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Email: janeys@heartandsolutions.net

Website: heartandsolutions.net

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Steps on how increase classroom success

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Creating an optimal learning environment plays a significant role in supporting the mental health and overall well-being of children. As educators, parents, and employers, we have a shared responsibility to help children and adolescents cope with the stressors of everyday life. In this guide, we list 10 ways to create an optimal learning environment for children to support their mental health, whether at school or at home.

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Create a Safe Environment and Nurture Positive Relationships
A safe and nurturing environment is the foundation for successful learning. Children who feel safe and secure are more likely to engage in learning. Creating a safe and nurturing environment involves establishing clear and consistent boundaries, fostering positive relationships, and addressing any issues that arise promptly.

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Teachers can encourage a positive environment by practicing active listening, valuing the thoughts and experiences of their students, and making referrals to mental health professionals when needed.

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Parents can show support by acknowledging their children's hard work, encouraging a growth mindset, and making an effort to be present with them.

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Employers can support positive learning environments by providing employee benefits that support the mental wellness of staff and their families.

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Promote Acceptance and Understanding
Schools and parents must create an environment that supports diversity, fosters curiosity, and celebrates differences. An environment where everyone's opinions and feelings are heard and considered helps promote a culture of inclusivity and collaboration. Children thrive in supportive environments where they feel heard, respected, and valued.

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Prioritize Mental Health
Mental health is critical to overall well-being, and creating an optimal learning environment requires paying attention to mental health. Schools, parents, and employers can support this by providing mental health resources such as online resources for kids and their families, mental health activities, and counseling and therapy sessions when needed.

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Encourage Self-Expression and Focus on Individualization
Children need a safe space to express themselves and pursue their interests. Encourage children to express their feelings, thoughts, and ideas freely, and respect their choices. This promotes creativity, self-confidence, and independence. Each child is unique, with different strengths and weaknesses. Teachers and parents must focus on customizing instruction and activities to fit each child's specific needs and interests.

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Celebrate Progress and Focus on What the Child Is Doing Right
Celebrate the progress of children as a group and individually. Focusing on what a child is doing well and how hard they are working to accomplish their goals can help establish a sense of identity and purpose. Additionally, praising children and focusing on what is going right is motivating for children and encourages behavior that is conducive to an optimal learning environment.

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Provide Opportunities for Choice
Providing opportunities for choice allows children to feel empowered and engaged in learning. Allow children to select the topic of a project, choose the format of an assignment, or select from a variety of learning activities.

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Encourage Active Participation
Encourage active participation and foster a sense of ownership in children by involving them in decision-making and learning activities. Providing opportunities for children to engage in hands-on, interactive activities can foster a sense of curiosity and inspire creativity.

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Create a Sensory-Friendly Environment
As children grow and develop, they learn to notice, register, and respond to information from their senses. Children with sensory processing challenges may struggle in traditional classroom settings. Create a sensory-friendly environment by considering lighting, sound, and temperature, and providing accommodations such as noise-canceling headphones, sensory tools, or breaks when needed. Collaborating with an occupational therapist to determine the individual needs of students who are struggling may also be helpful.

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Provide Opportunities for Movement
Incorporating physical activities encourages children to be active and think creatively can help them be more engaged and focused in the classroom. It can also enhance their problem-solving skills and encourage collaboration among peers.

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Teach Mindfulness and Self-Regulation
Mindfulness and self-regulation are crucial skills for children to learn in order to manage stress and emotions effectively. Incorporate mindfulness activities or relaxation techniques into daily routines, and provide opportunities for children to practice self-reflection and self-awareness.

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By nurturing positive relationships, prioritizing mental health, encouraging self-expression, and embracing a culture of respect, parents, teachers, and employers can foster a positive and enjoyable learning environment for children. Creating an environment that is fun, engaging, and relevant to children's lives is essential in supporting their mental health and overall well-being.

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Huddle Up partners with school districts and employers to provide mental health support for children and families.
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Creating Optimal Learning Environments for Kids | Huddle Up

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Learn 10 effective ways to create an optimal learning environment for children at home or in school, curated by the experts at Huddle Up. Read online today!

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Mental Health and/ in Schools Statistics

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Mental Health and/ in Schools Statistics

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Impact on Children in America

Research Brief

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Health and Wellbeing in School- NO highlight

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Technology is compromising the health and well-being of teachers, blurring the already-indistinct boundaries between work and home and leading to an unsustainable "always on" mentality, researchers assert in a new study.

It's not an entirely new problem. For decades, educators have labored under the twin pressures of expanding responsibilities at work and increasing domestic demands. As dual-income families became the norm, larger class sizes, more paperwork, and a gradual shift in caretaking duties toward school systems have strained the capacity of educators, encroaching on personal time traditionally set aside for family and friends. Well before the pandemic, stress topped the list of reasons teachers quit, according to a RAND study, which identified long hours and the burden of taking on second jobs to supplement income as primary factors in early retirement.

