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Indian Buddhist begin to arrive in Indonesia (year 200’s)

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Indian Buddhist begin to arrive in Indonesia (year 200’s)

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5th century - Purnawarman rules the Tarumanagara Kingdom

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5th century - Purnawarman rules the Tarumanagara Kingdom

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JAKARTA - Readers, do you know that Banten, West Java, and DKI Jakarta were once under the rule of the Tarumanegara Kingdom? This information is explained by Deni Prasetya in the book Knowing Islamic Kingdoms. Not only is it the oldest kingdom, but Tarumanegara is also known as a Hindu-style kingdom with the Vishnu sect. Although its glory has lasted a long time, there are several historical remains of the Tarumanegara kingdom that can still be found today.

Tarumanegara Kingdom is estimated to have been founded in the 4th century AD by Rajadirajaguru Jayasingawarman. The kingdom had a large area of power, namely in West Java or Sunda (including Banten and Jakarta).

In the 5th century AD, King Purnawarman succeeded in bringing Tarumanegara to its glorious period. For his services, he is remembered on the inscription and is called the king who succeeded in building a megaproject. One of the major projects made by Purnawarman is infrastructure development on the Citarum River.

The Megaproject of the Raja Purnawarman Citarum River which is eternal to the present day

Do you still remember the legend of Sangkuriang? The story became folklore which indirectly followed the history of the development of the Citarum River.

It is said that Sangkuriang killed Tumang, the dog who was loved by his family. Without realizing it, Tumang is the incarnation of the god as well as the father of Sangkuriang. Because of the tragedy, the mother was furious with her child and hit Sangkuriang with a rice bowl on Sangkuriang's head until he was injured. Due to his mother's harsh treatment, angry and disappointed Sangkuriang decided to run away from home.

Long story short, Sangkuriang, who had been wandering for years, suddenly missed his hometown. Sangkuriang went to the village where he spent his childhood. At that time he met a beautiful woman who made him fall in love, the Dayang Sumbi. What was unexpected, the woman who managed to win Sangkuriang's heart turned out to be his mother.

Dayang Sumbi, who knew that the man who proposed to her was none other than her son, tried to put forward two conditions in the hope of thwarting Sangkuriang's proposal.

The first condition is damming the river and the second condition is to build a big boat to cross the river. Both conditions must be fulfilled within one night. Of course, by all means, Dayang Sumbi tried to thwart Sangkuriang's efforts. In the end, Dayang Sumbi's attempt to do away with Sangkuriang's effort was successful.

Disappointed, Sangkuriang kicked the boat which was later believed to be the origin of Tangkuban Parahu. Sangkuriang also damaged the river that he was damaging to become the forerunner of the Citarum River.

The word "Citarum" comes from two words, "Ci" and "Tarum". "Ci" or "Cai" in Sundanese means water. Meanwhile, "Tarum" is a type of plant that produces purple or indigo. Usually used for traditional textile dyes.

In the citarum.org site, it is stated that the river which has its head at Mount Wayang, Bandung Regency, is the longest and largest river in West Java Province. The length of the river flows up to 297 Km and almost stretches West Java.

The source of Citarum water comes from the spring of Mount Wayang (south of Bandung City) which then flows north through the Bandung Basin and empties into the Java Sea.

In the Wangsakerta manuscript, as quoted from indonesia.go.id website, it is said that during the reign of Sri Maharaja Purnawarman, the third king of Tarumanegara built a giant project from the 3rd of Jesta (May/June) to the 12th of Asada (June/July) year 419 in Citarum.

Purnawarman ordered dredging and deepening of the Citarum River for irrigation and flood control. The Citarum River itself is dredged from the Bandung Basin, a basin surrounded by volcanoes with a height of 650 meters above sea level to more than 2000 meters above sea level.

Seven Inscription Relics of the Tarumanegara Kingdom

The size of the Tarumanegara Kingdom is indeed told in the inscriptions that have been researched by historians and archaeologists. In fact, Tarumanegara itself has seven inscriptions that tell the size of their kingdom and tell the services of Purnawarman, the king who succeeded in building a big project. Then, what are the relics of the Tarumanegara inscription?

Ciaruteun Inscription

It is located in the Leuwiliang area, Bogor. In the inscription depicted a pair of feet with the information that these feet belonged to King Purnawarman. Apart from the soles of the feet are also depicted spiders and circular curly letters.

"The two feet of King Purnawarman, the king of Taruma, the brave king," reads the inscription.

In addition, there are also paintings of spiders and circular curly letters. There are several opinions that say that the letter is the signature of King Purnawarman.

Guava Inscription

As the name suggests, this inscription was found in a guava plantation on the Koleyangkak Sand dunes, Leuwiliang, Bogor (30 km West of Bogor). The inscription also contains information related to Purnawarman's footprint.

"These footprints are the footprints of Sri Purnawarman, the king of Tarumanegara. The high Majesty is well-known, brave, honest, and loyal in carrying out his duties and is matchless. The high Majesty has always succeeded in destroying his enemies. The high Majesty respects the princes but is greatly feared by his enemies, and protects those who provide assistance to him.

Pasir Awi Inscription

This inscription was found in Pasir Awi, Bogor. In the cultural site.kemdikbud.go.id, it is said that an archaeologist from the Netherlands, N.W. Hoepermans discovered the inscription for the first time in 1864.

In the inscription carved a pair of the same footprints as the one in the Jambu inscription. This means that the image of the footprint is likely to be considered to be the footprint of Sri Purnawarman.

Kebun Kopi Inscription

Found in Muara Hilir village, Cibungbulan Bogor. Like other inscriptions, the soles of the feet are also engraved on the rock face. In the inscription it is written, "the soles of the feet are like the feet of tears. Airawata is the elephant vehicle of Indra. These are the feet of the ruler of the great Taruma state".

Muara Cianten Inscription

Found in Muara Cianten, Bogor. In this inscription, again found an image which is considered the sole of Purnawarman's feet. Unfortunately, until now the inscriptions cannot be read. This inscription was first reported by N.W. Hoepermans in 1864.

Tugu Inscription

Found in Tugu, Cilincing area, DKI Jakarta (adjacent to the border with Bekasi). On the surface of the inscription tells the depiction of Purnamarwan.

"Previously, the river named Candra Hhaga was (ordered) to be dug by Maharaja Purnamarwan. The noble Maharaja has strong arms. After arriving at the famous royal palace, the river was poured out into the sea. In the 22nd year of the glorious throne king Purnawarman, who shone with intelligence and wisdom and became the standard of all kings. His Majesty also ordered to dig a beautiful, clear river called Gomati after the river flowed in the noble residence of Grandma the priest (the Purnawarman). This work was started on a good day on the 8th half of the evening of the month of Phalguna and was finished on the 13th half of the light of the month of Caitra, it was only 21 days while the excavation was 6122 long. The ceremony (salvation) was performed by the Brahmins accompanied by 1000 cows to be sacrificed."

Lebak Or Cidanghiang Inscription

Found in Lebak village which is located on the banks of the Cidanghiang river, Muncul sub-district, Pandeglang District, Banten. This inscription first appeared in the report of the head of the Antiquities Service Toebagoes Roesjan in 1947.

This inscription is also often referred to as the Cidanghiang inscription or the Munjul inscription. This inscription also tells the figure of Purnawarman.

