourself to find out more about why these things are happening.

Actionable tips for helping students heal

If you expect a student may be experiencing domestic violence, use the above identifiers as a base to begin a more thorough investigation. Ensure that you're ready to help students heal from domestic violence and cope with its emotional and physical scars by educating yourself on resources available to domestic violence survivors.

Enlist the help of social workers, police services, Child Protective Services, counselors, therapists, and other experts who could influence the healing process for students surviving domestic violence.

Attend any domestic violence training, classes, or appropriate support groups. Further your education on identifying warning signs, safely transitioning a student out of a violent home, and how to actively participate in a student moving forward from domestic violence.
Noah Rue is a journalist and content writer, fascinated with the intersection between global health, personal wellness, and modern technology. When he isn't searching out his next great writing opportunity, Noah likes to shut off his devices and head to the mountains to disconnect.
Tags: New Teacher, Trauma and Resilience, Veteran Teacher

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How Teachers Can Identify Domestic Abuse | Resilient Educator

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Domestic violence, unfortunately, doesn't restrict itself to adults. Sixty-five percent of adults who abuse their partner also physically and/or sexually abuse their children. It's heart-wrenching to read statistics like these and realize the trauma children endure when experiencing domestic violence. Children of all ages experience physical, sexual, and emotional abuse in their homes and communities.

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Creating a safe environment

One of the most important things a teacher can do to assist students exposed to domestic vio-

lence is to create a safe environment where they can build trust with other adults and students.

provide structure and predictability by establishing routines to allow children to build

security by knowing what to expect

Create a non-violent classroom by teaching non-violent ways of play and dealing with

conflicts

Model nurturing interactions with

children

Model and teach acceptance of

differences in the classroom

Use encouraging words

Create opportunities for the space to

be noisy and fun

Develop self-responsibility

Validate feelings and teach students how to express feelings

Promote the development of self-esteem

Promote the emotional literacy of students

Promote the development of empathy in students and within the classroom milieu

How to recognize students exposed to domestic violence in the

classroom

At any age, students exposed to domestic violence respond differently depending on the

student. Some students will act out by hitting, swearing and yelling while other students keep

their feelings inside appearing quiet and sad. Students who have been exposed to violence at

home may in the classroom:

•

Struggle with attention (appear similar to children with ADHD)

•

Act out

Remember that your classroom may be the only

safe place for some students.

Supporting Students Exposed to Domestic Violence

A Guide for Teachers

1

•

Hit or yell

•

Isolate themselves from others

•

Have difficulty playing with others

•

Appear quiet and sad

•

Worry about mother or self being hurt

•

Have stomach or head aches

•

Have attendance issues

•

Have issues with substance misuse and/or the law

Observing the behaviour and becoming curious about why a student is acting a certain way will

assist you as a teacher in determining what might be going on for the student.

If a student discloses being exposed

to domestic violence

1.

Listen to the student.

2.

Tell them they did the right thing to tell you.

3.

Reassure the student that it is not his/her

fault.

4.

Do not make any promises (e.g. to keep it a secret, that things will be better from now

on, that everything will be OK).

5.

Let them know that you will try to help him/her.

When students are able to talk to someone they trust about their feelings, they feel better and

can learn healthy ways to handle their feelings.

What teachers can do for students exposed to domestic violence

1.

Have the student see the school/area counsellor regularly.

2.

Allow the upset student to leave the classroom and go to the nurse’s office or

principal’s office for some quiet time.

3.

Adjust the expectations of school work and homework.

4.

Find ways for classmates to be supportive without telling them.

5.

Understand that a student may need extra support from you.

If a student discloses being abused or you suspect s/he is being abused, you are required by law

to report this to the Ministry of Children and Family Development. Follow the Protocol outlined

for you by the School Board to which you belong.

Supporting Students Exposed to Domestic Violence

A Guide for Teachers

17

If a mother discloses domestic violence

1.

Listen to her story empathically and without judgment.

2.

Let her know the abuse is not her fault.

3.

A woman experiencing abuse can feel worthless so let her know she has a right to

support and services that can help her.

4.

Describe options for support and potential counselling.

5.

Make referrals.

6.

Ask her about support for her children.

If you feel uncomfortable with the disclosure you could:

1.

Listen to the story empathically and without judgment.

2.

State that you will try and help her, but that you also need to have support and assis-

tance in this.

3.

Contact your administrator and together assist the mother.

4.

Contact your school or area counsellor and together assist the mother

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Supporting Students Exposed to Domestic Violence – A Guide for Teachers – BC Society of Transition Houses

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Activities for Supporting Students with Incarcerated Parents

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Activities for Supporting Students with Incarcerated Parents

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Reference: Creating Inclusive Schools: How to Support Students with Incarcerated Parents (2020, March 19) Teach.com https://teach.com/resources/counseling-students-incarcerated-parents/

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Coping With Incarceration | Sesame Street in Communities

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Coping With Incarceration | Sesame Street in Communities

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Sesame Street in Communities has an entire online resource library to help parents, guardians or teachers support students who have close family members in incarceration including videos, activities, handouts and articles.

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Coping With Incarceration | Sesame Street in Communities

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With adults' love and support, kids can cope with the incarceration of a loved one.

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Recommended Reading for Children of Incarcerated Parents

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Recommended Reading for Children of Incarcerated Parents

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Here is an incredible list of books for both younger and older learners to read to help support students with incarcerated family members and to help them feel less alone about their situation.

Recommended Reading. Venezia Michalsen (Spring 2010) The Scholar & Feminist Online. https://sfonline.barnard.edu/children/reading.htm

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As the number of people in American prisons grows, so too does the number of children affected by their parents' absence. In an ideal world, we would halt the incarceration of our citizens in ineffective prisons which are often distant from the families and communities that people in prison leave behind. In the meantime, this book list compiles the many books for and about children of incarcerated parents. These books serve many purposes: they show children with parents in prison that they are not alone, they educate policy makers about effective practices, they act as a resource for caretakers coping with extra responsibilities, and they focus the research and teaching efforts of scholars and students.

There are many books about related topics such as parental absence and loss, foster care, parental mental illness and addiction, shelter living and witnessing trauma. In order to focus specifically on the topic of children of incarcerated parents, this list does not include those books, although they would undoubtedly be beneficial to children of incarcerated parents and the people who care for and about them. This list is also limited to books, and therefore does not contain any of the many high-quality booklets, reports, program evaluations and journal articles that exist that address the topic of children of incarcerated parents. Please see the Online Resources page for those other resources.
For Younger Children:
Beal, Janice M. & Gilmore, Vanessa. 2008. A Boy Named Rocky: A Coloring book for the Children of Incarcerated Parents. Available at: www.4theloveofkids.com.

Bender, Janet M. My Daddy is in Jail: Story, Discussion Guide, and Small Group Activities for Grades K-5. Chapin, S.C.: YouthLight, Inc.

Bergen, Suzanne & Hodgkins, Kathleen. 1997. My Mom Went to Jail. Madison, WI: The Rainbow Project, Inc.

Brisson, Pat & Caple, Laurie (Illustrator). 2004. Mama Loves Me from Away. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.

Burch, Robert. 1999. Queenie Peavy. London: Puffin Books.

Butterworth, Oliver & Avishai, Susan (Illustrator). 1993. A Visit to the Big House. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Cain, Sandra, Speed, Margaret & Mukhida, Zul (Photographer). 1999. Dad's in Prison. London: A&C Black.

Crane, J. and Short, B. nd. Two in Every Hundred: Workbook for Older (school-age) children. Nashville, TN: Reconciliation. Order from: Reconciliation, 702 51st Avenue North, Nashville, TN 37209, (615) 292-6371.

Gesme, Carole, Kodpfmann, Michele & Schmoker, Lisa. 1993. Help for Kids! Understanding Your Feelings About Having A Parent in Prison or Jail For Kids Ages Six and Older. Minneapolis, MN: Pine Tree Press.

Hayes, Margaret, Witherill, Jill & Pergrim, Lois A. 1989. My Daddy is in Prison. Johnstown, PA: Cambria County Community Action Council.

Hickman, Martha Whitmore. 1983. When Can Daddy Come Home? Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press.

Hickman, Martha Whitmore & Raymond, Larry (Illustrator). 1990. When Andy's Father Went to Prison. Niles, IL: Albert Whitman and Company.

Jones, Donna. nd. Joey's Visit. Syracuse, NY: Cornell Cooperative Extension of Onondaga County.

Kerniski, Ann. nd. Keeping in Touch by Long Distance. Syracuse, NY: Cornell Cooperative Extension of Onondaga County.

Maury, Inez. 2002. My Mother and I Are Growing Stronger. Berkeley, CA: New Seed Press.

Roznowski, Fran. and Toyoshima, Tak (Illustrator). nd. Time to Go. Order a copy by sending $7 (includes postage) to: Fran Roznowski, 11 Cottage St., Chelsea, MA. 02150

St. Pierre, Stephanie. 1994. Everything You Need to Know When a Parent is in Jail. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.

Stanglin, Jackie A. and McGuckie, Cierra Jade. 2007. Mami, Qué es una Carcel? Centennial, CO: Lifevest Publishing, Inc.

Stanglin, Jackie A. and McGuckie, Cierra Jade. 2006. What is Jail, Mommy? Centennial, CO: Lifevest Publishing, Inc.

Testa, Maria & Amanda Schaffer (Illustrator). 1996. Nine Candles. Minneapolis, MN: Carolrhoda Books.

Vogel, Carol Lynne & Mulhollen, Amy. 1996. My Mommy's in Prison. Pennsylvania: Southwest-South Central Pennsylvania AmeriCorps Program, The Pennsylvania Mountain Service Corps

Walker, Jan & Leonhard, Herb (Illustrator). 2006. An Inmate's Daughter. Norris, MT: Raven Publishing of Montana.

Whitbold, Maureen. 2003. Let's Talk About When Your Parent is in Jail. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.

Williams, Vera B. 2001. Amber was Brave, Essie was Smart. New York: Greenwillow.

Wittbold, Maureen. 1998. Let's Talk about When Your Parent is in Jail. New York: PowerKids Press.

Woodson, Jacqueline. 2002. Our Gracie Aunt. New York: Hyperion.

Woodson, Jacqueline & Ransome, James (Illustrator). 2002. Visiting Day. New York: Scholastic Press.
For Older Children:
Ellis, Deborah. 2007. Jakeman. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside.

DeClements, Barthe. 1989. Five Finger Discount. New York: Delacorte Press for Young Readers.

DeClements, Barthe. 1991. Breaking Out. New York: Delacorte Press for Young Readers.

La Valle, John J. 1995. Coping When a Parent is in Jail. New York: Rosen Publishing Group.

Paterson, Katherine. 2002. The Same Stuff as Stars. New York: Clarion Books.
On the Topic of Children of Incarcerated Parents:
Adalist-Estrin, Ann & Mustin, Jim. 2002. Responding to Children and Families of Prisoners: A Community Guide. Jenkintown, PA: Family and Corrections Network. Available at: www.fcnetwork.org.

Bernstein, Nell. 2007. All Alone in the World: Children of the Incarcerated. New York: New Press.