Technology is rapidly pushing things toward a breaking point. The proliferation of computers, and especially cell phones, is putting the last vestiges of personal space at risk, compelling teachers to spend more time outside of school hours planning tech-enriched lessons while responding to nighttime emails and text messages. This pattern of incursion-researchers call it "techno-invasion" or "pervasive connectivity"-can make them feel as though they're on call at all hours of the day and even late into the night, explains Caroline Murphy, a researcher at the Kemmy Business School at the University of Limerick, in the current study.

For teachers, there are few places to turn to for respite. While the public sector has typically traded lower wages for better work-life balance, the commodification of teaching-driven by a greater focus on test scores and evaluating teacher performance-has led to what some experts call the "marketization of education." Increasingly, the profession looks like the private sector, "in particular in relation to demands around working time, and the development of an 'always on' culture," Murphy points out. In what amounts to a broken promise, the expectations keep growing, but the pay hasn't kept pace.

Without new policies defending teachers' fundamental right to disconnect-to reclaim time with their families and friends, and to relax and restore themselves-the outcomes are all too predictable. Rising job dissatisfaction and deteriorating mental and physical health are real risks, according to the research. The issue is serious and growing, and it demands immediate attention.

Internet Leakage

Online communications have led to a pervasive "encroachment of work on individuals' time off through ubiquitous connectivity," says Murphy. The mere expectation that an email or text may arrive from a principal or student, and demand a response, is an intrusion into a teacher's personal space.

Theoretical emails eventually become real ones. The average teacher receives up to 100 emails each day, a staggering amount that can feel insurmountable-and the pressure to reply quickly can feel irresistible. In a 2019 study, employees reported that they started responding to emails 6 seconds after receiving them. Meanwhile, in a 2015 study, researchers observed that employees experienced "significantly lower daily stress" when limiting the frequency of checking email to three times a day, compared with those who had no restrictions.

There's also a significant cognitive tax to checking emails and other notifications, like texts or reminders: According to a 2017 study, the barrage of pings and warnings emanating from our phones are almost impossible to ignore, even when the phone is off and turned upside down on the table. "The mere presence of one's own smartphone may occupy limited-capacity cognitive resources," the researchers conclude, "thereby leaving fewer resources available for other tasks and undercutting cognitive performance." Shutting the cell phone off and abandoning it in another room was the only way to restore sanity.

The Technology Learning Curve

The deluge of new technologies unsupported by adequate training-from learning management systems to new apps, videoconferencing software, and multimedia lesson-planning-is undermining competence and professionalism, Murphy argues.

"I have NEVER been this exhausted," exclaimed Sarah Gross, a veteran high school English teacher who did hybrid teaching last fall, according to the New York Times. "This is not sustainable."

Gross isn't alone: In 2021, researchers analyzed over a decade's worth of studies and found that teachers were being pushed to adopt technology in their classrooms without the "technical resources and equipment necessary for its correct didactic use," a particularly insidious problem that culminated in "conflicts between teachers, as well as in their relationships with colleagues or with other people involved in the environment, eventually producing, in the worst case, damaged personal and interpersonal relationships that affect their health."

In a study published earlier this year, researchers found that nearly half of the teachers surveyed spent 20 or more hours per week creating new lessons, adapting materials to online classrooms, and troubleshooting tech issues. Notably, this pattern is expected to continue past the pandemic as schools commit to deeper integration of technology and even offer some form of remote instruction permanently.

A Heavy Toll

This new source of anxiety is not only linked to decreased job satisfaction, motivation, and competency but is also a health and safety concern, "causing physical ailments such as headaches, sleep issues, muscle cramps, back aches and high blood pressure," according to Murphy.

It's not technology itself that's the problem-it's that technology erodes the boundaries that have historically constrained altruistic teachers. "We may feel that if we don't get a task done, our students will suffer or programs will fail," explains John McCarthy, a former teacher and current consultant. "However, if we become mentally exhausted, overtired, or drained of energy, we risk a complete shutdown mentally or physically-and at that point, no tasks will get done."

According to a 2015 survey, 78 percent of teachers feel physically and emotionally exhausted at the end of the day, and while technology isn't the sole source of stress, it is "one of the most significant contributing factors to increasing stress levels," Murphy points out, adding that educators routinely report that "invasion of privacy" is a "significant source of work exhaustion."

Pushing Back-Without Going Back

That's not to say that Ludditical solutions like banning technology should be pursued; technology creates enormous efficiencies and is here to stay, but it must be carefully managed. Murphy asserts that we need to establish and adopt policy that "supports the healthy adoption of technology outside of school hours by both teachers and students."