"This is a sign of nobility of Purnawarman. You are a great and brave king. You are the king of the world and become the banner of all kings."

The Lebak inscription also tells about the boundaries of the Tarumanegara kingdom, which in the west is bordered by the sea, in the south by the sea, in the east by the Citarum River, and in the north by Karawang.

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The English, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, French, and Spanish versions are automatically generated by the system. So there may still be inaccuracies in translating, please always see Indonesian as our main language. (system supported by DigitalSiber.id)

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historical relics of the tarumanegara kingdom

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Historical Relics Of Tarumanegara Kingdom: Citarum River As His Majesty Purnawarman's Mega Project

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Share: JAKARTA - Readers, do you know that Banten, West Java, and DKI Jakarta were once under the rule of the Tarumanegara Kingdom? This information is explained by Deni Prasetya in the book Knowing Islamic Kingdoms. Not only is it the oldest kingdom, but Tarumanegara is also known as a Hindu-style kingdom with the Vishnu sect.

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Borobudur, massive Buddhist monument in central Java, Indonesia, 26 miles (42 km) northwest of Yogyakarta. The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art. The monument was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991.

Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 ce, under the Shailendra dynasty. It was buried under volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with vegetation until discovered by the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814. A team of Dutch archaeologists restored the site in 1907-11. A second restoration was completed by 1983.

Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone, Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels-a square base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular terraces-totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections (the number nine is mystic in Buddhism). The centre, 115 feet (35 metres) above the base, consists of a large individual stupa.

Each of the monument's three main levels represents a stage on the way to the bodhisattva ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at the eastern stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument's nine levels before reaching the top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is partially hidden, are hundreds of reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu ("the realm of feeling"), the lowest sphere of the Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the middle sphere and "the realm of form") through events in the life of the Gautama Buddha and scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The upper level illustrates arupa-dhatu, "the realm of formlessness," or detachment from the physical world; there is little decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas, many still containing a statue of the Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework. During the Waicak ceremony, which occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the Buddha's birth, death, and enlightenment.

For further treatment of the architecture and symbolism of the monument, see Southeast Asian arts: Borobudur.

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Borobudur | UNESCO World Heritage Site, Java, Indonesia | Britannica

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Borobudur, massive Buddhist monument in central Java, Indonesia, 26 miles (42 km) northwest of Yogyakarta. The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology),

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Mid 9th century - Hindu Prambanan temple built

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Mid 9th century - Hindu Prambanan temple built

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History of Prambanan Temple - Prambanan Temple is a Hindu-style temple complex located in Sleman, Yogyakarta. This temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang Temple. Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia. The history of this temple was first built in the 9th century AD during the Mataram or Medang Kingdom.

According to the Siwagrha inscription, the original name of this temple is Siwagrha Temple, which in Sanskrit means Shiva's House. This temple was built as an offering to the Trimurti, namely the 3 main Hindu gods, namely Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. But indeed Lord Shiva is preferred in this temple.

Prambanan Temple is located in Prambanan District, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta and Prambanan District, Klaten Regency, Central Java. This temple is located between 2 sub-districts from 2 different provinces. This means that this temple is located on the border of Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. click here to see Prambanan temple on the maps.

Prambanan Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This temple is claimed to be the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia and one of the most beautiful temples in Southeast Asia. As a cultural heritage, this temple is one of the tourist attractions visited by local and foreign tourists every year.

History of Prambanan Temple

The following will explain in detail the history of Prambanan Temple, starting from the origin and background of the temple, the development process, the legend that developed in the community as well as the rediscovery and restoration of the damaged temple building.

The Origin of Prambanan Temple

The history of this Prambanan temple began when the archipelago was still in the era of the Hindu-Buddhist Kingdom. The construction of this temple was initiated by Rakai Pikatan. He tried to build a magnificent Hindu-style temple to match the Buddhist-style Borobudur Temple that had been built previously.

The construction of the Prambanan temple is also thought to be aimed at marking the return of the Sanjaya family to power in Java. Indeed, there was a rivalry between the Sanjaya dynasty who were Hindus and the Buddhist Sailenda dynasty regarding their power in Java.

The construction of the temple became a transition from a Buddhist to a Hindu style in the Mataram or Medang Kingdom. Prambanan Temple was also built to glorify Lord Shiva. The original name of this building in Sanskrit is Siwagrha temple or Siwalaya temple.

Prambanan Temple Construction Process

The temple building was first built around 850 AD by Rakai Pikatan. Then the development process was continued by the next kings such as King Lokapala and King Balitung Mah Sambu. The process of building the temple is also accompanied by changes in the water system and the areas around the temple so that the temple is more awake.

The temple complex was built periodically and continued by other kings such as King Daksa and King Tulodong. Hundreds of additional temples were also built around the main temple building as a companion temple.

After that, a very magnificent temple building was formed. The splendor of the Prambanan temple also received wide acceptance from the people of that era. This temple is dedicated to Trimurti, the three main Hindu gods, namely Brahma as the creator god, Vishnu as the preserver god, and Shiva as the destroyer god.

Inside the Shiva temple as the main temple, there is a Shiva statue in the garbhagriha or main room. Archaeologists believe that the statue is a statue of the embodiment of King Balitung.

The splendor of this temple makes Prambanan the great temple of the Mataram Kingdom. Prambanan Temple serves as a meeting place, rituals, and important royal ceremonies. also read The History of Borobudur Temple and Its Origin Story

The Legend of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was abandoned around 930 AD. This is most likely caused by the violent eruption of Mount Merapi in the north of the Prambanan temple. The capital of the Mataram kingdom was moved to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who later founded the Isyana dynasty.

Another possible cause for the transfer of the capital is a war or power struggle. As a result, the Prambanan temple became neglected and neglected. The temple building began to crumble and collapse. After an earthquake in the 16th century, the Prambanan temple became increasingly damaged.

After the split of the Mataram Sultanate in 1755 AD, the ruins of this temple became the boundary between the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate. At that time, many local residents knew the existence of this temple, but did not know its history and origin.

At that time, developed myths and fairy tales about the origin of the existence of the temple. The fairy tale tells the story of thousands of temples that were built in one night with the help of spirits at the request of Rara Jonggrang's daughter, but then the princess was cursed to become a statue for cheating.

The story became so famous that the temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang Temple. Even today, the story of the construction of the temple in 1 night is still widely told as part of the legend of the community

Discovery and Restoration of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was later discovered by CA. Lons from the Netherlands in 1733. This temple also attracted the attention of many circles during the British occupation of Java. Governor General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles then ordered further investigation of the ruins of this temple.

Then around 1855, a massive demolition was carried out to restore the temple building. Even so, many statues and temple stones were taken carelessly by local residents. The serious restoration of the Prambanan temple only began in the 1930s.

The renovation of the temple was carried out by Dutch archaeologists and then continued by native Indonesians. Restoration efforts continue to be carried out even today. The restoration of the Shiva temple, the main temple of the complex, was completed in 1953 and inaugurated by President Soekarno.

In 1991, Prambanan Temple was officially included in the World Heritage Site protected by UNESCO. Some parts of the temple also continue to be maintained and restored, especially after the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006 which had damaged several statues and temple buildings.

So that's a brief explanation of the history of the Prambanan temple and the origin of the Prambanan temple in full. Currently Prambanan temple is also one of the tourist attractions visited by many local and foreign tourists. So many references to the history of Prambanan temple this time.