Boswell, Gwyneth & Wedge, Peter. 2002. Imprisoned Fathers and their Children. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Boudouris, James. 1996. Parents in Prison: Addressing the Needs of Families. Lanham, MD: American Correctional Association.

Braman, Donald. 2004. Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Burgess, Stacey, Caselman, Tonia & Carsey, Jennifer. Empowering Children of Incarcerated Parents. Chapin, SC: Youthlight.

Comfort, Megan. 2008. Doing Time Together: Love and Family in the Shadow of the Prison. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Edenfield, Ann. 2002. Family Arrested: How to Survive the Incarceration of a Loved One. Albuquerque, NM: Americana Publishing, Inc.

Enos, Sandra. 2001. Mothering from the Inside: Parenting in a Women's Prison. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Gabel, Katherine & Johnson, Denise. 1995. Children of Incarcerated Parents. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Golden, Renny. 2005. War on the Family: Mothers in Prison and the Families They Leave Behind. New York: Routledge.

Harris, Othello & Miller, R. Robin (Eds). 2003. Impacts of incarceration on the African American family. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Harris, Yvette, Graham, James A. & Carpenter, G.J. 2010. Children of Incarcerated Parents: Theoretical Development and Clinical Issues. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Martone, Cynthia. 2005. Loving Through Bars: Children with Parents in Prison. Santa Monica, CA: Santa Monica Press.

Mauer, Mark & Chesney-Lind, Meda. 2003. Invisible Punishment: The Collateral Consequences of Mass Imprisonment. New York: New Press.

Nurse, Anne M. 2002. Fatherhood Arrested: Parenting from within the Juvenile Justice System. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.

Seymour, Cynthia B & Hairston, Creasie Finney. 2000. Children with parents in prison: Child welfare policy, program, and practice issues. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Travis, Jeremy & Waul, Michelle, Eds. 2003. Prisoners Once Removed: The Impact of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families and Communities. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.

Wright, Lois & Seymour, Cynthia B. 2000. Working with Children and Families Separated by Incarceration: A Handbook for Child Welfare Agencies. Washington, DC: CWLA Press.

Yaffe, Rebecca, Hoade, Lonnie & Moody, Barbara S. 2000. When a Parent Goes to Jail: A Comprehensive Guide for Counseling Children of Incarcerated Parents. Windsor, CA: Rayve Productions.

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As the number of people in American prisons grows, so too does the number of children affected by their parents' absence. In an ideal world, we would halt the incarceration of our citizens in ineffective prisons which are often distant from the families and communities that people in prison leave behind.

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"More than 5 million children have had a parent in prison or jail, yet many of them don’t know anyone else with a similar experience. That may be because children with an incarcerated parent can feel isolated or shameful.... Building a culture at school where incarceration is normalized and understood as a part of many families’ lives can help students speak more freely about their experiences.... Being intentional with language can help shape a child’s understanding of their own experience, which is why adults should opt for inclusive language about the carceral system."

INSTEAD OF
Convict, prisoner or felon
USE
Incarcerated person

INSTEAD OF
Ex-convict or reformed prisoner
USE
Formerly incarcerated person

INSTEAD OF
Returning citizen
USE
Resident

INSTEAD OF
Law enforcement officer
USE
Public safety officer

INSTEAD OF
Criminal justice system
USE
Carceral system

INSTEAD OF
To target someone
USE

To serve someone

Reference: Creating Inclusive Schools: How to Support Students with Incarcerated Parents (2020, March 19) Teach.com https://teach.com/resources/counseling-students-incarcerated-parents/

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More than 5 million children have had a parent in prison or jail, yet many of them don't know anyone else with a similar experience. That may be because children with an incarcerated parent can feel isolated or shameful.

"Nearly all of them have felt alone until they've met someone else in their situation," said Tanya Krupat, director of the Osborne Center for Justice Across Generations, the policy center for the Osborne Association, which supports individuals, families, and communities affected by the criminal justice system.

Students with incarcerated parents may not willingly identify themselves to teachers and counselors out of fear of judgment from their peers. How can school staff support these students while respecting their privacy and combating stigma?

Including the full range of school staff-teachers, administrators, officers, counselors, athletic coaches-in initiatives to support students with incarcerated parents is a crucial part of creating a safety net and an inclusive culture across campus.

"You never know who a student will be comfortable confiding in," Krupat said, so it's best to make sure every staff member is prepared to provide support.

Families and Incarceration in the United States

There is no government agency dedicated to continuously collecting and analyzing data about children with incarcerated family members, which makes it difficult for school districts to know how often students have parents in the carceral system at any given time. However, some smaller organizations periodically collect data through national- and state-level initiatives.

Students of color are more likely than white students to have a parent in the carceral system and more likely to be disciplined by teachers than white students who exhibit the same behavior, according to a 2018 report from the United States Government Accountability Office (PDF, 5.6MB).

"Some teachers' expectations of a student's academic potential become lower when they find out about a student's parent being incarcerated," Krupat said. "Small microaggressions about a student's potential build up and have a narrowing effect on the future the child sees for their own life."

A change in academic performance may be a common sign that students are experiencing a disruption to their daily life at home, but it's not the only one.
DISRUPTIONS TO DAILY LIFE
● Change of residence, temporarily or permanently

● Change of primary caregiver

● Loss of family income

● Change of day-to-day routine

● Disruption of academic performance

● Infrequent or unpredictable communication with incarcerated parent
MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL EFFECTS
● Distrust of authority at school and at home

● Complicated grief as a result of a change of residence or school

● Fear of vulnerability or honesty with adults

● Fear of judgment from peers or school staff

● Emotional numbing or avoidance

● Disruption of identity formation

These disruptions can complicate a child's identity formation throughout their adolescence, changing the way they develop a sense of self and belonging in the world. While each child responds differently to adversity, Krupat said the attitude and demeanor of the adults around them can drastically affect whether a child feels supported and understood.

Creating a Supportive School Environment for Children of Incarcerated Parents

Students draw upon the culture of a school's ecosystem to learn about the world and their place in it. While school staff may assume that children with incarcerated parents are being supported by the child welfare system, that's often not the case, said Ann Adalist-Estrin, director of The National Resource Center on Children and Families of the Incarcerated at Rutgers University. It's important to make sure they're finding the necessary resources throughout their schools.

"Look at the systems that are already serving students," Adalist-Estrin said. "And then start training the staff that are a part of those systems," like school counselors, teachers and administrators.

Schools can make use of existing resources to train all members of the school staff. Youth.gov provides a discussion guide for school administrators, counselors and educators to work through, and a tip sheet for teachers to practice advocacy and support in K-12 classrooms.

Adalist-Estrin outlined specific steps that the school staff can take to show families they're committed to creating and maintaining an inclusive culture:

Adalist-Estrin encourages school staff to give families the choice to refer themselves to specific programs or support groups because self-referral increases the likelihood that families will stay involved with the program and meaningfully participate.

Destigmatizing Incarceration Through Inclusive Language

Building a culture at school where incarceration is normalized and understood as a part of many families' lives can help students speak more freely about their experiences.

"Children are very influenced by the adults around them," Krupat said. "They pick up on shame, isolation, fear and secrecy more than we realize. Talking about [incarceration] is very helpful, though it can be hard for adults to do so."

Within the academic curriculum, students are often taught about civics and government with language that implies people who are arrested or incarcerated are criminals or generally bad people. Krupat said educators should be thoughtful about the language used and underlying assumptions when teaching students the difference between breaking the law and criminality.

"You want to balance personal responsibility and respect for the law and authority with the fact that there are systemic forces like racism, but some laws are unfair or implemented unfairly," Krupat said. "Ultimately, I think we need revisions to education curricula for teaching kids about the grey areas."

Being intentional with language can help shape a child's understanding of their own experience, which is why adults should opt for inclusive language about the carceral system.

Supporting Students' Mental and Emotional Health

School counselors can provide confidential, one-on-one support for students but should be careful to get the permission of parents beforehand.

"If the school finds out from the child or parents that a parent is incarcerated, the counselor can thoughtfully reach out to the family or caregiver and offer support," Krupat said.

If parents are open to it, counselors can pursue working with the student. If they're not open to resources, respecting their privacy is an important way to build trust, she said.
Remember that it may not always be appropriate for a child to engage an incarcerated parent. Each situation is unique and requires a unique response based on a thorough understanding of the family's situation and the guardian's preferences.
Once a counselor has secured permission or a student brings up the topic, counselors and other school staff must be ready to have discussions with students about their family's situations regarding an incarcerated parent (PDF, 759 KB). Adalist-Estrin said that deflecting or changing the subject shows students that discomfort or stigma about these topics is still present in the school culture. This type of response can be harmful to a student's feeling of safety and inclusion.

Adalist-Estrin created a guide on navigating conversation with children who have a parent that is incarcerated (PDF, 499 KB) and addressed specific questions that children commonly ask.

Group counseling is another option school counselors may pursue. However, group sessions with vague or general titles like "grief support group" can be discouraging to students who may not feel like they belong with others who are grieving the death of a friend or family member.

"In all of our focus groups, kids said they would prefer to join a support group that was created specifically for students affected by incarceration," Adalist-Estrin said.

Aside from counseling or therapy sessions, school staff can facilitate a variety of activities to help support students.

Building allyship within the student body is an opportunity to create an inclusive environment that stems from peer support. Talking about the complications of the carceral system in class, without prompting a student to identify as the child of an incarcerated parent, can show students that the environment is supportive without singling them out.

The most important way to offer support, according to Krupat and Adalist-Estrin, is asking students and families what they need instead of assuming what would be helpful.

"Ask to give," Adalist-Estrin said, "rather than to get."

Additional Resources for School Staff and Caregivers

The Children of Incarcerated Parents Library, NRCCFI: series of downloadable PDFs for educators, parents, care-providers and other helping professionals who serve children with incarcerated parents.

A Shared Sentence (PDF, 1.6 MB), The Annie E. Casey Foundation: policy report that analyzes data and discusses the needs and potential solutions for children with family in the carceral system.

Children Who Have Experienced Trauma, Youth.gov: guide to trauma-informed care for children of incarcerated parents that includes tip sheets for educators, a video for school staff and discussion guides for training within the school environment.

Child Trauma Toolkit for Educators (PDF, 3.7 MB), The National Child Traumatic Stress Network: downloadable PDF of basic information for professionals within the school system about supporting children who have experienced traumatic events.

Resources on Children of Incarcerated Parents, The Osborne Association: library of information that includes book recommendations and inclusive language and other tangible guides for educators, parents and care providers.

Ten Things You Should Know, Project Avary: list of advice from program graduates and staff about supporting children with incarcerated parents.

Parent-Child Visiting Practices in Prisons and Jails, Urban Institute: recommendations for best practices for supporting children when visiting parents in the carceral system.

Are you interested in supporting students through programmatic and behavioral interventions? Learn more about how to become a school counselor.

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Creating Inclusive Schools: How to Support Students with Incarcerated Parents

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Students with incarcerated parents may not willingly self-identify due to fear of judgment. How can schools support them while respecting their privacy?