While the United States is lagging behind other countries, "right to disconnect" legislation has been proposed in New York to protect workers from being penalized if they choose not to respond to emails after work hours. Meanwhile, major companies have begun to acknowledge the problem. Volkswagen banned internal emails from being sent or received through its servers during off-work hours in 2012, following "complaints that staff's work and home lives were becoming blurred." And in 2016, France adopted new labor laws giving employees the right "to not have to take calls or read emails related to work during their time off." The law's stated goal is to "ensure that the employees' non-work hours, vacation time, and personal and family life be respected."

So what should be under consideration for schools?

Model better practices: Consider developing policies or guidelines that encourage school leaders to avoid sending emails after school hours, except in the case of emergencies. What may seem like a simple question or request can have bigger implications as teachers feel the need to regularly check email at night to avoid appearing nonresponsive.

Give "permission to disconnect": Leaders can provide explicit permission giving teachers the right to disconnect from work-related communications outside of normal school hours. The policy should be socialized among all stakeholders in the learning community and honored with no questions asked.

Survey your staff: Conduct work-life balance surveys to gauge staff well-being. Ask questions such as "How often do the demands of your job interfere with your family life?"-good lists of questions can be found in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Quality of Worklife Questionnaire and the Staff Distance Learning and Wellness Survey from Broward County Public Schools.

Keep your cell phone clean: Teachers should consider removing access to work emails from their smartphones, and school and district leaders should encourage it. "You may find it more helpful to only check email on your computer-that way, when the school day ends, you can close your computer and walk away from the pings and the temptation to check your inbox," suggests classroom teacher Lauren Huddleston.

Be transparent about your obligations: Block visible time on your calendar for typically unstructured tasks like writing emails, grading papers, and planning lessons, suggests educational consultant and former teacher Marissa King. Consider clearly demarcating your work hours on your calendar as well, and set up out-of-office messages that state your work hours and indicate when you'll respond to late emails.

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Defending a Teacher's Right to Disconnect

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Remember personal time? For many educators, technology has driven it toward extinction-and it's time to get serious about reclaiming it.

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Schools, Not Teachers, Must Reduce Stress and Burnout—Here’s How

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Educators’ health and well-being should be prioritized in school culture; school leaders can help create the conditions for that.

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A teacher mentor shows why reflecting at the end of the year is so important for growth, and shares a worksheet for getting started.

Wander through classrooms in almost any school at the end of a major assignment, a project, a unit, a grading period, or the entire year, and you are likely to see a teacher facilitating student reflection. Reflection in any endeavor is a powerful part of learning from mistakes, missed opportunities, and also maintenance of success.

But reflection isn't just for students. Teachers can also benefit from practicing this invaluable approach for themselves and should be encouraged to do so.

Are you practicing reflection? Helping your colleagues to do this? If you're an administrator, are you building in structures for your schools to accomplish this? If yes, keep it up, help more to do so, and see if this article gives you any additional ideas. If no, consider starting right away before you wrap up the year, park your school stuff, and put your brain in summer mode.

A Reflection Tool for Getting Started

In my work as a new-teacher mentor for our district's three high schools, I created a Reflections and Directions exercise to help my new-to-the-classroom teachers with this process. Some parts of this may apply to you more than others, and it really is less about a given form than it is about the process, but sometimes an example framework is all you need to get started. The "Areas for Consideration" section has categories that include topics I've discussed with mentees throughout the year, areas of focus of their department or school, aspects of teaching that everyone finds valuable, or possibly areas that administrators are looking for in a future evaluation.

What has gone well from day one? Even though personal connections, organization, and content knowledge may come naturally to you, and you can't imagine doing what you're doing any differently, you should still identify these strengths so that you can be intentional in keeping that aspect of your teaching while you're tackling any changes that might arise.

What are some changes you have already effectively made during the year, or what changes are trending in the right direction?This is often something you've "fixed," and you probably need to figure out how to start the next school year so you don't have to fix it again. This frequently relates to clarity of some aspect of your practice or consistency in follow-through, or it may be a technique you picked up from a colleague or research that will be nice to have from day one.

What is a practice you'd like to try but haven't had the time or bandwidth yet? Plenty of times we see, hear, or read about something we'd like to try but just can't work it in during the press of the school year. With a little more time to think about it, you can come up with where this new practice might fit in your year and then plan to give it a go.

What are some things you're still struggling with? Identify someone who can help you come up with a detailed plan for solving these challenges. Consider writing out a step-by-step approach, even to the point of including scripts. The closer you can describe precisely what you want to do and how you want to do it, the better.

What's most important are the benefits that reflecting and planning can generate for you and your students next year. Whether you use this form or some other process, here are some areas to reflect upon.