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Study Sociology at University of Indonesia

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The History of Prambanan Temple and Its Origin & Story - Sinaumedia

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History of Prambanan Temple - Prambanan Temple is a Hindu-style temple complex located in Sleman, Yogyakarta. This temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang Temple. Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia. The history of this temple was first built in the 9th century AD during the Mataram or Medang Kingdom.

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January 1 1222 - East Java ruled by King Dharmawangsa and the Singasari kingdom

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January 1 1222 - East Java ruled by King Dharmawangsa and the Singasari kingdom

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Dharmavamsa, also spelled Dharmawangsja, or Dharmawangsa, (died c. 1007, Java [now in Indonesia]), king of eastern Java from about 985 and the first historical Javanese whose life is known in any detail. Dharmavamsa was a Saivite king whose reign is noted for its literary achievements, including a translation of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata into Javanese.

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Aceh (pronounced AH-chay) is a province on the northwest tip Sumatra with about 5.3 million people. It contains dense tropical rain forests and jungles, rubber, palm oil and coconut plantations and farms with cocoa trees. It is regarded as the most devoutly Muslim area in Indonesia.

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1289 - Kertanegara, ruler of Singasari, refuses to pay tribute to Kublai Khan’s emissaries

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1289 - Kertanegara, ruler of Singasari, refuses to pay tribute to Kublai Khan’s emissaries

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Singhasari, kingdom based in eastern Java that emerged in the first half of the 13th century after the decline of the kingdom of Kadiri. Singhasari's first king, Ken Angrok (or Ken Arok), defeated the king of Kadiri, Kertajaya, in 1222. The last king of Singhasari, Kertanagara (reigned 1268-92), was able to unite eastern Java temporarily. Toward the end of Kertanagara's reign, Kublai Khan, the great khan of the Mongols and the emperor of China, sent an envoy to Singhasari demanding homage, but Kertanagara refused and even insulted Kublai's ambassador. Soon thereafter the ruler of Kadiri, Jayakatwang, rebelled against Singhasari and killed Kertanagara, thus ending the period of Singhasari dominion. The temples built during Singhasari's rule are considered great examples of Hindu-Javanese arts. They mark the gradual transformation of Hindu architecture into Javanese forms and also reflect the increasing syncretism of Hinduism and Buddhism, which culminated in Kertanagara's Shiva- Buddha cult.

Virginia Gorlinski.

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Singhasari | Javanese Empire, Majapahit, East Java

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Singhasari, kingdom based in eastern Java that emerged in the first half of the 13th century after the decline of the kingdom of Kadiri. Singhasari's first king, Ken Angrok (or Ken Arok), defeated the king of Kadiri, Kertajaya, in 1222. The last king of Singhasari, Kertanagara (reigned 1268-92),

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Marco Polo (1254-1324) was a Venetian merchant believed to have journeyed across Asia at the height of the Mongol Empire. He first set out at age 17 with his father and uncle, traveling overland along what later became known as the Silk Road. Upon reaching China, Marco Polo entered the court of powerful Mongol ruler Kublai Khan, who dispatched him on trips to help administer the realm. Marco Polo remained abroad for 24 years. Though not the first European to explore China-his father and uncle, among others, had already been there-he became famous for his travels thanks to a popular book he co-authored while languishing in a Genoese prison.

Marco Polo: The Early Years

Marco Polo was born around 1254 into a prosperous merchant family in the Italian city-state of Venice. His father, Niccolò, and his uncle Maffeo had left the year before on a long-term trading expedition. As a result, he was raised by extended relatives following his mother's death at a young age. Niccolò and Maffeo first spent about six years in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), which had been under Latin control since the Fourth Crusade of 1204. The two brothers then went to the port city of Soldaia (now Sudak, Ukraine), where they owned a house.

Did you know? Christopher Columbus purportedly sailed to the New World with a copy of Marco Polo's "Travels" in tow. Thinking he would reach Asia and having no idea about the Mongol Empire's collapse, Columbus marked up the book with notes in preparation for a meeting with Kublai Khan's descendent.

The Byzantine re-conquest of Constantinople in 1261, along with upheavals in the Mongol Empire, may have blocked their way home. Niccolò and Maffeo therefore turned east in order to trade in such things as silk, gems, furs and spices. After spending three years in Bukhara in present-day Uzbekistan, they were encouraged by a Mongolian embassy to visit Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, who controlled a huge swath of Asia. Kublai quizzed them on European affairs and decided to send them on a goodwill mission to the pope. In 1269, the two brothers finally made it back to Venice, where Niccolò and Marco Polo met each other for the first time.

Marco Polo's Travels Along the Silk Road

Two years later, Niccolò and Maffeo sailed to Acre in present-day Israel, this time with Marco at their side. At the request of Kublai Khan, they secured some holy oil from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and then backtracked to Acre to pick up gifts, papal documents and two friars from newly elected Pope Gregory X. The friars quickly abandoned the expedition, but the Polos continued on, possibly by camel, to the Persian port city of Hormuz. Failing to find any boats to their liking, they instead took a series of overland traders' routes that, in the 19th century, would become known as the Silk Road.

Over the next three years they slowly trekked through deserts, high mountain passes and other rough terrain, meeting people of various religions and cultures along the way. Finally, around 1275, they arrived at Kublai Khan's opulent summer palace at Shangdu, or Xanadu, located about 200 miles northwest of his winter quarters in modern Beijing.

Kublai, who generally relied on foreigners to administer his empire, took Marco Polo into his court, possibly as a tax collector. At one point, the Venetian was sent on official business to the port city of Hangzhou (then called Quinsai), which, like Venice, was built around a series of canals. Marco Polo also purportedly journeyed across inland China and into present-day Myanmar.

After many years of seeking a release from service, the Polos finally secured permission from Kublai to escort a young princess to her intended husband Arghun, the Mongol ruler of Persia. In 1292 the Polos joined a flotilla of 14 boats that set out from Zaitun (now Quanzhou, China), stopped briefly in Sumatra and then landed in Persia 18 months later, only to find out that Arghun was dead.

The princess was made to marry Arghun's son. The Polos, meanwhile, stayed on with Arghun's brother for nine months before heading to Venice via Trebizond (now Trabzon, Turkey), Constantinople and Negrepont (now Euboea, Greece). They arrived home in 1295, the year after Kublai's death sent the Mongol Empire into an irrevocable decline.

Marco Polo in Venice

Shortly thereafter, Marco Polo was captured in battle by Venice's archrival Genoa. While in prison he met the Arthurian adventure writer Rustichello of Pisa, with whom he would collaborate on a 1298 manuscript called "Description of the World." It has since become better known as "The Travels of Marco Polo" or simply "The Travels." With the help of notes taken during his adventures, Marco Polo reverently described Kublai Khan and his palaces, along with paper money, coal, postal service, eyeglasses and other innovations that had not yet appeared in Europe. He also told partially erroneous self-aggrandizing tales about warfare, commerce, geography, court intrigues and the sexual practices of the people who lived under Mongol rule.

A Genoese-Venetian peace treaty in 1299 allowed Marco Polo to return home. He probably never left Venetian territory again. The following year, he married Donata Badoer, with whom he would have three daughters. Not much is known about his golden years except that he continued trading and litigated against a cousin. Marco Polo died in January 1324, having helped to inspire a later generation of explorers. Everything we know about him comes from his own text and a few Venetian documents; Asian sources never mentioned him.