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HOW TO HELP KIDS COPE WITH A PARENT’S INCARCERATION

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HOW TO HELP KIDS COPE WITH A PARENT’S INCARCERATION

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Consider using one or more of these methods to help kids cope with fear about a parent’s incarceration:

Continue communication – Staying in contact is just as crucial to the child as it is to the incarcerated parent. Conversation can take the form of notes and letters, scheduled visits, and pre-arranged phone calls. Be aware, however, that a missed communication can trigger emotional outbursts in the child.

Knowledge is power – If developmentally appropriate and agreeable to the incarcerated parent, help children understand why their parent is in prison.

Focus on a new hobby — Encourage the child to express her emotions and any possible anxiety through creative or athletic outlets.

Talk it out – Let the child of imprisoned parents vent. It’s normal to miss a parent, regardless of the reason that parent is absent. Caregivers can validate the child’s feeling and show their concern by listening.

Therapy – By working with a therapist, your child will have an opportunity to explore his or her feelings and develop coping strategies.

Matthew Lynch (2017, November 12) HOW TO HELP KIDS COPE WITH A PARENT’S INCARCERATION. The Dadvocate. https://www.theedadvocate.org/help-kids-cope-parents-incarceration/

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How to Help Kids Cope with a Parent's Incarceration

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Spread the loveAlmost three million children in the United States must cope daily with a parent's incarceration. Another two million children report having had a parent in prison in the past. The problem is huge. Schools and programs like Sesame Street have stepped in to assist adults in helping the children who are the real victims of incarceration.

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September 11, 2001, began for many as an ordinary Tuesday morning throughout the United States. In some parts of the country, students were in school, some adults were at work or engaged in their daily routines, and others were still in peaceful slumber, unaware of the horrific series of events about to unfold. At about 8:45 a.m., the tragic assault on the country began. Within moments, the nation became a collective witness to and victim of a violent atrocity.

Elie Wiesel has stated, "More than anything-more than hatred and torture-more than pain-do I fear the world's indifference." ¹ The intensity of the response to this assault on the nation has awakened the compassion of our citizens. We have lived in a long period of peace, and this event has been a sudden jolt. The immediacy of the news accounts and images made everyone not only witnesses, but also participants in the tragedy. Unlike in times past, when travelers spread news of atrocities months after the event, firsthand knowledge of threat and potential for risk heightens the intensity of our response. Even those individuals who are far from the disaster sites cannot remain emotionally distant.

The terrifying aspect of this violence is the realization that we are not just bystanders to aggression but also the target of it. Violence is not a unique occurrence here, but mass destruction of human life still stirs fear and uneasiness across America. Because mass violence often appears to happen at a safe distance, we have remained detached from the reality that civilians are the sometimes accidental and often intentional victims of attacks. In recent conflicts, civilians account for almost 75 percent of resulting deaths. ² Terrorism involves a violent lawlessness in which aggression intrudes into the ordinary existence of people.

The horrors of conflict and organized violence have not escaped touching the lives of the young. A year is comprised of 525,600 minutes, but it takes only one moment to make a lasting impact on children and young adults. The powerful images of this event affected many students throughout the country, and the enduring influence is intensified as their imaginations are fed by the memory of the violence.

In fact, the end of the twenty-first century has been burdened by images of brutality. Conflicts are characterized by atrocity, and recent history attests to an abandonment of any "rules of war, starting with the abandonment of respect for any distinction between combatants and civilians, or the innocence of children." ³ In the United States, the shock of direct attacks on our own soil has left us to deal with the aftermath. We have little empirical research to guide our responses to this form of tragedy because so few terrorist attacks have occurred in the United States. The most recent event, the Oklahoma City bombing, provides the most updated understanding of the reaction of children. ⁴ We have learned from other tragic incidents that the meaning we assign to events and the messages we highlight are crucial to the healing process. Terrorism is insidious in infiltrating the collective psyche with fear and the pervasiveness of our horror. Children and young adults are especially vulnerable to the psychological impact. Adults must guide the response of children and youth to an awareness that "the world needn't be evil simply because some people are. It is only evil when we let the evil happen." ⁵

Social studies teachers in particular are confronted with how to respond to these acts of violence as they enveloped the nation. Gripping current events provide an important opportunity to expand students' global understanding of the world while integrating these important topics into the formal curriculum. While assisting students in managing devastation and loss, teachers can also see the experience as a segue into such content as the beliefs of Islam, the geography of Afghanistan, the history of U.S.-Middle East relations, security strategies, antiterrorist operations, and tolerance activities. Many teachers recognize not only the importance of the events, but also the natural connection between these events and the social studies curriculum. Nonetheless, teachers need guidance on how to infuse these events into instruction. ⁶

In the ensuing weeks, teachers must shift the focus from "What happened?" to "Where do we go from here?" How do we restore the faith of young people in the promise of their future as Americans who can live in safety and security? How can we triumph over our fears and prejudice? How do we use our strength and character as a nation not only to deal with the tragedy, but also to grow and seek out peace? The following suggestions can guide social studies teachers in such addressing such important questions. Through these actions, teachers will seed the hope for the future.

Students' Exposure to Terrorist Attacks

Acts of terrorism infringe on our basic sense of safety and often leave us questioning whom to trust. "Human degradation and misery are intensified in the experience of the child whose innocence may be consumed by the horrid realities which disturb so many lives." ⁷

American students could not escape the horrific images of the terrorist attack. Child victims of atrocities are particularly vulnerable and may require careful intervention to restore their sense of safety and security. Nonetheless, even in the face of devastating trauma, children and young adults have the potential to exhibit resiliency, courage, and an enduring vitality. By fostering coping skills and drawing on the strength of the collective community, we can help students begin to heal.

Behavioral and Emotional Effects of Exposure

Links between an exposure to violence and negative behaviors in children and young adults exist across all age ranges. Exposure to a traumatic experience has short- and long-term consequences in a student's life and can contribute to physical and mental health problems as well as educational impairments. ⁸ Even children and young adults who have been exposed to a single terrorizing event can exhibit clinical indicators of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, including fears, repetitive nightmares, thought reenactments, and thought suppression. The children and young adults with greater proximity to the event tend to experience more intense symptoms. ⁹ It may seem obvious that relatives of the victims or direct witnesses to the disaster may have strong responses, but other children and young adults may also have less obvious connections to the events, which similarly heightens their sensitivity to the trauma. These connections include students who have visited the buildings that were affected, whose parents fly frequently, who have recently suffered another loss, or who have experienced other forms of trauma. Students in the last two categories may have expended their coping resources in dealing with their daily problems and may not be equipped to handle further adversity in their lives.

Although responses to the events will be unique to individual students, ranging from total disinterest to chronic obsession and panic attacks, the age and developmental levels of a student are important in determining his or her ability to deal with the events. Young children under age six will typically look to adults to guide their response. The powerlessness and anxiety of parents and teachers may be apparent to the young, who often observe others around them for cues on how to act. Because young children relate events to themselves, they will be most worried about their own safety and the well-being of those they care about. Subsequently, they may become clingy and concerned about the whereabouts of parents and family members. Generalized fears may become more intense; loud noises, including sirens and the sounds of airplanes, may result in fearful reactions. Children may have greater difficulty sleeping and may be plagued by dreams of monsters and other creatures during their rest periods.

Although crying and fussiness may appear more frequently, young children may have difficulty identifying feelings because they lack the vocabulary to express their emotions. Children may exhibit regressive symptoms and lose previously acquired skills. Conversely, if adults have successfully monitored their reactions and limited their children's exposure to media images of the tragedy, some young children may be relatively unaware of the attack. Other children may have repeated exposure to horrific images and misinformation about the event; they may presume, for example, that each viewing on television represents a separate incident in which a building is attacked, leaving the impression that hundreds of planes struck many structures.

Elementary-age children may express similar feelings of anxiety, appear fearful or worried, and cling to teachers or parents. They may be irritable in class, indicate concern about ongoing violence, and complain of headaches or stomach aches. In their play, elementary children may repeatedly reenact the event or discuss elements of the attack. Teachers may observe changes in children's behavior, with increased acting out, heightened aggression, angry outbursts, withdrawal, poor concentration, and impaired performance on school work. They may also hear children discussing death and dying.

Middle school students will exhibit comparable symptoms of anxiety. In addition, middle school concerns may include a generalized fear about school violence and war. In repeated discussions of the events, these students may share horrific details and focus on acts of revenge. Middle school students may struggle with accepting others who are different and may be more suspicious of diverse perspectives. Changes in school behaviors include defiance, as well as an increase in absenteeism or withdrawal from extracurricular activities. Some students may indicate that the terrorism has had no effect on them at all.

In the high school, students may not only be fearful and exhibit many of the signs of trauma noted in younger children, but may also feel vulnerable to death. They may try to numb this vulnerability with drugs or alcohol. Some students may become so transfixed on issues of death and dying, combined with a sense of hopelessness, that suicidal thoughts enter their minds. Other adolescents will appear unaffected by the atrocity. For some, this denial is a self-protective coping mechanism. For others, who by age eighteen have witnessed over 800,000 real and imaginary deaths on the television, they have already been desensitized to these acts (see www.childtrauma.org).

The Impact of Violence on Social Studies Teachers

At the very time when students turn to their teachers for stability and support, teachers may be equally traumatized. The numbing effect of the trauma, combined with fear and depression, may make it hard for teachers to identify students in crisis. These adults may be more irritable and less responsive than usual. Some teachers may have less tolerance for student misbehavior, and their punitive response may leave students feeling withdrawn or perceiving themselves as bad. Other teachers, fearful of their reactions or lacking answers to students' questions, may avoid discussing the events. Teachers may worry about exacerbating the negative emotions of the students. Thus, while experiencing their own traumatic response, teachers' ability to play a stabilizing role and support students' resilience may be compromised.

At a time when students need structure and routine, teachers may have trouble concentrating on planning for lessons. Fear of being ill-equipped to handle controversial or emotionally laden content may result in a denial of the importance of the event. Some teachers may also become incapacitated with fear of physical harm in the school setting, exhibiting a hypervigilance to their surroundings.

Support offered within the school and throughout the broader community can help combat the sense of isolation and the saturation of the senses that overwhelms coping responses. Many students will sense the fear, tension, and confusion of teachers who are distracted by worry. Teachers need to reach out to their colleagues and use employee assistance programs when they are overwhelmed by their emotions and reactions. But supportive conversations among staff should be conducted outside the purview of students to protect them from reexposure to frightening interactions. It is important for children to know that even though their teachers may be upset by the events, they are still capable of teaching and caring for them and meeting their needs in the classroom.

Discussions of Events and Feelings

A safe and supportive environment in which to address concerns and feelings helps combat the sense of isolation and validate the presence of a caring community. The ability to deal with complex issues can be empowering to young people who must integrate into their experience a barrage of facts, images, and diverse perspectives. Teachers need to understand that students' reactions to these events will vary. Young people who are experiencing other crises in their lives, including preexisting mental health and behavioral problems, may have intensified anxiety. Others will appear unaffected. These variation of feelings may also relate to the developmental stage of the student: young children are concerned about separation and safety, older elementary school students focus on fairness and caring for others, and adolescents grapple with the ethical dilemmas about violence and the resolution of conflict. Teachers can help children and adolescents cope with this disaster by attending to their words and actions and observing signs of distress.