Use the four questions to self-assess where you see yourself currently and provide a starting point for developing an improvement plan for the following school year. This can also give you a great head start for goal-setting conversations with your administrators for your next evaluation cycle.

Additionally, as you look forward, explore other ways to use reflection throughout the year to continue to fine-tune your practice and your students' growth and success.

Whether your reflection work is end of the year, throughout the year, or both, I would encourage you to find a partner to include in this work and support each other in the process, especially if that partner is a marigold. Marigolds are, as Jennifer Gonzalez writes, those who are "encouraging, supporting and nurturing growing teachers on their way to maturity." If you are familiar with the marigold concept, you know exactly what I'm talking about; if not, it's well worth reading Gonzalez's post.

With reflection, timing really is everything. If you don't do it right at the end of school, or right at the beginning of summer if your school is already out, there's a good chance that a lot of great ideas will dissipate as your brain engages with however you fill your summer. If that happens, you will likely find yourself at some point next year, as I experienced myself many times, exclaiming, "Doh! Now I remember that I meant to..." It's way better to stroll into the start of the new school year amid all the meetings and preparation and be glad to have a plan to continue to improve your practice-you and your students will be glad you did.

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How Teachers Can Benefit From End-of-Year Reflections

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A teacher mentor shows why reflecting at the end of the year is so important for growth, and shares a worksheet for getting started.

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Reflective practices can help new teachers stay resilient and grounded as they encounter challenges on the job.

Do you ever find yourself questioning the success or failure of a teaching moment or asking, "Why am I here, doing this job?" Have you compared yourself with other teachers and questioned your own identity as a professional? Teaching is a vigorous and personal journey. Checking on our teacher identity development, at any stage of our career, helps keep us on course to our destination of professional success.

Why is teacher identity important?

Research shows that teachers who stop and reflect maintain a stronger teacher identity. In college, preservice teachers must repeatedly reflect on new content learned, field teaching practices, and interactions with mentors and others at school sites. Using reflection at the university level reinforces knowledge, encourages teacher identity discourse, and helps dispel any teaching misconceptions that a preservice teacher may have. Replaying events, practices, and conversations and talking ourselves through them via reflective practice is essential.

Reflective opportunities allow you to ask yourself questions, develop proactive solutions, and even realize when you need help. This may seem like another task to add to your already full cup, but with the proper outlet, your cup will feel like it's perpetually flowing and not holding stagnant water.

Reminding yourself of who you are as a teacher brings you back to the foundation of your "why." Your teaching philosophy about effective classroom management, accurate and fair grading, existing biases, successful learning environments, working with professional teams, your place within the school culture, and other topics creates your teaching philosophy and teacher identity. In 2012, researcher Christopher Day found that teachers with a strong teacher identity and passion for their content area experience a stronger sense of self-efficacy and agency. Working through their misconceptions about teaching and learning helps teachers to communicate better and show students more empathy.

HOw Reflective Practices Help Teachers

Why are we asked to think about our thinking, decision-making, and actions in college as preservice teachers? Reflective practice asks preservice teachers to think critically about their professional development, evaluate practices, and consider the strategies, technologies, or new educational theories they're observing or using for the first time. Overall, this practice helps preservice teachers gain confidence by reflecting on their thoughts and sharing them with a community of mentors, instructors, and peers, which contributes to their emerging teacher identities.

Implementing Simple Reflective Exercises

Whether you're a beginning teacher of a few years or a veteran of many, it's important to find a sustainable reflective practice that's easy to add to your day (and even something you look forward to). Try these out and see if they work for you.

Journaling: If you enjoy handwriting, invest in a writing journal you're excited about (one that's leather-bound or has an inspirational cover). Use your favorite writing implement to help get your thoughts onto the page. If handwriting isn't your thing, journal in a Microsoft Word document. Just be sure to always have it accessible.

Consider a diary or journaling app. Look for features such as affordability, comfortable interface, ease of use, speech-to-text features, and periodic notifications. Some journaling apps, such as Dabble Me, allow you to write your daily reflections as emails to yourself.

One-minute rant: Sometimes, we just need an unstructured reflective opportunity to articulate and release frustrations and feelings we want to work out at a later time. A time-limited opportunity allows you a moment for release but prevents emotional escalation. Keep your rant focused on a specific topic, and use a timer.

Letter to my future self: This exercise allows you to think about your aspirations as a teacher and the specific goals you want to achieve in a given amount of time. Imagining your future teaching identity can help you get perspective on the bigger picture of your professional journey and identify goals such as achieving a higher degree or teaching at a higher level.

Artist representation: Even if you don't consider yourself an artist, find an artistic outlet to help you reflect on your professional experiences. You can use a picture or other artwork as a prompt for your perspective. You can keep tangible artifacts from students, administrators, colleagues, or parents for inspiration. These pieces can be pictures, notes, or quotes you wrote down from conversations. Allow these items to motivate you to create something symbolic or abstract. These objects can represent your identity as much as writing can.