This lack of hard evidence has caused a small number of skeptics to question whether Marco Polo actually made it to China. They back up their case by pointing to certain inaccuracies in "The Travels," as well as his failure to report such practices as chopstick use and foot binding. Nonetheless, most scholars are convinced by the detailed nature of Marco Polo's account, which, they say, overwhelmingly checks out against available archaeological, historical and geographical records.

Fact Check

We strive for accuracy and fairness. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate.

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Marco Polo (1254-1324) was a Venetian merchant believed to have journeyed across Asia at the height of the Mongol Empire. He first set out at age 17 with his father and uncle, traveling overland along what later became known as the Silk Road.

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Mid 14th century - Majapahit Kingdom become the most powerful under king Hayam Wuruk

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Mid 14th century - Majapahit Kingdom become the most powerful under king Hayam Wuruk

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Majapahit empire, the last Indianized kingdom in Indonesia; based in eastern Java, it existed between the 13th and 16th centuries. The founder of the empire was Vijaya, a prince of Singhasāri ( q.v.), who escaped when Jayakatwang, the ruler of Kaḍiri, seized the palace. In 1292 Mongol troops came to Java to avenge an insult to the emperor of China, Kublai Khan, by Kertanagara, the king of Singhasāri, who had been replaced by Jayakatwang. Vijaya collaborated with Mongol troops in defeating Jayakatwang; Vijaya then turned against the Mongols and expelled them from Java.

Under his rule the new kingdom, Majapahit, successfully controlled Bali, Madura, Malayu, and Tanjungpura. The power of Majapahit reached its height in the mid-14th century under the leadership of King Hayam Wuruk and his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Some scholars have argued that the territories of Majapahit covered present-day Indonesia and part of Malaysia, but others maintain that its territory was confined to eastern Java and Bali. Nonetheless, Majapahit became a significant power in the region, maintaining regular relations with China, Champa, Cambodia, Annam, and Siam (Thailand). The golden era of Majapahit was short-lived; the empire began to decline after the death of Gajah Mada in 1364, and it was further weakened after the death of Hayam Wuruk in 1389. The spread of Islām and the rise of the Islāmic states along the northern coast of Java eventually brought the Majapahit era to an end in the late 15th or early 16th century.

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

date

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Majapahit empire | historical kingdom, Indonesia

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Majapahit empire, the last Indianized kingdom in Indonesia; based in eastern Java, it existed between the 13th and 16th centuries. The founder of the empire was Vijaya, a prince of Singhasāri (q.v.), who escaped when Jayakatwang, the ruler of Kaḍiri, seized the palace. In 1292 Mongol troops came

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THE PORTUGUESE CONQUEST At the time of the Portuguese arrival in the Asian seas, Malacca thanks to its strategic position on the strait bearing the same name, was a remarkable trading center for the trade and shunting of spices. At that time, Malacca was ruled by a Muslim Sultan.

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20 March 1602 - Founding of the Dutch East India Company VOC

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20 March 1602 - Founding of the Dutch East India Company VOC

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https://dutchreview.com/culture/history/voc-dutch-east-india-company-explained/

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The Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) is a crucial part of Dutch history. If you've been living in the Netherlands for a couple of months or have some knowledge of the country, you'll have heard of the Dutch East India Company.

But a lot of the time, it's not entirely clear what this company was, what it did, and whether we should be proud or ashamed of it.

We're taking a deep dive into the world of the VOC. For over 200 years, the VOC brought the Netherlands international power and wealth while exploiting local populations, creating colonies, and trading in human beings.

The story of the VOC is complicated, and this is not an exhaustive history of it (if you want that, buy a book - or 10). This article offers a primer on the VOC: a less-than-casual introduction. Enjoy!

How did the VOC begin?

The VOC was established in 1602 as a chartered company whose goal was to trade with Mughal India, where most of Europe's cotton and silk originated. Quickly, the Dutch government gave it a 21-year monopoly on the spice trade with South Asian countries, and the company took off from there.

Sounds nice and simple, but the VOC soon became the first conglomerate company: a fancy way of saying they did many different things (like shipbuilding, slave trading, and colonisation) under the same company name.

What was the VOC?

In the early 1600s, the VOC became the first company listed on the stock exchange. Along with its worldwide reach and transnational employees, it is among the reasons the VOC was a forerunner of modern-day multinational corporations.

The VOC had powers that a corporation today would hopefully never have: it could wage war, take and execute prisoners, coin money, negotiate treaties, and establish colonies. It did all of this. As much as modern-day corporations like Google and Shell have way too much power, the VOC was a whole different level.

Where did the VOC operate?

The VOC started operating in India and South Asia in general. Over the next century, it expanded its operations to Mauritius, South Africa, Indonesia, Taiwan, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Not all of these locations were the sites of permanent settlements or even permanent trading posts: but listing them all here gives us a sense of how massive this company was. How did such a transnational company work in the age before instant communication? It was, in fact, far more than a company - it was also a war machine.

What was happening in the Netherlands when the VOC was in operation?

The VOC was ostensibly founded after a Dutch ship returned from South East Asia filled with very profitable spices in 1596. What was going on in the Netherlands that would have made this massive company worth investing in?

Put simply, the Netherlands was under threat. It had just declared its independence from Spain in 1581, forming the Dutch Republic. Quite an ambitious move, considering that the Spanish had the force of half of Europe behind them, considering how much of the continent they controlled at the time.

Given this vulnerability, you can see the advantages of drawing wealth from outside the tiny Dutch Republic and using it to shore up the newly established country against foreign control (while, of course, controlling other countries - but we're not talking about morality or even ideological consistency here).

The VOC is considered the first modern multinational company and first made use of many of the features we associate with modern corporations: think shareholders, corporate identity, legal personhood, separation of ownership and management, etc. This collection of innovations meant that the VOC could mobilise wealth so that only monarchies could before, giving it the sort of unprecedented power we see massive companies like Google and Shell making use of today.

When it comes to acquiring this wealth, the VOC was also innovative. It formed Amsterdam as the financial capital of the contemporary world. By allowing public members to invest in the company (rather than in things the company was doing, as had been the previous methodology for gathering money).

The VOC and war

A massive company like the VOC naturally attracted attention- and because of its dominance in international trade, that attention was mainly negative. It got into conflict with the British East India Company for obvious reasons: they were both going for the same thing.

Because of the weird space the VOC occupied - part company, part state - its trade objectives often aligned with military goals. For example, in 1667, when the Treaty of Breda was signed, ending the war with Britain, the VOC acquired sole control over the nutmeg trade.

Wars also played a role in the colonisation of different areas. In South Africa, a prolonged, low-level conflict with the local Khoikhoi population eventually resulted in Khoikhoi society breaking down and expanding European settlements in the area. There were three wars between the VOC and the Javanese in Indonesia, and in 1641, they took control of Malacca from the Portuguese.

The VOC and colonisation

One of the problems about the VOC is that people in the Netherlands aren't sure what it was. A business? A force for colonisation? A slave-trading enterprise? A force for bureaucracy in the world? The truth is that it was all these things and more.

How the VOC colonised South Africa

In the Cape, colonisation took place over almost two centuries. At first, Dutch settlers in South Africa were outnumbered by the local Khoikhoi population - for context, there were 200 Europeans and about 20,000 Khoikhoi. At first, the local people accepted this minimal presence.