Social studies teachers in particular can serve as important informants to children whose perspective on the tragedy may be influenced by rumors, speculation, and misunderstanding. Students need to express their feelings and to make sense of the events. Competing values and ethics may create stress as students wrestle with antiviolent sentiments, which have been promoted in schools, and revenge-oriented ideology, which provides a simplistic mechanism for coping.

Regardless of the age of the students, young people need reassurance that they are safe and secure. This message needs to be reinforced over time, especially as new developments reintroduce concerns. A sense of security is communicated through consistent class routines and the fair application of rules of the classroom, which provide students with a sense that they have control of their environment. Flexibility in scheduling is also important, however, to allow students to process their thoughts and feelings and to receive accurate information. Because of television and other technologies, students who were not geographically present at the event became eyewitnesses and, in that sense, victims. Controlling student contact with disturbing images and adult conversations is important to limit exposure to vicarious traumatization. False assurances, however, are unsettling to students who experience a cognitive dissonance between the reality of the situation and the information they receive.

Teachers may find it helpful to structure a limited period of time for discussions, although they need to respond to students' questions that arise throughout the day directly and honestly, with a guided transition back to the class activity. Teachers should emphasize that it is the responsibility of adults to create safety for children. They should also give students an appropriate overview of school plans to address emergencies, including a review of school safety guidelines. Although we want students to recover the security and routine of their daily lives, we must also assist them in learning from this tragedy. Wallowing in fear is not productive; neither is living in a state of terror. But the complexity and enormity of this event may necessitate repeated discussions.

Anger management activities should be infused into class discussions. Students can describe how they successfully managed past frightening situations and identify effective coping strategies for dealing with stress. They often feel empowered when they realize that they have overcome hardships in the past. Relaxation exercises, creative activities (i.e., listening to music, reading stories, singing), and moments of quiet reflection are soothing to students. Students will also be comforted by knowing that over time, they will be able to cope with their strong feelings better. This is a crucial time to maintain open communication with parents and other school personnel about students' functioning. Mental health professionals in the school and community are a valuable resource for students who continue to experience strong emotions without relief.

Young children need repeated assurances that adults are working together to keep them safe and cared for. Young children may need extra assistance with transitions from home to school, with a warm greeting in the morning and a nurturing school environment during the day. In addition to verbal assurances, physical comfort-smiling faces, extra hugs, and hand-holding-is important. Because children will imitate teachers and parents, adults should model good coping skills. The complexity of information necessitates repeated clarification of information, including discussions of who is responsible for the event. Some children will believe that they are to blame for tragic events because of their misbehavior. Others will have inaccurate information about events. Teachers need to provide honest and realistic responses.

Young children also need to improve their "feeling vocabulary" so they can verbalize their distress. Teachers need to be aware of nonverbal cues that indicate fear, anger, or grief. For young children, hands-on activities are helpful for expressing feelings. These activities include watching puppet shows, drawing pictures, reading books, doing art projects, writing letters, making music, and taking action to help. Young children may need to reenact the experience to gain control over the event. Rescue materials, building blocks, and puppets can help children express their fear and anger.

In the elementary years, children may notice that adults are concerned and upset, but they need to know that the significant adults in their lives can still take care of them and guide them through the scary and angry feelings. Not talking about it makes children feel that the topic is taboo. Teachers can initiate the conversation with opening questions about the children's knowledge of the event and then let children guide the discussion. Strong feelings, such as anger, fear, anxiety, and grief, can be difficult emotions for children under any circumstances. Teachers should anticipate that children who feel overwhelmed and fearful might struggle with concentrating, sleeping, and controlling aggression. Maintaining routines can help. Children also need assistance in labeling their feelings and differentiating between angry emotions and angry behaviors.

Reenactment in play may help, but if children are unable to acquire a sense of control, this process may not be productive. During play, teachers can help students explore alternative endings and guide them to find words to explain their actions. Elementary students also may benefit from writing about their experiences, discussing other examples of disasters in literature, and observing that most people in their lives are caring and helpful.

Older students may not directly express their concerns but still grapple with fears about a reoccurrence of the event, the loss of a loved one, separation from the family, isolation, and loneliness. In addition to having access to adults who are receptive to questions, adolescents need guidance in developing constructive responses and alternative solutions. Class activities might emphasize constructing answers to questions together to demonstrate an orderly way to solve a problem. Sensitivity to the reactions of others may help identify other young people who are relying on self-destructive mechanisms (i.e., drugs, alcohol, aggression) to cope. Teachers should carefully observe student behavior to redirect students before angry outbursts escalate into conflict.

As events continue to unfold, teachers will need to provide additional updates on basic facts and check on students' evolving understanding and ability to cope. (Prompts to guide discussions are available at www.apa.org.) Teachers can model for their students how to express feelings in an appropriate manner by acknowledging the variety of their emotions and by managing expressions of anger and intense fear.

Building Students' Resilience to Trauma

We need to safely steer students through the onslaught of emotions and images that have touched them since September 11. The creativity and vibrancy of childhood is violated by those images depicting an attack on the communities that are supposed to nurture their development. ¹⁰ The most important factor in restoring that sense of safety is a strong relationship with a competent, caring, positive adult. Students are comforted through the reassurance of significant adults and the engagement in normal routines. Specific discussions about safety and victim assistance will calm their fear. Children want to be assured that they and their family and friends will be OK. They need permission to laugh and play and explore their childhood. Vulnerability and powerlessness disappear when a child discovers joy and self-efficacy.

Celebrate Diversity and Promote Tolerance

In times of crisis, we are bound by the commonality of our experience, yet there remains the threat of isolating individuals on the basis of racial, ethnic, or religious differences. Now is an important time to ensure that the curriculum infuses tolerance-building activities that explore the rights of people throughout the world, consider historical examples of ethnic discrimination and stereotyping, and examine resources and organizations promoting tolerance and the elimination of terrorism. Lessons on religious understanding, with a particular focus on Islamic teachings, are important to counter misperceptions about Muslims and their beliefs. Students need to know that violent acts that target civilians are not Islamic in origin and "there is no justification in Islamic scriptures and jurisprudence for indiscriminate killings or assassinations of local or foreign citizens by either Sunni or Shiite Muslims." ¹¹

As fear over the event transforms to anger, the intensification of hatred can feed stereotypes and prejudice. In such an environment, atrocity and counter-atrocity flourish. ¹² Dehumanization of the perpetrators of the event minimizes children's stress, ¹³ but teachers of adolescents must be wary of the danger of mis-socializing students with fear, violence, and hatred. Adults should be role models of acceptance and community.

In classrooms, we often have a tendency to present isolated details of events without an in-depth analysis of the conflict or exploration of multiple perspectives. In fact, students may experience confusion when the messages of patriotism replace thoughtful observation and discussion. ¹⁴ Teachers need to promote an understanding not only of patriotism for our own country, but also of the love that others feel for their countries. ¹⁵ An exploration of the efforts of world leaders to respond to terrorism can reduce hatred and violence on local, national, and global levels.

Celebrate the Helpers

K-12 students can focus on the unity of communities in the wake of a tragedy. Moreover, students can affirm the actions of so many individuals who are committed to assisting the victims, consoling families, investigating the tragedy, or working to ensure the continued safety of our nation.

A powerful counterresponse to powerlessness is action. Although the tragedy of September 11 has caused deep sorrow, we observe the heroic acts of so many generous and courageous people. Students should be encouraged not only to observe and celebrate the efforts of others, but also to engage in outreach and participatory service in their schools and communities. Memorials can also provide an opportunity for young people to share their feelings, and a range of service activities can offer students a chance to bond as a community and combat isolation and vulnerability.

Final Thoughts

Acts of terrorism instill fear and helplessness in a society. Coping with the intense stress and trauma of these events can be overwhelming for our youth, who may feel especially vulnerable. To function optimally, each student has a basic need for safety and security. ¹⁶

Although many are still coping with the trauma of the terrorist attacks, teachers have the opportunity to transform students' shock into action. Already, many heroic individuals have modeled lessons of unity and strength. Survival does not mean insulating our youth from further trauma, but rather providing them with skills to make a positive impact on their lives and the lives of others. "The basic law of terrorism is that even the smallest threat can ripple out to touch those a thousand miles away." ¹⁷ Our youth can instigate a counterresponse that spreads compassion, understanding, and hope throughout our nation and the global community.

Notes

1. L. Ullmann, "Forward" in No Place to be a Child: Growing up in a War Zone, eds. J. Garbarino, K. Kostelny, and N. Dubrow (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991), x.

2. M. Black, "War against Childhood" in In the Firing Line: War and Children's Rights (London: Amnesty International United Kingdom, 1999), 11-29.

3. Black, 12.

4. B. Pfefferbaum, S. Nixon, P. Tucker, R. Tivis, V. Moore, R. Gurwitch, R. Pynoos, and H. Geis, "Posttraumatic Stress Response in Bereaved Children after Oklahoma City Bombing," Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 (1999): 1372-1379; B. Pfefferbaum, T. Seale, N. McDonald, E. Brandt, S. Rainwater, B. Maynard, B. Meierhoefer, and P. Miller, "Posttraumatic Stress Two Years after the Oklahoma City Bombing in Youths Geographically Distant from the Explosion," Psychiatry 63 (2000): 358-370.

5. Ullmann, xi.

6. M. M. Merryfield, "Responding to the Gulf War: A Case Study of Instructional Decision Making," Social Education 57, no. 1 (1993): 33-41.

7. Ilene R. Berson and Michael J. Berson, "An Introduction to Global Child Advocacy: Historical Action, Contemporary Perspectives, and Future Directions," International Journal of Education Policy, Research, and Practice 1, no. 1 (2000): 1-12.

8. Ilene R. Berson and Michael J. Berson, "Introduction: Galvanizing Support for Children's Issues through Awareness of Global Advocacy," in Cross-cultural Perspectives in Child Advocacy, ed. Ilene R. Berson, Michael J. Berson, and B.C. Cruz (Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing, 2001).

9. J. L. Horn and P.K. Trickett, "Community Violence and Child Development: A Review of Research," in Violence against Children in the Family and the Community, eds. P.K. Trickett and C.J. Schellenbach (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1998), 103-138.

10. Berson and Berson, 2001.

11. M. Hanif, "Islam: Sunnis and Shiites," Social Education 58 (1994): 343.

12. Beasley, 1999.

13. J. Garbarino, K. Kostelny, and N. Dubrow, No Place to be a Child: Growing Up in a War Zone (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998).

14. T. Knowles, "A Missing Piece of Heart: Children's Perceptions of the Persian Gulf War of 1991," Social Education 57 (1993): 19-22.

15. L. K. Egendorf, Terrorism: Opposing Viewpoints (San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 2000).

16. Michael J. Berson, "Rethinking Research and Pedagogy in the Social Studies: The Creation of Caring Connections through Technology and Advocacy," Theory and Research in Social Education 28 (2000): 5.