Action research: All teachers are researchers: Action research is the cyclical process of planning, acting, making observations, and reflecting. It effectively addresses specific difficulties you may be experiencing in your learning environment, such as struggles with classroom management, test scores, or teaching strategies.

Start with a question that targets a specific problem. Collect and analyze data you may already have related to this problem (an assessment or observational data). Then, research possible interventions you can plan to implement in your classroom. Collect new data and reflect on your new observations. Is the intervention working? As you reflect on your latest data, plan your next steps to deepen the process of learning. Think critically about the problems you find in your practice, and empower yourself by using a growth mindset to solve them.

How to Overcome Reflective Challenges

As with anything, consistency can help you stay on track and see your progress. Teaching is a community of practice. Consider sharing your thoughts and reflections with a trusted colleague or mentor. Form a lunch group to create reflection questions to share together. Add reflection to your daily or weekly schedule, and plan when you want to reflect. This might be helpful right after a lesson you taught for the first time.

If you're still trying to decide what to write about, just free-write, free-draw, record a dialogue with yourself, or keep a list of reflection questions on hand. Engaging in reflective practice fosters personal and professional growth, creates space to explore learning experiences and professional development, and magnifies the value and effort we put toward these professional actions.

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Building a consistent habit of reflective practices helps new educators strengthen their teacher identity and manage challenges on the job.

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Early in my teaching career, I made my second-grade class cry.

I didn't mean to. I was teaching a lesson on writing with detail. My students-7- and 8-year-olds living in a big city, many of them in poverty-were sitting around me in a circle, notebooks and pencils in their laps. We were at the beginning of the unit, and I was modeling the process of coming up with an idea.

"As writers, sometimes it helps to think of a time when we had a big feeling, like being happy, or angry, or sad." I scrunched up my mouth, nodding: I was thinking really hard. "Like... let's see. Well, I remember how I felt when I heard that my grandma had died. I felt really sad." I uncapped a marker and scribbled notes on the whiteboard in my lap: Grandma died. Sad. "Maybe I'll write about that moment. And I'll include lots of details, like there were tears in my eyes, or how I couldn't stop petting my cat." I wrote on my whiteboard. Details: tears, petting cat.

My students were looking at me with total attention-something that didn't happen often. I pressed onward. "Or, maybe-"

Suddenly, a little voice piped up: "My uncle died." I looked up. It was a boy who often had trouble focusing. "He got shotted and he died."

Silence.

And then I saw that there was a tear running down his cheek.

After a moment, I said, "I'm so sorry to hear that." I took a breath. "Maybe-"

Another voice-a little girl's-chimed in. "My grandpa died," she said. "Because of cancer."

I nodded.

And, then, suddenly, all of my students were talking at once.

"My auntie died."

"My auntie died, too!"

"My cousin's baby died before it even got borned!" And then a sob.

And then all of my students were crying at once. They were sniffling, blubbering, wiping snot on their sleeves. My classroom was filled with the pained, contagious cries of children whose emotional floodgates had burst open.

And I had absolutely no idea what to do.

Clearly, the lesson's ship had sailed: We were not going to be talking about writing. Instead, I had to figure out how to comfort and corral a hysterical group of children-while seeming like I had everything under control. And I had to figure this out within the next 10 minutes, when the bell for recess was going to ring.

Suddenly, a particularly sensitive little boy, his cheeks stained with tears, stood up and ran to the corner, then slid down to the floor and put his head between his knees.

And as I watched him, helpless, I thought, "If only I could do that."

The Emotionality of Teaching

All this time later, years after leaving the teaching profession, the memory of that day still gnaws at me. Had I set students up for emotions they weren't prepared for? What messages had my words-and my actions and reactions-communicated? What should I have done differently? I remember little about my academic instruction that year-the subtraction lessons, the spelling tests-but the memories of that day and so many other deeply emotional experiences that year have lingered.

Because that, more than teaching kids how to read and write, is what teaching is all about: reaching clear to the heart of another human being and using everything you've got to make a difference. It's calming kids when they've had a rough recess, celebrating when they lose their first tooth, absorbing their struggles and their traumas, channeling their joy, and investing the currency of your own emotions in an effort to help them grow.

It's what sociology professor Arlie Russell Hochschild, in her 1983 book The Managed Heart, first called "emotional labor": managing one's own feelings in order to manage others'. It's work that is often invisible and almost always undercompensated-and it's also really, really hard.