The settlement at the Cape acted much more as a trading hub than a colony. Slowly, though, the VOC's plans for expansion became apparent: their transportation of slaves to the colony was just one symptom of their plans to settle a large colony of Europeans there.

In the 1660s, conflicts broke out between the Khoikhoi and the Dutch, and the Dutch burghers expanded their farms outwards. The Khoikhoi were defeated by the arrival of smallpox in South Africa. The disease arrived in 1713, and it killed off 90% of the Khoikhoi.

By the end of the 18th century, Khoikhoi society had disintegrated, and 20,000 Europeans were living in the Cape. In 1795, the British ceded the territory when Napoleon invaded the Netherlands during the Napoleonic Wars. At the end of the wars, the Netherlands formally handed over the Cape Colony to the British, whose colony it remained a part of until 1931.

The Dutch East Indies: what did the VOC do?

Colonisation in the Dutch East Indies is an intriguing topic because when you boil it down, "true" colonisation of the area only began once the VOC failed financially and was nationalised in an attempt to save it.

Territories that had belonged to the VOC became part of the Dutch Republic's territory - but this doesn't mean we don't consider the colonisation that was taking place before the nationalisation process.

For example, in Jakarta, then known as Batavia by the Dutch, the VOC grew cash crops there in the early seventeenth century. We can see this as a clear move from trading in the spices they had a monopoly on to growing crops they could also profit from land that was not theirs.

The VOC also took over the surrounding territory to safeguard these crops, increasing their power in the area. By the late seventeenth century, the VOC had become deeply embroiled in the internal politics of Jakarta, despite their initial intentions not to get involved in domestic affairs.

They encouraged divisions between the different kingdoms in the Indonesian archipelago (again, you've undoubtedly heard of the phrase 'divide and conquer' before) and took part in two wars against the kings of Mataram and Banten.

After the VOC collapsed in 1800, the trading posts and colonies in the Indonesian archipelago became nationalised as the Dutch East Indies.

The Dutch East India Company and slavery

The VOC also took part in slavery and slave trading during its two hundred years of activity. It exploited workers in the East Indies, sometimes engaging in slavery from its inception. However, its use of slaves picked up when it took control of the Cape in South Africa.

After realising that the backbreaking work of establishing a settlement there would need to be done by slaves, the VOC deliberated over enslaving the local Khoikhoi population, which vastly outnumbered them. When they determined that if they annoyed this group, they could easily be kicked out, they decided instead on importing slaves from Mauritius and the Dutch East Indies.

VOC slavery in the Cape

For much of the seventeenth century, the number of slaves in the Cape remained low - about 1000 at a time. Slaves mostly were taken from Ceylon, Madagascar and Malaya. Because the population was mostly male, it had to be constantly renewed with new slaves. In the eighteenth century, this number jumped to about 17,000 as the international slave trade increased. Most of the slaves in the Cape came from either East Africa or the VOC's territories in the Dutch East Indies.

VOC slavery in the Dutch East Indies

Slavery was also part of how the VOC operated in the Dutch East Indies, but the story there is more complicated. In their operations in South Africa, the VOC specifically transported slaves from other regions to exploit while building their colony. The VOC mainly used local slaves or slaves from the area in Asia.

Moreover, some of these slaves would have been already enslaved by their local community. But the presence of the VOC heightened the demand for slave labour, so just because slave labour was part of life in some Asian countries before their existence, the VOC is not absolved of guilt.

How the Dutch East India Company ended

Given that the VOC was so big, you would imagine that its end would have been quite catastrophic to the status of the Netherlands worldwide. You might also wonder what happened to this company to make it collapse in 1800 - after all, controlling a lot of the spice trade gives a company a fairly hefty advantage.

Methodology problems in the VOC

There were many problems with the VOC's operation in Asia - some of which were advantageous to it earlier. However, as time progressed into the eighteenth century, cracks began to show in the VOC's commercial prowess.

In contrast, the British East India Company would trade directly between Europe and, for example, China. One problem was that it brought all the goods it traded between Asia and Europe first to its trading posts in Asia to be sorted or stored. This meant that other companies were making faster journeys and providing fresher goods.

This was an advantage for the VOC at the beginning of its trading journey because they had had a better understanding of Asia commercially in a centralised place than their competitors did.

The Dutch East India Company staff

Another problem was its staff. The VOC was, frankly put, a terrible employer (like many modern-day multinational companies): it offered low wages. It forbade its staff to engage in private trading, meaning they had no opportunity to increase their wages legally.

Of course, many of them did: the VOC suffered huge amounts of corruption among its employees, mostly because making the journey to Asia wouldn't have been financially worth it for them without this extra income.

The financial bounty had to be good because we're talking about a fairly dangerous time for travelling the world. War, illnesses from different parts of the world, malnutrition, and some nice venereal diseases killed plenty of VOC staff.

The VOC did not understand maths

Finally, there could be termed a mathematical problem: the VOC paid its shareholders dividends over the profits they made from 1730 onwards. Let's say that again: the VOC decided to pay its shareholders more than it made. I am not a businessperson, but this is unequivocally a bad idea.

What this meant in practice was that the VOC did not have enough liquidity to finance its operations for the last seventy years it was active - it relied on short terms loans to do so. Eventually, things would have to change.

The VOC and war

And they did, but not in the way the VOC might have hoped. In 1780, the fourth Anglo-Dutch War began, and half of the VOC's fleet was destroyed. Furthermore, the war weakened the VOC's control of the Asian trading posts. The VOC was a complete financial mess after the war, as was the Dutch Republic, which didn't exist for almost thirty years after the Anglo-Dutch War ended.

From 1799, the VOC's contract was not renewed, and it ceased to exist. After the Congress of Vienna in 1814, some of the Netherlands' territories in Asia were returned to it, and these became colonies of the Netherlands.

Reception in Dutch society now

As a historian, I firmly believe that it's wrong to ignore how things in the past have shaped the present day. The VOC was a huge part of how the Dutch Republic functioned for almost two hundred years. Today, it affects the national image of the Netherlands and the people who make this country up. It also affects what we have in our museums and what lines the national coffers.

The "VOC mentality"

As we move into an era where colonialism is (happily) viewed as a negative thing, the image of the VOC in the Netherlands has become complicated and fraught with conflict. In 2006, the then-prime minister Jan Pieter Balkenende coined the term "VOC mentality" in a speech about Dutch commercial thinking and innovation.

Many people were offended by this association of the VOC with purely positive characteristics, without acknowledging the harm it caused over its two centuries of operation.

Dutch colonialism in society

In general, the Netherlands' colonial history has received much attention over the last decade. From the annual Zwarte Piet debates to the Mauritshuis' decision to take down the bust of its colonial founder, the country is slowly (very slowly) coming to terms with its past.

Museums have begun returning stolen objects to their countries of origin. Universities have started the complicated process of decolonising their curricula, and the Amsterdam Museum has decided to drop the phrase "Golden Age" from its permanent exhibition texts. The relatives of colonial victims in Indonesia will be heard in court.

The Dutch Golden Age: fool's gold

Part of the reason this reckoning is taking so long is that for a lot of Dutch people, the VOC's trading prowess coincided, and in part caused, the "Golden Age" of the Dutch Republic to occur. This was a time when a very small country held superpower status over much of the world and fended off its much larger and better-equipped enemies in Spain by controlling other parts of the world.