17. See www.apa.org.

Ilene R. Berson is a Research Assistant Professor in the Department of Child and Family Studies at the Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute at the University of South Florida in Tampa. She is a cofounder of the American Educational Research Association SIG Research in Global Child Advocacy. Her research focuses on creating safe, supportive school environments for child victims and investigating preventative interventions for child safety and prosocial development in cyberspace. She can be contacted at berson@mirage.fmhi.usf.edu

Michael J. Berson is Associate Professor of Social Science Education in the Department of Secondary Education at the University of South Florida. He is a cofounder of the American Educational Research Association SIG Research in Global Child Advocacy. His research explores technology in social studies education and global child advocacy. He can be contacted at berson@tempest.coedu.usf.edu

Selected Web-Based Resources

* American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
www.aacap.org
* American Academy of Pediatrics

* American School Counselor Association
www.schoolcounselor.org
* ChildTrauma Academy
www.childtrauma.org
* Educators for Social Responsibility
www.esrnational.org
* Emergency Services & Disaster Relief, Center for Mental Health
www.mentalhealth.org/cmhs/emergencyservices
* ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education
www.indiana.edu/~ssdc/eric_chess.htm
* Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
www.fema.gov
* Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA for Kids
www.fema.gov/kids

* George Mason University Psychological First Aid Kit www.gmu.edu/departments/psychology

* National Association of School Psychologists
www.nasponline.org
* National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
www.ncptsd.org/what_is_new.html
* National Institute of Mental Health: Helping Children & Adolescents Cope with Violence & Disasters
www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/violence.cfm
* National Institute of Mental Health Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Trauma, Disasters, & Violence
www.nimh.nih.gov/anxiety/ptsdmenu.cfm
* National Council for the Social Studies: Teachable Moments-Resources For Teachers and the Media
www.socialstudies.org/resources/moments
* National School Safety and Security Services
www.schoolsecurity.org/terrorist_response.html
* National Victim's Assistance Organization
www.try-nova.org
* PBS: America Responds: Classroom Resources
www.pbs.org/americaresponds/educators.html
* Purdue Extension: Terrorism and Children
www.ces.purdue.edu/terrorism/children/index.html
* The Dougy Center for Grieving Children
www.grievingchild.org
* Tolerance.org: A Project of the Southern Poverty Law Center
www.tolerance.org
* University of Virginia Youth Violence Project
youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu
* U.S. Department of Education
www.ed.gov/inits/september11/index.html

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The Trauma of Terrorism: Helping Children Cope

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September 11, 2001, began for many as an ordinary Tuesday morning throughout the United States. In some parts of the country, students were in school, some adults were at work or engaged in their daily routines, and others were still in peaceful slumber, unaware of the horrific series of events about to unfold.

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Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders

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Violence permeates our world. It is a fact. However, when violent acts occur in the midst of normal everyday events they put people on a heightened state of alert and cause justifiable levels of stress and anxiety. Students are likely to feel most vulnerable when these situations occur. It is the responsibility of adults to help them feel safe. Educators can help students understand what is happening factually, how events do or do not impact their lives, and how to cope with their reactions.

Educators need to assess what level of support students in their care need. The following suggestions may help them cope.

Assess student needs. Talk to colleagues to help. Share your ideas and concerns. This will help you manage your own anxieties as well as determine the needs of the general student body and individual students. Also take cues from what your students do and say. Know who has family who has experienced trauma or another risk factor.

Potential student reactions to trauma. Most students will be able to cope with their concerns over current events with the help of parents and teachers. However, some students may be at risk of more extreme reactions because of personal circumstances. Symptoms may differ depending on age. Adults should contact a professional if children exhibit significant changes in behavior or any of the following symptoms over an extended period of time.

Preschoolers: Thumb sucking, bedwetting, clinging to parents, sleep disturbances, loss of appetite, fear of the dark, regression in behavior, withdrawal from friends and routines.

Elementary School Children: Irritability, aggressiveness, clinginess, nightmares, school avoidance, poor concentration, withdrawal from activities and friends.

Adolescents: Sleeping and eating disturbances, agitation, increase in conflicts, physical complaints, delinquent behavior and poor concentration.

Beyond these specific indicators of worried and anxious reactions, some students will simply show differences in their patterns of behavior. The student who is normally talkative may be quiet. The student who is normally friendly may be withdrawn or show atypical angry responses to others. The student who usually turns in assignments may be late or the work may be less than satisfactory. A good rule of thumb is that if you see any differences in behavior, those differences are expressions of concern.

What about Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)? PTSD is a significant, and often delayed, response to an event that is experienced as traumatic. The individual may show a number of symptoms, including agitation and inappropriate responses to normal events. For example, the individual experiencing PTSD may show startle responses to sudden noises, avoidance of certain places or people, or a high level of defensiveness or aggression, out of character with their normal behaviors. One of the more difficult aspects of PTSD is that the individual may not show symptoms for an extended period past the triggering event(s). So six months later the symptoms may occur, and it may be difficult to connect them to the event(s).

Identify vulnerable populations. The degree to which students are affected will vary depending on personal circumstances. Most vulnerable are students who:

Live in proximity to past traumatic events or "high" target areas.

Live in 'violent' neighborhoods.

Have suffered a personal loss from or been exposed to terrorism, violence or military actions.

Have parents currently in the military or on active duty in the reserve forces.

Have parents who fought in past or ongoing conflicts like the Iraq War or are currently in Afghanistan.

Have parents involved in emergency response or public safety.

Are of non-U.S. origin and may feel threatened by intolerance or racism.

Experience Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, depression or other mental illness.

Create a positive school environment and culture. The best things schools can do to ensure students and others in times of crisis and trauma that they are safe is to have built an environment and culture that is positive and welcoming. Infusing a caring climate and maintaining that through trauma and crisis invites students to share their thoughts, feelings and emotions which helps them to get through it.

Remain calm and reassuring. Students will take their cues from you, especially young children. Acknowledge that the threats and uncertainty are unnerving but the likelihood is that you and your students will be okay. There is difference between the possibility of danger and the probability of it affecting them personally.

Acknowledge and normalize their feelings. Allow students to discuss their feelings and concerns and encourage any questions they may have regarding this event. Listen and empathize. An empathetic listener is very important. Let them know that others are feeling the same way and that their reactions are normal and expected. Set aside time to discuss the topic and then stick to the normal routine of the school day as best as possible given the circumstances and what seems to be appropriate.

Empathic listeners help individuals feel comfortable with their thoughts. One of the most important things to do for an individual is to make it safe to share both simple and complex feelings. Simple questions such as, "That sounds really scary! Were you scared? Do you think about it a lot? If that happened to me, I would be." The listener isn't doing "therapy" but is making it safe for the individual to say what they are thinking and feeling. The act of getting thoughts and feelings "out" is healing and preventive.

How far do you go in these "normalizing" conversations? Generally you ask basic questions, listen intently, avoid over-interpreting, and go as far as the individual seems comfortable going. And for some students, the "conversations" may take other forms, including art, music, and writing.

Courage, compassion, and helpfulness. In the midst of frightening and tragic events, one often sees examples of courage, compassion, and helpfulness. As in the events in Boston over the past week, it is helpful to also discuss how people step in to help others. This aspect of a difficult event adds to the sense of hope, that in the midst of tragedy, there are ways to bring out the best in people.

Take care of your own needs. Take time for yourself and try to deal with your own reactions to the situation as fully as possible. You will be better able to help your students if you are coping well. If you are anxious or upset, your students are more likely to be so as well. Talk to other adults such as family, friends, faith leaders, or a counselor. It is important not to dwell on your fears by yourself. Sharing feelings with others often makes us feel more connected and secure. Take care of your physical health. Make time, however small, to do things you enjoy. Avoid using drugs or alcohol to feel better.

Maintain a normal routine. Keeping to a regular schedule can be reassuring and promote physical health. Stick to the school routines as much as possible.

Emphasize people's resiliency. Focus on students' competencies in terms of their daily life and in other difficult times. Help them identify what they have done in the past that helped them cope when they were frightened or upset. Also remind them that the country has weathered many other crises, including terrorism, natural disasters and war, and has emerged stronger and more united each time.

Be optimistic. Even if something does happen, most people will be fine physically and will recover from any emotional reactions to the event. Resiliency studies following September 11 indicate that people who coped best were comfortable expressing strong emotions, surrounded by caring family and friends, kept a positive view of the future, and utilized problem solving skills.

Be a good listener and observer. Let students guide you as to how concerned they are or how much information they need. If they are not anxious or focused on current events, don't dwell on them. But be available to answer their questions to the best of your ability. Young children may not be able to express themselves verbally. Pay attention to changes in their behavior or social interactions. Most school age children and adolescents can discuss their concerns although they may need you to provide an "opening" to start a conversation. Don't push, but ask what they think about current events. Even if they don't want or need to talk now, they may later and they will know you care what they think and feel.

Discuss events in age-appropriate terms. Share information that is appropriate to their age and developmental level. Update them as information changes. Young children may require repeated reassurance during the day. Tell them they are okay and that adults will always take care of them. School age children can understand details and reasons behind specific actions, such as increased security but cannot absorb intense or frightening information. Adolescents may want to discuss issues related to violence, terrorism or war as well as safety issues.

Stick to the facts. Answer students' questions factually and include a positive element to the answer (e.g., "Yes we are on high alert, but we have been here before. It does not mean that something bad will definitely happen.") Don't speculate about what could happen.

Remind students not to ridicule people or ideas just because they are different. The issues of terrorism are complicated. Students, particularly younger ones, will tend to view them in absolute terms, with good guys and bad guys. Reinforce that most people are good and ultimately care about the same things: safety, freedom and opportunity. Remind them that people who support certain ideals also care about protecting innocent lives and that people who oppose ideals care deeply about the United States and the safety of others.

Help students explore and express their opinions respectfully. Explain that opinion is not the same as fact. Fact is what actually happens. Opinions are how we feel about what happens.
Everyone has a right to their opinion and discussing different views can deepen children's students' understanding of the world. Addressing the intolerance that leads to conflict and aggression can also help students regain a sense of control.

Be willing to discuss the concept of death. Students may be more concerned about dying or their loved one dying, particularly given the intense focus on death in the wake of terrorist attacks. Talking with them is important. Outside resources can be very helpful (e.g., books geared to different ages that explore death and dying, grief and hospice organizations, or faith community, if part of a student's family life). If a student comes from a home with a resilient belief system or faith, it will likely provide a powerful source of support when it comes to dealing with these issues.

Communicate with your students' families. Communicate to families what the students are learning. Encourage families to share with teachers including if they have a family member on active duty. Let families know that schools are providing extra support to students and that educators may also have loved ones who are called to active duty and/or trying to cope with their own personal reactions to events.

Make time for class discussion (or other activities if the children are young). Be sure to have a map or globe. Be prepared to answer questions factually or to guide discussion about difficult issues. Seek the help of your school psychologist or counselor if you are unsure of what to say. Be careful of large group discussion about terrorism if your students have strongly differing opinions. Such discussion can turn adversarial when emotions are running high. If need be, hold discussions in smaller, more homogenous groups or individually. Again, your school psychologist or counselor can help.

Stop bullying or harassment immediately. Remind students not to pass judgment on groups of people or other people's ideas just because they seem different. Finding ways to address the intolerance that leads to conflict and aggression can be one way to help students regain a sense of control over this situation.

Encourage students to talk to you or another caring adult. Emphasize that you are there to help and that they should let an adult know if they or a friend feels overwhelmed for any reason.

Do something positive with students to help others in need. Making a positive contribution to the community or country helps people feel more in control and builds a stronger sense of connection.