For Allison Jacobs Friedmann, who has taught elementary and middle school in Boston for 20 years, teaching is walking an emotional tightrope-and her description of a day at work sounds as though it's lifted from Hochschild's book. "Every day, 20 to 25 children arrive at your door, and each is bringing a range of emotions," Friedmann explained to me recently over email. In order to reach each of these students, teachers must not only respond to-and often gently guide and correct-students' behavior, she says, but also do so "with a calm and consistent tone. You have to be unemotional in order to make space for their emotions."

The job description is to provide academic instruction, but the most complex, difficult-to-master aspects of teaching involve guiding students "to be little emotional managers," Hochschild told me. "You're teaching them their ABCs, but also how not to spin out of control, how to forgive, how to negotiate, how to take things one step at a time."

And teachers have to do all of this-for every one of their students, often all at once-while also managing their own feelings. "If you've had a terrible day at home," says Hochschild, "you set that aside for the child in front of you, who comes in with his or her own story." Her comments allude to one of the most difficult paradoxes in education: It's a profession that elicits strong emotional reactions from its practitioners while also requiring that, for the sake of the students' well-being-not to mention the decidedly unappealing prospect of an out-of-control classroom-they demonstrate the illusion of unflappable calmness and control.

Where Power Resides

As I was planning this article, I was thinking I would ask for expert advice on the ways that teachers can avoid this fate by, say, setting appropriate boundaries or examining their own emotions in order to manage them more effectively.

But when I asked Hochschild for some tips, her response took me by surprise. "I wouldn't say that's the right way to look at it at all," she replied. She explained that teachers-who, apart from students and parents, tend to be the furthest from the center of school power-are the "shock absorbers" of an overwhelmed system. "People can blame the teacher because too much expectation has been placed on the school system," she said. In other words, when students fail to get what they need-from their families, from schools, from society as a whole-teachers are expected, unfairly, to pick up the slack. And when they inevitably fail to do so, they feel personal and professional guilt, which they must suppress for the broader good: Emotional labor begets more emotional labor.

And the further you are from the locus of power, the fewer supports in the system and the more emotional labor you wind up doing, according to Hochschild. This is why, for instance, teachers in high-poverty districts-where many feel like they're oppressed by overwhelming systemic obstacles-often report higher degrees of burnout than their counterparts in more privileged districts. This framework also explains why teachers, direct caregivers who are generally undervalued by society, are expected to take their students' struggles personally-while doctors, direct caregivers with a relatively high degree of social status, are not expected to magically cure patients made sick by their surroundings.

Systemic Problems, Systemic Solutions

Because the issue of emotional labor is systemic, Hochschild concludes, the answers need to be systemic too. Although teachers should always expect to bring their humanity and vulnerability to their job, they can't-and shouldn't-be expected to alleviate the pressures that cause them to feel such disproportionate ownership over their students' emotional lives. Instead, we need to address the fact that the system expects teachers to do this in the first place.

That starts, Hochschild says, with creating "an atmosphere in which teachers have a voice and feel respected. What makes emotional labor gratifying rather than burdensome is a functioning care system." Only when this is in place, she says-when teachers are no longer "in a defensive crouch, but feel like they're part of a larger team"-will the proper emotional and psychological support structures be available. This is starting to happen, she says, in forward-thinking districts where, she says, teachers' expertise is respected; as a result, teachers are able to assess their own strengths and weaknesses, manage their well-being more proactively, and pursue their professional growth. In other words, when teachers can shoulder a normal, appropriate range of emotional stress-but are not expected to take responsibility for the ills of society-"it means the system is healthy."

But according to most teachers I spoke with, a healthy system is nowhere to be found. "Because society does not meet all my students' basic needs, they come to school with heavy emotional loads," Friedmann said, reflecting on the growing sphere of her responsibilities and the lack of a proportional response from the school. "And then it becomes my job to help them manage all those very large feelings." Jianan Shi, who taught high school in Boston and Chicago before transitioning into nonprofit work, agrees. "We are fighting in the context of fundamental human rights which are not being delivered."

I often think about my second graders from that year, those children mourning the people they'd lost. I could have done a lot more for them, I know, in that moment, that year.

At times I feel that I failed them. Other times I feel that I did the best I could. Often, I feel both of these things at once.

But what I know with certainty is that I wasn't up to the task of absorbing, reflecting, and redirecting the feelings of wounded 7-year-olds. I was their teacher, and I loved them deeply, but I couldn't compensate for all the injustice in their lives.

To help them-and they're big now, those kids, much bigger and stronger than their second-grade selves-we must be willing to look for bigger solutions too, beyond the narrow confines of classrooms to the broader contours of society itself. And as we check our progress, we should never compromise on the health of our teachers, who are-in every way-the system's vital heart and soul.

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Teaching Your Heart Out: Emotional Labor and the Need for Systemic Change

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Early in my teaching career, I made my second-grade class cry. I didn't mean to. I was teaching a lesson on writing with detail. My students-7- and 8-year-olds living in a big city, many of them in poverty-were sitting around me in a circle, notebooks and pencils in their laps.