And in a world where global power is still glamorised and coveted, it is understandable (if not excusable) that many people want to hold on to the memory of the VOC nostalgically.

List for further reading

Dutch Colonialism, Migration and Cultural Heritage - Gert Oostindie

Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape - John Hunt

Four hundred years on: the public commemoration of the founding of the VOC in 2002 - Leonard Blussé

The VOC and the exchange - Henk den Heijer et al.

Batavia: Een koloniale samenleving in de 17de eeuw - Hendrik Niemeijer

What did you already know about the VOC? Let us know in the comments below!
Editor's Note: This article was originally published in December 2019 and was fully updated in June 2022 for your reading pleasure

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What was the VOC? The Dutch East India Company explained

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The Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) is a crucial part of Dutch history. If you've been living in the Netherlands for a couple of months or have some knowledge of the country, you'll have heard of the Dutch East India Company.

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https://www.britannica.com/event/Amboina-Massacre

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Amboina Massacre, execution that took place in Amboina (now Ambon, Indon.) in 1623, when 10 Englishmen, 10 Japanese, and one Portuguese were put to death by local Dutch authorities. The incident ended any hope of Anglo-Dutch cooperation in the area, a goal that both governments had been pursuing for several years, and marked the beginning of Dutch ascendancy in the Indies.

During the first quarter of the 17th century the Dutch East India Company had already established itself in Amboina, one of the Spice Islands (Maluku, formerly Moluccas). A Dutch garrison was stationed in Fort Victoria and a local Dutch governor was appointed. The English merchants associated with the British East India Company, however, were also attracted to the island, and their interests eventually came into conflict with those of the Dutch. Early in 1623 the Dutch local governor, Herman van Speult, believed that the English merchants, helped by Japanese mercenaries, planned to kill him and overwhelm the Dutch garrison as soon as an English ship arrived to support them. He then ordered the arrest of the alleged plotters. Under torture they admitted their guilt and were found guilty by the court of Amboina and executed in February 1623. The term massacre was applied to this incident by the English.

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Amboina Massacre | execution, Ambon, Indonesia [1623]

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Amboina Massacre, execution that took place in Amboina (now Ambon, Indon.) in 1623, when 10 Englishmen, 10 Japanese, and one Portuguese were put to death by local Dutch authorities. The incident ended any hope of Anglo-Dutch cooperation in the area, a goal that both governments had been pursuing for several years, and marked the beginning of Dutch ascendancy in the Indies.

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21 September 1628 - Batavia attacked by Sultan Agung

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21 September 1628 - Batavia attacked by Sultan Agung

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https://p2k.unkris.ac.id/id3/1-3065-2962/Major-Attacks-In-Batavia_42632_p2k-unkris.html

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Penyerbuan di Batavia 1628 - PUSAT ILMU PENGETAHUAN - Unkris

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Penyerbuan di Batavia 1628, PUSAT ILMU PENGETAHUAN.

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https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Breda

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Treaty of Breda, (July 31, 1667), treaty between England, the Dutch Republic, France, and Denmark, which brought to an inconclusive end the second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-67), in which France and Denmark had supported the Dutch. The Dutch had the military advantage during the war (fought mostly at sea) but were compelled to make peace quickly to deal with Louis XIV's invasion of the Spanish Netherlands in the War of Devolution. The English Navigation Acts were changed in favour of the Dutch to permit Dutch ships to carry to England goods that had come down the Rhine River. Several Dutch trading principles were accepted, including confining the definition of "contraband" to implements of war. The Dutch position in world trade had not been shaken, and England had failed to take over a part of the spice trade. England, however, received the New Netherland (New York, New Jersey) and some outposts in Africa from the Dutch, and recovered Antigua, Montserrat, and St. Kitts, in the West Indies, from France. The Dutch retained Surinam and, in the East Indies, Pulo Run. France retained French Guiana and recovered Acadia from England.

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Treaty of Breda, (July 31, 1667), treaty between England, the Dutch Republic, France, and Denmark, which brought to an inconclusive end the second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-67), in which France and Denmark had supported the Dutch.

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1811 - 1816 - British, led by Raffles, temporarily ruled Indonesia

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1811 - 1816 - British, led by Raffles, temporarily ruled Indonesia

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https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/The-French-and-the-British-in-Java-1806-15

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The fall of the Netherlands to France and the dissolution of the company led in due course to significant changes in the administration of the East Indies. Under Napoleon I the Batavian Republic became the Commonwealth of Batavia and then the Kingdom of Holland, with one of Napoleon's marshals, Herman Willem Daendels, serving as governor-general. Daendels strengthened Javanese defenses, raised new forces, built new roads within Java, and improved the internal administration of the island. He attempted to formalize the position of the Javanese regents, subordinating them to Dutch prefects and emphasizing their character as civil servants of a central government rather than as semi-independent local rulers.

In 1811 Java fell to a British East India Company force under Baron Minto, governor-general of India, who, after the surrender, appointed Thomas Stamford Raffles lieutenant governor. Raffles approached his task with the conviction that British administrative principles, modeled in part on those developed in Bengal, could liberate the Javanese from the tyranny of Dutch methods; he believed that liberal economic principles and the cessation of compulsory cultivation could simultaneously expand Javanese agricultural production, improve revenue, and make the island a market for British goods. Along with his liberalism, Raffles brought to his task a respect for Javanese society. Before his appointment he had been a student of Malay literature and culture, and during his period in Batavia (Jakarta) he encouraged the study of the society he found about him. Raffles rediscovered the ruins of the great Buddhist temple Borobudur in central Java and published his History of Java in 1817, a year after his return to England.

Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London

Raffles carried further the administrative centralization begun by Daendels and planned to group the regencies of Java into 16 residencies. By declaring all lands the property of the government and by requiring cultivators to pay a land rent for its use, he proposed to end the compulsory production system. This, he believed, would free the peasants from servility to their "feudal" rulers and from the burden of forced deliveries to the Dutch and allow them to expand their production under the stimulus of ordinary economic motives. Raffles oversimplified the complexities of traditional land tenure, however. He misread the position of the regents, whom he at first mistakenly believed to be a class of feudal landholders rather than an official aristocracy. (The regents, in fact, had no proprietary rights in the land of their subjects.) But despite a series of adjustments in his original plan, Raffles was unable to devise an effective means of applying his theories before the return of Java to Dutch hands as part of the general settlement following the defeat of Napoleon.

Dutch rule from 1815 to c. 1920

Before the 19th century, Indonesian societies had experienced considerable pressure from Europeans, but they had not been consumed by Western influences. The political order of Mataram had been eroded, and the first steps had been taken toward administrative centralization in Java. In the outer islands, local rulers had been forced to submit in some measure to the will of the Dutch headquartered in Batavia (Jakarta). The trading patterns of the archipelago had been changed and constricted. Nevertheless, these were superficial developments when seen against the continuing coherence and stability of Indonesian societies. They were superficial, also, compared with the Western impact still to come.