Resources

There are many organizations and agencies with helpful information about helping students and families cope with the stress of violence, terrorism and other crises:

( This document was adapted from a document originally created by NASP, 2003; http://www.nasponline.org/resources/crisis_safety/helpingchildrencope.aspx.)

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Helping Students Cope with Traumatic Events

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When violent acts occur in the midst of normal everyday events, they can put students on a heightened state of alert and cause justifiable levels of stress and anxiety. Educators can help students understand what is happening factually, how events do or do not impact their lives, and how to cope with their reactions.

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Abandonment Issues: Examples, Causes, and Solutions)

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Abandonment Issues: Examples, Causes, and Solutions)

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Abandonment Issues (Examples + Causes + Solutions)

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What Are Abandonment Issues?

Abandonment issues stem from a fear of loneliness, which can be a phobia or a form of anxiety. These issues can affect your relationships and often stem from a childhood loss. Other factors that turn loss into abandonment issues include environmental and medical factors, genetics, and brain chemistry.

Early childhood experiences are the biggest contributor to developing abandonment issues when you become an adult. The traumatic event might include the loss of a parent by divorce or death or not getting enough physical or emotional care as a child. Emotional abandonment occurs when parents:

Do not let their children express themselves emotionally

Ridicule their children

Put too much pressure on their children to be "perfect"

Treat their children like their peers

Abandonment issues happen when a parent or caregiver does not provide the child with consistent warm or attentive interactions, leaving them feeling chronic stress and fear. The experiences that happen during a child's development will often continue into adulthood. This is why abandonment issues become more prevalent as you get older and can affect your relationships.

A fear of abandonment presents itself in people who seem like "people pleasers" or need continuous reassurance that they are loved. There is also a consistent anxiety that occurs with abandonment issues.

Common signs of abandonment issues include:

Giving too much or being overly eager to please

Jealousy in your relationship or of others

Trouble trusting your partner's intentions

Feeling insecure about your relationship

Having difficulty in feeling intimate emotionally

Needing to control or be controlled by your partner

Settling in unsatisfactory relationships

It is not uncommon for you to want your partners to treat you the same way as you were treated as a child.

Treating Abandonment Issues

When treating abandonment issues, the first step is understanding what triggers you and learning to withdraw when these triggers come up. You should also try to get more comfortable with having conversations about your fears in a calm and respectful manner. It may help to do this with a partner, family member, or close friend. It may be difficult at first, but you will find it gets easier with time.

There are two primary treatments for abandonment issues:

In therapy, you will be able to explore the root cause of your fears and identify negative thought patterns. Your therapist will help you replace them with healthy, more realistic thoughts. Your relationship with your therapist can also give you the sense of having a secure relationship. Working with them, you can learn to establish healthy boundaries in your relationships and help avoid behaviors that hinder healthy relationships.

Practicing self-care can help you make sure your emotional needs are met. This can improve friendships and relationships. Doing self-care like journaling, taking walks, and other things you enjoy can help fulfill you and improve your contributions to your partner, friends, or children.

Support and Resources

Abandonment issues can develop because of many emotional and environmental factors. If you are experiencing fear of abandonment in your relationships, it may be helpful to see a counselor. A counselor will be able to talk to you about how you're feeling and develop a treatment plan.

Types of Abandonment Issues

Abandonment issues can present themselves in three insecure attachment styles. These are:
Avoidant Attachment Style
People who follow this style don't allow anyone to get close to them. You may feel like you can't open up or trust others, making you appear distant, private, or withdrawn.
Anxious Attachment Style
People with this type of attachment style cope by developing intensely close and dependent relationships with others. You may feel anxious about separating yourself from your partner and tend to be emotionally reactive. It may be easy to see conflicts as a concern that your partner may leave, which makes you act out of fear.
Disorganized Attachment Style
People with this attachment style have difficulty remaining intimate and close but can also be inconsistent. You may feel anxious about being in a relationship or want to avoid the closeness. This attachment style may come with other potential disorders.

Signs of Abandonment Issues

Abandonment issues don't always come from childhood trauma. They can also develop after losing an intimate partner to divorce or death. Either through adult or childhood abandonment, these issues can negatively impact healthy relationships.

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Abandonment issues stem from a fear of loneliness, which can be a phobia or a form of anxiety. These issues can affect your relationships and often stem from a childhood loss. Other factors that turn loss into abandonment issues include environmental and medical factors, genetics, and brain chemistry.

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Trauma-Informed Strategies to Use in Your Classroom

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Trauma-Informed Strategies to Use in Your Classroom

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All children face disappointment and fears, but some students deal with more serious, often traumatic, hardships at home. The term "trauma" can encompass many situations, explains Lori Sanchez, Ed.D. "In the past, when you talked about a child experiencing trauma, you assumed abuse or neglect," she says. "Now we understand that trauma can mean a lot of things-families dealing with divorce, serious illness, a natural disaster, a military deployment, and more." Of course, you can't undo the painful experiences your students have gone through, but you can make a difference in their learning and their resilience by bringing innovative strategies into your classroom.

To help students deal with stressful situations at home, many schools are using innovative trauma-informed strategies. Here are some of the most effective tools for teachers.

Look beyond the behavior

Research has shown that traumatic experiences alter the brain and can affect children socially, emotionally, behaviorally, and academically. It's a quadruple whammy. Toxic levels of stress and anxiety shape behavior and may make kids appear angry, depressed, checked out, uncooperative, or distracted, says psychologist Jamie Howard, PhD, of the Child Mind Institute in New York City. "When you adopt a trauma-informed perspective, you approach that student's behavior with openness and curiosity," she says.

"Rather than jumping to the conclusion that she's a problem, ask yourself, 'What happened to this child and why is she behaving this way?' " Howard recalls one student she worked with who didn't want to go to the front of the classroom to write on the board. "He seemed defiant, but actually it was scary to him to have his back exposed to the whole room," she says. It turns out he had an unstable home life and was bringing some of his fears and insecurities into the classroom.

Build relationships

You already know how important it is to have good relationships with your students. But for children who have been affected by trauma, strong connections are vital. Rich relationships with teachers help children form the foundations of resilience.

Building bonds is a central component of August Spiegelberg's classroom at Bruce Vento Elementary in St. Paul, Minnesota, where more than 90% of the students qualify for free or reduced lunch. Spiegelberg regularly invites one or two of his fourth graders to eat lunch with him, using the opportunity to get to know them better. "I ask questions and then set them up to answer what they feel comfortable sharing," he says. He also tries to form relationships with the student's whole family. "But when a parent isn't super responsive, I try even harder to build a relationship with the child. The better we know students, the better we can teach them."

Create a safe environment

You play a critical role in making your students feel welcome in your classroom. "Students have to feel secure and connected, both to adults and to peers, in order to learn," says Susan Cole, director of the Trauma and Learning Policy Initiative in Boston.

That's the kind of environment seventh-grade teacher Lauren Jansen, EdD, fosters at North Middle School in O'Fallon, Missouri. "I'm keenly aware of how my students interact with each other," she says. "When I see anything negative beginning to happen, like one student picking on another one, I stop it immediately and have a conversation with the child, reminding them why it's not OK. My classroom is a place where students know they can be themselves and won't be made fun of."

It's also key to recognize that any student, regardless of their home life, can grow scared and anxious by a national news story such as a school shooting or a devastating hurricane. To ease children's fears in the wake of a tragedy like this, talk about the news as a group (in an age-appropriate way, of course), and reassure them that they're not in danger.

Meet students where they are

To help a student experiencing trauma feel settled in the classroom, you might need to make special accommodations. When Lori Sanchez, EdD taught sixth grade, she came up with creative solutions for students who were dealing with the aftermath of trauma.

She remembers one student who had been abandoned as a baby. Although the child was living with wonderfully supportive adoptive parents, she would periodically burst into tears in the middle of class, afraid that her parents were going to leave her. Sanchez kept a phone on her desk and allowed the girl to call her parents whenever she got anxious. "Just knowing the phone was there was enough to calm her," she says.

Perhaps you have a student in your class who's cranky and disruptive in the morning because he doesn't have a regular bedtime, or who melts down easily because her parents are fighting. Setting up a "safe space" in your classroom, where a child can take a short break to calm down, de-stress, and even take a short nap if they're tired, can make a world of difference.

Be predictable

Feeling out of control is one of the hallmarks of traumatic experiences, so adhering to a clear, predictable routine in your classroom provides students with a sense of stability. Tammi Mueller, a first-grade teacher at Riceville Community School in Riceville, Iowa, has students who live in foster care, a situation that often involves trauma and disruption. "I try to keep a scheduled classroom to help anchor the kids," she says. "I have a visual schedule at the front of the room, and I keep to a routine as much as possible. If I have to change things, I make sure I tell them."

You can't adopt a trauma-informed approach in your classroom all on your own. It takes teamwork and sharing what you know with colleagues. "Meet with the educators and others in your school and start a study group," advises Susan Cole. Think about strategies for working with a small team and get the support of your principal. The best news is that trauma-sensitive techniques don't just benefit kids who are struggling; they help all your students build resilience, confidence, and well-being.

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Trauma-Informed Strategies to Use in Your Classroom | Resilient Educator

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All children face disappointment and fears, but some students deal with more serious, often traumatic, hardships at home. The term "trauma" can encompass many

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Vol. 77

No. 2

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Small changes in classroom interactions can make a big difference for traumatized students.

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Credit: Shannon Fagan

Abstract

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

4. Promote Predictability and Consistency

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

7. Create Islands of Competence

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Up to two-thirds of U.S. children have experienced at least one type of serious childhood trauma, such as abuse, neglect, natural disaster, or experiencing or witnessing violence. Trauma is possibly the largest public health issue facing our children today (CDC, 2019). Traumatized students are especially prone to difficulty in self-regulation, negative thinking, being on high alert, difficulty trusting adults, and inappropriate social interactions (Lacoe, 2013; Terrasi & de Galarce, 2017). They often haven't learned to express emotions healthily and instead show their distress through aggression, avoidance, shutting down, or other off-putting behaviors. These actions can feel antagonistic to teachers who don't understand the root cause of the student's behavior, which can lead to misunderstandings, ineffective interventions, and missed learning time.

Neurobiologically, students can't learn if they don't feel safe, known, and cared for within their schools (Aupperle et al., 2012). When teachers are proactive and responsive to the needs of students suffering from traumatic stress and make small changes in the classroom that foster a feeling of safety, it makes a huge difference in their ability to learn. Here are some examples.

1. Expect Unexpected Responses

First, teachers must learn to put students' reactions into context-and not to take them personally. Students with trauma histories can react and behave in seemingly unexpected ways, such as having a sudden outburst during a favorite activity or crying out of the blue one second after laughing. Teachers may be taken by surprise. They say things like, "But he was fine this morning, I didn't see that coming!" or "She normally loves playing the drums in music class. I have no idea where her reaction came from." This uncertainty leaves the teacher in a constant state of hyper-alertness when interacting with the student. This in turn can result in fatigue, as the teacher is guarded and unable to predict what will happen from one moment to another.