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"Overwhelming" is how fifth-grade ELA teacher Cindy Bourdo characterizes her first year in the classroom. Unprepared for the intense workload and inexperienced in classroom management, she left the school building each day feeling "exhausted and defeated."

But wait. It's not that simple. Stepping into the classroom for the first time can also be "the most joyful yet sobering point in your teaching career," writes elementary school teacher Candice Batson. "It's the moment when you realize that every decision you make, big and small, will have an impact on the lives of other humans. You've spent years learning how to teach, and now it's time to teach your students how to learn."

As a novice teacher, Bourdo doubled down on crucial tasks like "learning new curriculum, developing personalized learning techniques, modifying lessons, and analyzing data" but concluded that "something was not working."

Determined to improve her own practice, she visited the classes of experienced colleagues and landed on a game-changing insight: In their own ways, each found time to work on relationships with students. One played basketball with students at lunchtime on Fridays; another invited students to join her lunchtime walk. In time, Bourdo added a morning meeting to her repertoire, a small shift that "changed me as a teacher, and it changed the vibe in my classroom," she recalls. "I began to feel happier at school, and I could see that my students were happier too."

Lesson learned: If the first year in the classroom can be daunting, focusing on a handful of simple practices-including centering relationships-can help new teachers ease some of the stress of the job.

Here are six principles to remember this year:

1. It's going to be a roller coaster. There will be transcendent moments-a child will tell you that they love you or that you've changed their life-but for the most part you'll feel lost, not up to the task, and demoralized. "Prepare for the worst year of your life," warns Rachel West in a Facebook thread, only slightly hyperbolically, and use that perspective to help you "realize it's normal." Consider writing a note to yourself-"Don't be surprised when this is hard"-and put it somewhere you can't miss it. It will restore your backbone when you're a mess.

Don't exacerbate the inevitable difficulties by engaging in negative talk. "Be careful who you vent to" because "a listening ear can also be a running mouth," says Melanie Michaud, and don't suffer educators who "bog you down with negativity and meanness," echoes middle school teacher Christine Mattiko. Instead, invest time finding a small group of teachers who are positive, like-minded, and growth-oriented-then vent strategically when you've hit the wall and need to unload.

Trust us: Your toughest moments in the classroom are mere passing fancies for students.

"Find your reset button and hit it daily," counsels Tonya Smith. "Keep in mind that when dealing with children, every day is a new day."

2. Establish a precedent on grading right now. New teachers spend far too much time grading assignments-the obligation spills over into personal lives, interrupts plans with friends and family, and steadily erodes happiness and well-being. More disheartening news, according to experienced teachers? It hurts students too.

Filling papers with red ink overwhelms students-they end up ignoring hours of your best effort-and assigning less work so you can keep up deprives students of much-needed practice. "Marking up every sentence does nothing for the student," confirms teacher Dawn Fable Lindquist, and is a clear "misuse of your time."

Promise yourself that you'll immediately adopt grading strategies that hundreds of experienced teachers say are best practices. "Make no more than three comments on everything you grade," insists Hilary Dumitrescu, and keep your feedback laser-focused on high-priority areas of improvement.

Meanwhile, assign plenty of work to get kids practicing their skills, but resist the urge to grade all of it. You can even use the one-in-four rule and provide in-depth feedback to only 25 percent of any student's assignments-the practice is a game-changer, according to master teachers. Finally, use tech tools to automate the grading of multiple-choice quizzes, and teach your students to use preprepared assessment rubrics to self-assess or provide peer-to-peer feedback.

3. Develop a simple set of relationship-building strategies. Early in your career, students are more likely to explore classroom rules and test your boundaries. You'll be tempted to confront every infraction. Instead, you should try to keep your perspective and tackle only the issues that threaten classroom equilibrium.

When one or two students inevitably begin distracting peers, "my welcoming smile quickly turns into a neutral facial expression," teacher Crystal Frommert notes, referring to the development of "the look," a powerful nonverbal classroom management tactic wielded by veteran teachers everywhere. She follows up with a firm but kind "Please get back to the assigned task."

In the end, the best classroom management is invisible; veteran teachers rely on proactive strategies that emphasize strong relationships and then work prudently behind the scenes, discouraging misbehavior before it gets started, a 2021 study reveals. To nip disruptive behavior in the bud, make relationship-building core to your day: Greet your kids at the door; use brief, beginning-of-the-year surveys to ask about their interests, passions, or pets and family members-and follow up in future conversations; consider brief weekly or daily check-in activities to build culture continuously.

Finding the right balance between being firm yet friendly takes practice-and probably more than a few false starts. "Be patient with yourself," says Frommert. "Even veteran teachers have to rein in the boundaries from time to time. Respect and firm communication of expectations will foster an engaging and fun class culture without crossing any lines."