When the Dutch returned to Indonesia in 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, their main concern was to make the colony self-supporting. During the interregnum, both exports and revenue had declined sharply, despite Raffles's hopes for his land-rent system. The costs of government in Java were rising as a result of the growing complexity of administration. In restoring their authority, the Dutch retained the main outlines of the British system of residencies, regencies, and lower administrative divisions, though they did not, at first, follow exactly the attempts of Daendels and Raffles to turn the regents into salaried officials, specifically responsible to the residents. Rather, they saw the local regent as the "younger brother" of the Dutch resident. This difference in theory was perhaps of slight practical effect, since the tendency in lower levels of territorial administration continued in the direction of an increasingly centralized control. Several factors contributed to the trend: one was the need to deal with a series of disturbances, primarily in Java and western Sumatra but also on a smaller scale in Celebes, Borneo, and the Moluccas; a second was the new economic policy, adopted in 1830, which increased the economic responsibilities of local officials.

The Java War of 1825-30 precipitated from a number of causes. In part, it was the product of the disappointed ambitions of its leader, Prince Diponegoro, who had been passed over for the succession to the throne of Yogyakarta. It was also attributable, however, to growing resentment among the aristocratic landholders of Yogyakarta, whose contracts for the lease of their lands to Europeans had been canceled by the governor-general. There was support too from Islamic leaders, as well as other hidden factors-such as the expectation of the coming of a messianic Just Ruler, who would restore the harmony of the kingdom-that undoubtedly added to the climate of discontent. From this agitated atmosphere erupted a revolt that, through the skillful use of guerrilla tactics, continued to challenge Dutch authority for five years, until the Dutch seized Diponegoro during truce negotiations and exiled him to Celebes.

About the same time, the Dutch in western Sumatra were drawn into the so-called Padri War (named for Pedir, a town in Aceh through which Muslim pilgrims usually returned home from Mecca). Basically, the war was a religious struggle in Minangkabau country between revivalist Islamic leaders (called Padris) and the local adat ("customary law") leaders, who were supported by the Dutch. Under Tuanku Imam Bonjol, the Padri forces resisted Dutch pressure from the early 1820s until 1837. For the Dutch the effect of this involvement was inevitably a strengthening of administrative commitment in western Sumatra.

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Indonesia - The French and the British in Java, 1806-15

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Indonesia - Indonesia - The French and the British in Java, 1806-15: The fall of the Netherlands to France and the dissolution of the company led in due course to significant changes in the administration of the East Indies.

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1825 - 1830 - Prince Diponegoro led rebellion

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1825 - 1830 - Prince Diponegoro led rebellion

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The Java War or Diponegoro War was fought in central Java from 1825 - 1830, between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels. The war started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro, a leading member of the Javanese aristocracy who had previously cooperated with the Dutch.
The rebel forces laid siege to Yogyakarta, a move that prevented a quick victory. This gave the Dutch time to reinforce their army with colonial and European troops, allowing them to end the siege in 1825. After this defeat, the rebels continued fighting a guerrilla war for five years.
The war ended in a Dutch victory, and Prince Diponegoro was invited to a peace conference. He was betrayed and captured. Due to the cost of the war, Dutch colonial authorities implemented major reforms throughout the Dutch East Indies to ensure the colonies remained profitable.

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The Java War or Diponegoro War was fought in central Java from 1825 - 1830, between the colonial Dutch Empire and native Javanese rebels. The war started as a rebellion led by Prince Diponegoro, a leading member of the Javanese aristocracy who had previously cooperated with the Dutch.The rebel forces laid siege to Yogyakarta, a move that prevented a quick victory.

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Culture System | Colonialism, Dutch East India Co. & Oppression | Britannica

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Culture System, revenue system in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) that forced farmers to pay revenue to the treasury of the Netherlands in the form of export crops or compulsory labour. It was introduced in 1830 by Johannes van den Bosch, then governor-general of the Dutch East Indies. According

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1 January 1927 - PKI Communists revolts against the Dutch Colonial Government

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1 January 1927 - PKI Communists revolts against the Dutch Colonial Government

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4 July 1927 - Founding of Indonesia national Party

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4 July 1927 - Founding of Indonesia national Party

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Indonesian nationalism in the 20th century must be distinguished from earlier movements of protest; the Padri War, the Java War, and the many smaller examples of sporadic agrarian unrest had been "prenationalistic" movements, the products of local grievances. By contrast, the nationalism of the early 20th century was the product of the new imperialism and was part of wider currents of unrest affecting many parts of Africa and Asia that remained the subjects of Western colonialism. In Indonesia nationalism was concerned not merely with resistance to Dutch rule but with new perceptions of nationhood-embracing the ethnic diversity of the archipelago and looking to the restructuring of traditional patterns of authority in order to enable the creation of Indonesia as a modern state. It derived in part from specific discontents, the economic discriminations of colonial rule, the psychological hurt arising from the slights of social discrimination, and a new awareness of the all-pervading nature of Dutch authority. Important too was the emergence of the new elite, educated but lacking adequate employment opportunities to match that education, Westernized but retaining still its ties with traditional society.

The formation in 1908 of Budi Utomo ("Noble Endeavour") is often taken as the beginning of organized nationalism. Founded by Wahidin Sudirohusodo, a retired Javanese doctor, Budi Utomo was an elitist organization, the aims of which-though cultural rather than political-included a concern to secure a mutual accommodation between traditional culture and contemporary society. Numerically more important was Sarekat Islam ("Islamic Association"), founded in 1912. Under its charismatic chairman, Omar Said Tjokroaminoto, the organization expanded rapidly, claiming a membership of 2,500,000 by 1919. Later research suggests that the real figure was likely to have been no more than 400,000, but even with this greatly reduced estimate, Sarekat Islam was clearly much larger than any other movement of the time. In 1912 the Indies Party (Indische Partij)-primarily a Eurasian party-was founded by E.F.E. Douwes Dekker; banned a year later, it was succeeded by another Eurasian party, calling itself Insulinde, a poetic name for the East Indies. In 1914 the Dutchman Hendricus Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association, which became a communist party in 1920 and adopted the name Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia; PKI) in 1924.

By the end of World War I, there had thus emerged a variety of organizations, broadly nationalist in aim, but differing in their tactics and immediate goals and in the sharpness of their perceptions of independent nationhood. In the absence of firm party discipline, it was common for individuals to belong simultaneously to more than one organization, and, in particular, the presence of Indies Social Democratic Association members in Sarekat Islam enabled them to work as a "bloc within" the larger movement. The idea that the time was not yet ripe for communist parties to assume independent leadership of colonial nationalism later led the Soviet-founded Communist International (also known Comintern or the Third International) to formulate the strategy of cooperation with anti-imperialist "bourgeois" parties.

At the end of World War I, the Dutch, in an effort to give substance to their promise to associate the Indonesian community more closely with government, created the People's Council ( Volksraad). Composed of a mixture of appointed and elected representatives of the three racial divisions defined by the government-Dutch, Indonesian, and "foreign Asiatic"-the People's Council provided opportunities for debate and criticism but no real control over the government of the East Indies. Some nationalist leaders were prepared to accept seats in the assembly, but others refused, insisting that concessions could be obtained only through uncompromising struggle.

In 1921 the tension within Sarekat Islam between its more conservative leaders and the communists came to a head in a discipline resolution that insisted that members of Sarekat Islam belong to no other party; this, in effect, expelled the communist "bloc within," and there followed a fierce rivalry between the two for control of the grassroots membership of the organization. The PKI, once it had committed itself to independent action, began to move toward a policy of unilateral opposition to the colonial regime. Without the support of the Comintern, and even without complete unanimity within its own ranks, it launched a revolt in Java at the end of 1926 and in western Sumatra at the beginning of 1927. These movements, which had elements of traditional protest as well as of genuine communist insurrection, were easily crushed by the East Indies government, and communist activity was effectively ended for the remainder of the colonial period.