One way to understand these reactions is to think of the student as a soda can, and events that may trigger their trauma stress as shaking that can. We can't tell by looking if the can was recently shaken, but if it was, opening the can results in an unexpected explosive, messy reaction. If a student is triggered and experiencing heightened emotion, even a benign direction such as, "Please move over to make room for Jenny" could result in an "explosion" that the teacher never saw coming. By using trauma-sensitive strategies in the classroom, we can help reduce the times our students are "shaken."

2. Employ Thoughtful Interactions

Traumatized students often behave in ways that may interfere with teaching and learning, which can be frustrating. Teachers are in a position of power, and these students may be overly defensive, anticipating adult criticism, or defiant, as a way to assert control (Jennings, 2018). Yet for traumatized students, the ability to learn and behave appropriately can be person-dependent. When they are with a safe and supportive adult, their behavior reflects that.

Consider this scenario drawn from schools I've worked with: Trevor, a 6th grader whose father overdosed on heroin two years ago and who has witnessed ongoing domestic abuse throughout his childhood, was in Ms. Carlton's class for part of the day and Ms. Finch's class for the other part. Ms. Carlton had a reputation of working well with hard-to-reach kids, and sure enough, Trevor behaved in a stellar way in her class. When he was with Ms. Finch, however, he was sent to the office nearly three times a week for explosive behavior.

The teacher is 50 percent of every interaction with a student: By changing the way we give a direction or respond, we can reduce problematic behavior. Ms. Carlton had taken the time to build a trusting relationship with Trevor and learned to give directions in a way that he would respond well to. Interaction strategies are a type of accommodation that typically go unnamed and unwritten, but they were the reason that Trevor could feel safe and access the curriculum (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012).

If Ms. Carlton had written down the successful strategies she used with Trevor, the list might have started with avoiding authoritative directives such as, "Pick that up." To give Trevor a sense of control, Ms. Carlton always embedded choice in her directions, asking, "Do you want to be in the front of the line or the back of the line?" instead of simply telling him to "line up." This helped prevent a poor reaction (Minahan, 2019).

Ms. Carlton also conveyed respect and transparency by providing the reason behind each direction. Instead of saying, "No backpacks on the floor. I don't want to trip and fall!" Ms. Carlton would say, "Oh dear, I hope I don't fall. I have a bad knee! Could you please move your backpack?" Stating the reason first assured that Trevor knew the context (and necessity) of the demand.

Conversely, Ms. Finch would often go up close to Trevor, tower over him, and say in front of his peers, "Stop tapping your pencil!" This typically ended in a power struggle and Trevor's escalating behavior. Trevor, like many traumatized students, had experienced a loss of control in his life, and power struggles with an authoritative figure were particularly triggering. Ms. Carlton instinctively knew that a more private nonverbal direction could be less confrontational for a student in "fight or flight" mode. She would write, "Please stop tapping" on a piece of paper, put it gently on Trevor's desk without his peers noticing, and then give him space by walking away quickly. When possible, she also gave Trevor extended time to comply with directions to avoid power struggles, asking, for example, "Can you please pick that up before lunch?" rather than, "Pick that up now" (Minahan, 2019). This allowed Trevor time to decompress and respond rationally.

3. Be Specific About Relationship Building

At one point in the year, Ms. Carlton told Ms. Finch that building a relationship with Trevor was key to her success with him, and she suggested that Ms. Finch do the same. Unfortunately, saying, "Build a relationship" is too vague and leaves too much up to the teacher's instincts. Instead, Ms. Carlton could have told Ms. Finch that she greeted Trevor every day at the classroom door and asked him about the Avengers or basketball. She could have told Ms. Finch how she used the "two by ten" rule; she talked to him for two minutes a day for 10 days in a row about topics unrelated to academics or behavior. Whenever Ms. Carlton could see she wouldn't have time for this in the 10-day period, she asked the counselor or special education teacher to cover her class for two minutes so she could go for a walk with Trevor. She repeated this trust-building strategy several times throughout the year, especially after he exhibited anger or frustration and after school vacations and long weekends.

Ms. Carlton skillfully used relationship-building and interaction strategies to work with Trevor. Yet the impact could have been greater had she written and shared those strategies with Ms. Finch and the rest of Trevor's team via a shared document, behavior plan, or student success plan (Minahan, 2019). Likewise, if counselors, school nurses, and psychologists write and share such techniques with each classroom teacher, kids like Trevor, when triggered, wouldn't always have to leave class to find a safe adult.

Not knowing what is coming next can put anyone on high alert, especially traumatized students. Providing predictability through visual schedules of the class agenda or school day can help. Ms. Carlton was adamant about previewing any changes to the normal routine ahead of time (saying, "We are going to have indoor recess today because of the snow," or "The DVD player isn't working so we can't watch a science video at the end of class today"). This prepared Trevor and thus elicited a calmer response.

A teacher's behavior can also feel unpredictable to traumatized students. When students are working independently and quietly-doing what they are supposed to be doing-they don't know when they will get the teacher's attention. But when students are doing the wrong thing-like drumming on the desk with a pencil in each hand or swearing-teachers are more predictable and react quickly! Because predictability is comforting to students with anxiety and trauma histories, they may resort to getting the teacher's attention through inappropriate means. Trevor could get Ms. Finch to react immediately by flipping his water bottle noisily, but could go 20 minutes without so much as eye contact from her when he was quietly reading.

To counter this imbalance and create an overall feeling of safety, teachers can use predictable positive attention (Minahan, 2014). During independent work time, if a teacher says to a student "Great work! I'll be back to check on you," the student has no way of predicting how long they need to wait-and from past experience they know that the teacher may forget to return altogether. Using predictable positive attention, however, the teacher can say, "I am going to check on you in 10 minutes," put a timer on the student's desk, and add, "Come tap me on the shoulder when the timer goes off." If the teacher has many students in the class that could benefit from this, she could transfer the strategy to small groups: "I will check on this desk group at X time."

Another strategy for providing predictable attention, especially for middle and high school students, is to hand an anxious or traumatized student a sticky note with a time on it as they walk into class each day. The first time, the note will need to be explained: "If you don't understand something in class, please don't worry-I am going to check on you during independent work time at 11:45, and I will answer any questions you have then." Ms. Carlton found this strategy comforting to Trevor. This predictable check-in pairs the negative thoughts the student may have ("I don't know how to do this") with a reassuring thought ("But my teacher will be here in seven minutes!"). The student can better tolerate uncomfortable feelings when they know help and a positive interaction are coming. Telling the student what will happen and when and always following through establishes the teacher as a consistent, reliable adult.

5. Teach Strategies to "Change the Channel"

Traumatized students often engage in inaccurate thinking, tending to focus on the negative. Common classroom management strategies often only exasperate this tendency. How many of us have seen frequent movement breaks on a student's IEP or student success plan? It is one of the most common accommodations that we offer to students who seem dysregulated. Unfortunately, during these breaks, students can ruminate on negative memories, current stressors, angry thoughts, or worries. If we ask a high school student who is getting angry and becoming agitated to take a walk, he may ruminate the whole time and return just as angry. Sending a 1st grader to a "calming chair" can leave her to perseverate on worrying thoughts. Instead, we need to help them "change the channel." Both Ms. Carlton and Ms. Finch used breaks with Trevor, but in vastly different ways.

When adults can't sleep, we often read a book or watch TV, which distracts us from uncomfortable thoughts so we can fall back asleep. Teachers can use the same principle for kids with trauma and anxiety: Teach students that their brain is like a remote control that they can use to "switch the channel" to help them calm down (Minahan & Rappaport, 2012). These switching activities are called cognitive distractions or thought breaks and are incompatible with negative thinking. A listening center or "find the picture" activity can be helpful to young children. For older students, you might try Mad Libs, trivia, or more abstract strategies such as counting all the green items in the room, saying the alphabet backwards, or thinking of the first 10 lines of a favorite movie. Ms. Carlton taught Trevor to do Star Wars trivia when he was upset, which helped him calm down quickly. Conversely when Ms. Finch had Trevor go for a walk, his negative thinking would escalate, and he would often not return to class.

6. Give Supportive Feedback to Reduce Negative Thinking

Many traumatized students interpret information through a negativity amplifier. When a teacher says, "Please correct the first problem," the student might hear, "You are stupid." Or a student might report that the teacher screamed at her when the teacher was really using a calm tone, as even neutral facial expressions can be misinterpreted. It is helpful to smile and explicitly say when you are happy with the student, a strategy Ms. Carlton utilized. When giving negative feedback, teachers can use the positive sandwich approach-starting and ending with a positive comment: (1) "I love how you remembered the formula," (2) "You made a small calculation error there," (3) "Great job getting problem #3 correct."

7. Create Islands of Competence

Recognizing areas of strength in students is a powerful way to combat the poor self-concept and negative thinking associated with trauma (Jennings, 2018). To support a more accurate self-concept, teachers can provide what Robert Brooks calls "islands of competence" for students swimming in a sea of inadequacy (2003). When a student thinks negatively, the negative moments during the day tend to weigh more heavily than the positive moments. We need to counter this effect with positive experiences. Educator teams need to ask themselves, "Does the student feel competent during the day?" If the answer is no, contriving an island of competence for the student is in order. Ms. Carlton often asked Trevor to help a younger student or a peer who was struggling in an academic area Trevor was strong in, or had him fix the stapler when it was malfunctioning. She would also point out in a written note to Trevor that he was the first student to finish a math activity. In high school, educators may want to foster students' talents by never letting them drop electives (which might require creativity in scheduling academic support in core classes).

It is important that students experience competence to develop a more accurate self-narrative and to begin to create a positive future picture of themselves. We want them to say, "I really helped that student with her artwork. When I grow up, I could work with kids." Or "I am good at fixing things. I could be a mechanic someday."

8. Limit Exclusionary Practices

Behavior is communication, and we've looked at how traumatized students often communicate feelings through their behavior. Teachers' behavior is also communication-and it may not be communicating the message we are striving to send. Common teacher practices such as ignoring inappropriate behavior, sending students to the office, or sending younger kids to sit alone at a back table or in the hallway can unintentionally trigger students who have experienced abandonment or neglect. We need to remember that when some of our students were young and cried, no one came. Ignoring them can trigger a trauma response and make them feel the teacher doesn't like them or is even happy that they are upset.

Ms. Finch would ignore Trevor when he was expressing anger, such as by crumpling up a paper, growling, or slinging a book from his desk onto the floor. On the other hand, Ms. Carlton responded to such moments at the beginning of the year by validating Trevor's feelings ("I am sorry you are upset" or "I see that you are angry"). This is a much more empathetic approach, will preserve the relationship, and will avoid triggering a trauma response in the student.

Another practice to be cautious about is using time with a preferred adult as an incentive. For example, a principal might say, "If you get all your homework done this week, you and I will have lunch together!" The problem with this is that if the student doesn't get all their homework done, then the principal withholds their attention and time. This implies the relationship is conditional and can trigger an abandonment trauma response for some students. It is better to use one-to-one time with students in a noncontingent way. This way adults are communicating, "I like you for who you are," not "I like you when you behave the right way."

Fostering a Feeling of Safety

Students can't learn unless they feel safe. When it comes to student trauma, there is much that is beyond educators' power, but there is also a great deal they can do to build a supportive and sensitive environment where students feel safe, comfortable, take risks, learn, and even heal.