The defeat of the communist revolt and the earlier decline of Sarekat Islam left the way open for a new nationalist organization, and in 1926 a "general study club" was founded in Bandung, with a newly graduated engineer, Sukarno, as its secretary. The club began to reshape the idea of nationalism in a manner calculated to appeal to Indonesia's new urban elite. After the failure of the ideologically based movements of Islam and communism, nationalist thinking was directed simply to the idea of a struggle for independence, without any precommitment to a particular political or social order afterward. Such a goal, it was believed, could appeal to all, including Muslims and communists, who could at least support a common struggle for independence, even if they differed fundamentally about what was to follow. Nationalism, in this sense, became the idea that the young Sukarno used as the basis of his attempt to unify the several streams of anticolonial feeling. The ideas of the Bandung Study Club were reinforced by currents of thought emanating from Indonesian students in The Netherlands. Their organization, restructured in 1924 under the self-consciously Indonesian (as opposed to Dutch) name Perhimpunan Indonesia (Indonesian Union), became a centre of radical nationalist thought, and in the mid-1920s students returning from The Netherlands joined forces with like-minded groups at home.

The new nationalism required a new organization for its expression, and in July 1927 the Indonesian Nationalist Association, later the Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia; PNI), was formed under the chairmanship of Sukarno. The PNI was based on the idea of noncooperation with the government of the East Indies and was thus distinguished from those groups, such as Sarekat Islam, that were prepared to accept People's Council membership. Sukarno, however, while seeking to create a basis of mass support for the PNI, also attempted with some success to work together with more-moderate leaders and succeeded in forming in the party a broadly based, if rather precarious, association of nationalist organizations.

The nationalist sentiment resonated beyond political parties, however. On Oct. 28, 1928, a number of representatives of youth organizations issued the historic Youth Pledge (Sumpah Pemuda), whereby they vowed to recognize only one Indonesian motherland, one Indonesian people, and one Indonesian language. It was a landmark event in the country's history and also is considered the founding moment of the Indonesian language.

At the end of 1929, Sukarno was arrested with some of his colleagues and was tried, convicted, and sentenced to four years in prison. He was released at the end of 1931, but by then the united movement he helped to create had begun to disintegrate. The PNI dissolved itself and reformed as Partindo. A number of other groups came together to form a new organization, the Indonesian National Education Club, known as the New PNI. While Partindo saw itself as a mass party on the lines of the old PNI, the New PNI, under the leadership of Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir, aimed at training cadres who could maintain continuing leadership of the movement should its leaders be arrested.

In 1933 Sukarno was arrested again and exiled to Flores; he later was transferred to Bengkulu in southern Sumatra. Repressive action followed against other party leaders, including Hatta and Sjahrir, who were also exiled. In the later 1930s nationalist leaders were forced to cooperate with the Dutch, and such moderate parties as Parindra accepted People's Council membership. In 1937 a more radical party, Gerindo, was formed, but it considered support of The Netherlands against the threat of National Socialism (Nazism) more important than the question of independence.

World War II changed the situation. The fall of the East Indies to Japan early in 1942 broke the continuity of Dutch rule and provided a completely new environment for nationalist activity.

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Indonesian nationalism in the 20th century must be distinguished from earlier movements of protest; the Padri War, the Java War, and the many smaller examples of sporadic agrarian unrest had been "prenationalistic" movements, the products of local grievances.

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 March 1942 - Japan Conquer Dutch forces in Indonesia

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 March 1942 - Japan Conquer Dutch forces in Indonesia

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14 August 1945 - Japan surrenders in WWII

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14 August 1945 - Japan surrenders in WWII

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In what later became known as Victory Day, an official announcement of Japan’s unconditional surrender to the Allies is made public to the world on August 14,

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17 August 1945 - Soekarno declares independence

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17 August 1945 - Soekarno declares independence

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From the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), The World Factbook, Indonesia, Introduction, Background:

"The Portuguese conquered parts of Indonesia in the 16th century, but they were ousted by the Dutch (except in East Timor), who began colonizing the islands in the early 17th century. It would be the early 20th century before Dutch colonial rule was established across the entirety of what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state.

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Indonesia Independence Day (1945): August 17, 2022

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From the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), The World Factbook, Indonesia, Introduction, Background: "The Portuguese conquered parts of Indonesia in the 16th century, but they were ousted by the Dutch (except in East Timor), who began colonizing the islands in the early 17th century.

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27 December 1949 - Dutch concede Independence to Indonesia

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27 December 1949 - Dutch concede Independence to Indonesia

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Table of Contents

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Hague Agreement, also called Round Table Conference Agreement, treaty ratified on Nov. 2, 1949, between the Netherlands and the Republic of Indonesia, that attempted to bring to an end the Dutch-Indonesian conflict that followed the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945. After prolonged disagreement over its provisions, the treaty was revoked in 1956.

According to the treaty, the Dutch agreed to transfer, by Dec. 30, 1949 (transfer was made on Dec. 27, 1949), their political sovereignty over the entire territory of the former Dutch East Indies, with the exception of West New Guinea (West Irian), to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia, which was to be a federal government formed of the republican state and the 15 autonomous states created by the Dutch. This new republic together with the Netherlands established a Netherlands-Indonesian Union, which was intended to work for the common interest. In return for Dutch political concessions, the new republic gave a guarantee to Dutch investors in the region and accepted the debt of 4.3 billion guilders. The status of West New Guinea was to be settled in discussions to take place the following year.

The Hague Agreement apparently benefited the Netherlands, but Indonesian nationalists were dissatisfied with certain articles in the agreement, especially those dealing with the nature of the state, the dominant role of the autonomous Dutch states, the debt, and the West New Guinea problem. The dissatisfied nationalists drafted a provisional constitution in 1950 and established Indonesia as a unitary state. The conflict between the Dutch and the Indonesian nationalists continued, and on April 21, 1956, the Indonesian parliament revoked the Hague Agreement.

Melissa Albert.

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Hague Agreement | Netherlands-Indonesia [1949]

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Hague Agreement, also called Round Table Conference Agreement, treaty ratified on Nov. 2, 1949, between the Netherlands and the Republic of Indonesia, that attempted to bring to an end the Dutch-Indonesian conflict that followed the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945. After prolonged disagreement over its provisions, the treaty was revoked in 1956.

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“Indonesia History and Timeline.” Insight Guide, www.insightguides.com, https://www.insightguides.com/destinations/asia-pacific/indonesia/historical-highlights

Ricklefs, M.C. Sejarah Indonesia Modern (1200 - 2008). Serambi. November 2008.

Ruzicka, Anthony. "Indos." Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, 3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2014, pp. 413-420. Gale In Context: High School, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3273300093/SUIC?u=idsph&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=2a63974b. Accessed 14 Aug. 2022.

"Javanese." Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, edited by Timothy L. Gall and Jeneen Hobby, 2nd ed., vol. 3: Asia & Oceania, Gale, 2009, pp. 423-431. Gale In Context: High School, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX1839300313/SUIC?u=idsph&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=0d4f6c4e. Accessed 14 Aug. 2022.