Reflect & Discuss

➛ As Minahan writes, "Students can't learn if they don't feel safe." What small changes are you willing to try in your classroom to foster a sense of safety among traumatized students?

➛ Think about one of your students who struggles with behavior. How could you help him "switch the channel" when he is upset?

➛ Do you routinely share-and exchange ideas about-what's working with a traumatized student? How could you better improve lines of communication across the whole support team?

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Small changes in classroom interactions can make a big difference for traumatized students.

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The Impact of Natural Disaster on Children's Mental Health

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The Impact of Natural Disaster on Children's Mental Health

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The impact of Natural Disaster-related ACES on children’s mental health. (2021, September 28). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-13ovDDq8jw&ab_channel=KidsXpress

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The impact of Natural Disaster-related ACES on children’s mental health

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Which Children Are the Most Vulnerable to Natural Disasters?

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Which Children Are the Most Vulnerable to Natural Disasters?

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Children are more likely to have physical- or mental health problems after a natural disaster if they:

Were exposed to other forms of violence or trauma after the disaster.

Were exposed to multiple potentially life-threatening disaster events.

Thought their life was in danger

Experienced multiple stressors in the recovery period

Missed school days.

Are members of underserved or marginalized groups.

Understanding the Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children | Society for Research in Child Development SRCD. (2020, August 13). Society for Research in Child Development. Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://www.srcd.org/research/understanding-impacts-natural-disasters-children

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Understanding the Impacts of Natural Disasters on Children | Society for Research in Child Development SRCD

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Natural disasters present a significant threat to children's health and well-being. Actions are needed now to mitigate this threat. Greater investments in infrastructure, remediation efforts, and more effective, evidence-based responses will help promote healthy development among children exposed to natural disasters.

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Common Symptoms After Natural Disasters 

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Common Symptoms After Natural Disasters 

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Preschool—Regressive behaviors, decreased verbalization, increased anxiety.

Elementary—Poor attention/concentration, school avoidance, irritability, clinginess, aggression, somatic complaints, nightmares, social withdrawal.

Middle and High School—Sleeping and eating disturbances, agitation, increase in conflicts, physical complaints, delinquent behavior, and poor concentration.

Large-Scale Natural Disasters: Helping Children Cope. (n.d.). National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources-and-podcasts/school-safety-and-crisis/natural-disaster-resources/large-scale-natural-disasters-helping-children-cope

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National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)

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Large-scale disasters, such as major hurricanes or earthquakes, can have a strong emotional effect even for people not directly affected by the disasters. The scope of devastation and loss of life can be very disturbing and hard to comprehend. Common reactions include sadness, concern for loved ones in affected areas, anxiety over a large scale disaster occurring at home, and the strong desire to help. Adults can help children by supporting their emotional and psychological needs, helping them understand the events factually, and providing the opportunity to process their reactions, as needed.

Identify vulnerable children and youth. The degree to which children are affected will vary depending on personal circumstances. Most vulnerable are children who:

Had family members killed, injured, or missing in the disaster.

Originally come from or have family still living in devastated communities.

Have a strong sense of religious or cultural identity with the affected countries.

Live in potentially vulnerable areas.

Are survivors of other natural disasters.

Have recently lost a loved one, particularly a parent.

Suffer from posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, or other mental health disorder.

Talk to your children and students. At home or in class, take the time to discuss events factually. Use a map or globe and provide relevant information about seismology, geography, cultural issues, emergency and public health services, and more. Allow children to discuss their feelings and concerns, and encourage questions. However, some children may not want or need to talk about the event so do not force them to talk. Acknowledge and normalize their feelings. Let them know that others share their feelings and that their reactions are common and expected.

Be a good listener and observer. Let children guide you as to how concerned they are or how much information they need. If they are not focused on the tragedy, don't dwell on it. Be available to answer their questions to the best of your ability. Young children may not be able to express themselves verbally. Pay attention to changes in their behavior or social interactions. Most school-age children and adolescents can discuss their thoughts and feelings, although they may need you to provide an opening to start a conversation.

Highlight people's compassion and humanity. Large-scale tragedies often generate a tremendous outpouring of caring and support from around the world. Focus on the aid being provided by governments, nonprofit aid agencies, and individual donors. Discuss the difficult and complicated process of getting aid to the most severely affected areas and the cooperation between leaders and people of so many nations.

Do something positive with your children or students to help others in need. Taking action is one of the most powerful ways to help children feel more in control and to build a stronger sense of connection. Suggestions include making individual donations to international disaster relief organizations, holding a school or community fundraiser, or even working to support families in need within the community.

Emphasize people's resiliency. Help children understand the ability of people to come through a tragic event and go on with their lives. Focus on children's own competencies in terms of their daily life and in difficult times. In age appropriate terms, identify other disasters from which communities or countries have recovered.

Be honest. Acknowledge your thoughts and feelings, but remain calm and reassuring. Be sure your comments are age appropriate, but know that even young children will feel more reassured and closer to you if you are honest. For older children in particular, it is okay to admit that you feel sad, perhaps a little helpless, and that you wish you could to do more. Balance statements of concern with information about available emergency preparedness and response systems.

Limit exposure to media coverage. It is important to stay informed, but exposure to endless news may not be helpful. Images of the disaster itself and the resulting human suffering from injury, hunger, and disease can become overwhelming. Young children in particular cannot distinguish between media images and their personal reality. Older children may choose to watch the news, but caregivers need to be available to discuss what they see and help put it into perspective.

Maintain as much continuity and normalcy as possible. At home, spending family time doing regular activities, including eating meals together, reinforces children's sense of stability and connectedness. At school, allowing students to deal with their reactions is important but so is providing a sense of normalcy. Regular classes, after school activities, and friends can help students feel more secure and better able to function.

Know potential child and adolescent reactions to trauma. Most children will be able to cope with their concerns over current events with the help of parents and other caring adults. Symptoms may differ depending on age. Common reactions include:

Preschoolers-thumb sucking, bedwetting, clinging to parents, sleep disturbances, loss of appetite, fear of the dark, regression in behavior, and withdrawal from friends and routines.

Elementary school children-irritability, aggressiveness, clinginess, nightmares, school avoidance, poor concentration, and withdrawal from activities and friends.

Adolescents-sleeping and eating disturbances, agitation, increase in conflicts, physical complaints, delinquent behavior, and poor concentration.

However, some children may be at risk of more extreme reactions because of personal circumstances. Adults should contact a professional if children exhibit significant changes in behavior or any of the above symptoms over an extended period of time.

Resources

All handouts referenced above can be accessed at http://www.nasponline.org/resources /crisis_safety/index.aspx. There are many organizations and agencies with helpful information about helping children and families cope with natural disasters and other crises.

© 2017, National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814, 301-657-0270, www.nasponline.org

Please cite this document as:

National Association of School Psychologists. (2017). Large-scale natural disasters: Helping children cope [handout]. Bethesda, MD: Author.

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Large-Scale Natural Disasters: Helping Children Cope

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Large-scale disasters, such as major hurricanes or earthquakes, can have a strong emotional effect even for people not directly affected by the disasters. The scope of devastation and loss of life can be very disturbing and hard to comprehend.

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American School Counselor Association's recommended strategies to help children after a natural disaster:

Try and keep routines as normal as possible. Kids gain security from the predictability of routine, including attending school.

Limit exposure to the news.

Be honest with kids and share with them as much information as they are developmentally able to handle.

Listen to kids’ fears and concerns.

Reassure kids that the world is a good place to be, but that there are people who do bad things.

Rebuild and reaffirm attachments and relationships.

Natural Disaster Resources - American School Counselor Association (ASCA). (n.d.). American School Counselor Association. Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://www.schoolcounselor.org/Publications-Research/Publications/Free-ASCA-Resources/Natural-Disaster-Resources

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Natural Disaster Resources - American School Counselor Association (ASCA)

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A handbook with tips for student, teachers, parents, etc, on how to recover from traumatic events.

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Specific Tips for Teachers on How to Help Students After a Disaster

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Specific Tips for Teachers on How to Help Students After a Disaster

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Some examples:

Acknowledge and normalize their feelings.

Strengthen social bonds and peer support.

Maintain structure and routines.

Shorter lesson plans.

Slower pace.

Stick to the facts.

Allow creative expressions

Active tasks.

How to Help Students After a Disaster. (2020, October 1). California Teachers Association. Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://www.cta.org/educator/posts/trauma-how-to-help

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Remain calm and reassuring: "We will be OK."

Acknowledge and normalize their feelings. Use active listening. There are no wrong feelings.

Encourage students to use multiple forms to express their feelings about disaster-related events. Don't force it. Follow their lead.

Promote positive coping and problem-solving skills. Review spaces and activities they can use when feeling upset. Be flexible and model the skills.

Emphasize their resilience and community resilience. Focus on what they have done before to feel better when upset. Identify the helpers.

Strengthen social bonds and peer supports. Assign collaborative group work. Encourage them to be kind to each other.

Take care of you.

Classroom Specifics

Maintain structure and routine.

Shorter lesson plans.

Slower pace.

More time for personal expression and discussion.

Plan hands-on activities.

Structured opportunities for positive social connections.

Expect an overall performance decline.

Model positive coping skills.

Stick to the facts.

Limit media exposure.

Classroom Activities

Elementary - Creative expressions, including drawing, writing and talking about memories, feelings and thoughts. Hands-on/active tasks, including organizing or building projects like scrapbooks or replicas, to give them a chance to organize chaotic or confusing events.

Secondary - Creative expression like art, music, poetry, or keeping a journal to describe their feelings and experiences. Active tasks, including developing a disaster plan for their home or school, or facilitating community involvement.

Special Report: Teaching Through Trauma

This is part of our series that looks at how educators are handling students with trauma. Read more:

Stories

Resources

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Remain calm and reassuring: "We will be OK." Acknowledge and normalize their feelings. Use active listening. There are no wrong feelings. Encourage students to use multiple forms to express their feelings about disaster-related events. Don't force it. Follow their lead. Promote positive coping and problem-solving skills.

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The affect that divorce has on children depends. If the child is removed from a very turbulent environment the effect is good, it can also be bad or neutral.

Children whose parents exhibit extreme conflicts have the most difficulty establishing relationships later on in life even if their parents do not divorce.

There was a study where stress hormone levels were measured after being in a stressful talk in people whose parents were or were not divorced. The people whose stress levels stayed elevated the longest were the ones whose parents had a bad communication and maybe hated each other but were still married. Children whose parents had a bad relationship but then got a divorce were able to lower their stress hormones faster than those whose parents stuck together even after years of fighting.

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The impact of divorce on children: Tamara D. Afifi at TEDxUCSB

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Parental Conflict: the Impact on Children

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Parental Conflict: the Impact on Children

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Children who see frequent conflict in their house are more likely to experience depression, adverse health and perform poorly in school.It may be helpful to model conflict resolution techniques in the classroom. You can set up a stop light chart where students can demonstrate they are at a red light where they are angry and cannot solve problems, at a yellow light they feel they are still in the middle of the problem but they have some willingness to solve it and at a green light they are ready to solve the problem. Get students to learn to own their emotions and talk about how they feel.

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Parental conflict: the impact on children