4. Seek out the helpers. Great mentors are essential for developing great teachers-even if your instinct is to carve out your own path through your first years of teaching. "You'll never get to everything," warns teacher Meghan Grace, referring to the mountains of grading, paperwork, and planning that lie ahead. But you'll make inroads once you connect with a "positive, veteran teacher to help you prioritize things." With strong, consistent mentorship, research shows, teachers stay in the profession longer, and there's a significant impact on student academic outcomes too.

Choose wisely. If you're not assigned a mentor, look for experienced, growth-oriented colleagues who will "listen with empathy," counsels Cait Marie, an English teacher in New Jersey-and also know how to redirect "worries and emotions positively," writes educator Alec Mielke via Facebook.

Take the direct approach: Simply "make time to email different teachers in your building that you admire and let them know you want to stop by their classrooms to see them in action," says Andrea Marshbank, a high school ELA teacher. "Most teachers will be glad to work with you and to talk afterward about your thoughts and observations. We get better at teaching when we talk productively about our practice."

5. Make reflection a daily habit. A consistent habit of meaningful reflection is at the heart of every good teaching practice and can become immensely productive, fueling continuous growth and improvement. But finding regular time for it can be tough, especially after "teaching a full day, grading assignments, providing feedback to students and families, meeting with advisees and colleagues, and then preparing for the next day," says high school engineering teacher John Kamal. As a novice, you'll also be battling emotional fatigue.

For new teachers, all of that might feel like a great reason to shelve reflection-but that's a mistake.

To make it a daily habit, keep reflection as simple as possible. During transitions in the day, or in brief moments after his last class, Kamal jots notes in apps like Evernote or OneNote, or records quick voice memos he can review later. To make it less daunting, focus on just one or two areas of improvement at a time, and be disciplined about letting the rest go. For example, if you are concerned about the quality and effectiveness of your daily lessons, start by focusing on just one of them, suggests educational consultant and former teacher Megan Collins, and use simple guiding questions like "What proves that students actually learned?" and "What teaching skills did I use today to promote learning?"

6. Set a few personal boundaries-and stick to them. In a profession that's notorious for its high burnout rate, setting firm personal boundaries early in your first year is critical, because "if you spend all of your time and energy in your classroom, that becomes the expectation-even as life events happen," warns Heather Bouillet, a teacher at Carmel Clay Schools.

Consider a few simple adjustments:

Find ways to unplug: Consider removing access to work emails from your phone, for example, so you're not tempted to respond to work emails nights and weekends.

Learn to say no: "You do not have to sponsor clubs, do extra unpaid activities, or really do anything that doesn't scale to you being a good teacher to your kids," says teacher Erin Rivet Burkamp. "Do extra things if you really want to, but don't let anyone guilt-trip you into doing more if you just cannot."

Protect your time: Work will drift into your evening or weekend at times, so consider picking one day of the week that you work long hours. Do everything you can to keep your weekends free.

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For New Teachers, 6 Principles to Remember This Year

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It won't be easy, but if you prepare for turbulence and set reasonable goals, you'll stay calmer and make progress in all the right places.

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Improve Desired Behaviors- Without Public Shaming 

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Improve Desired Behaviors- Without Public Shaming 

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When it comes to keeping classroom behaviors in check, teachers often struggle to find the right balance between enforcing compliance and getting student buy-in.

According to Cheryl Blankman, a school psychologist and adjunct professor at Ramapo College of New Jersey, some educators-seeking a clear, transparent method-turn to disciplinary tools like clip charts. Although they tend to be colorful and bright and "appear student-friendly," Blankman writes for ASCD, the charts can have perverse effects.

The anxiety some students experience from seeing their missteps on display can become a source of lingering embarrassment and leave kids feeling apathetic and hypervigilant, rather than improving behavior and driving better academic outcomes. "The worry of where [students] are on the clip chart can be a pervasive distraction that splits their attention and undermines their learning." Meanwhile, students on the positive side of the chart can become overly focused on their position, too, as "there is nowhere to go but down."

Research suggests that reactive strategies to address student misbehavior-like using public displays to highlight infractions or verbally reprimanding students for minor misbehavior in the moment-aren't as effective as many think. A 2016 study, for example, finds that although this "negative feedback" can temporarily put a stop to disruptions, students are often left feeling disengaged or resentful and may have issues concentrating on their work. If overused, this type of response, researchers noted, "actually amplifies students' inappropriate behavior" in the long run.

In contrast, research shows that when teachers implement more proactive classroom management strategies and focus more on delivering positive feedback when students are meeting behavior expectations, instances of misbehavior go down and relationships between teachers and students, and students and their peers, strengthen.

While it's true that teachers have to call out class misbehavior from time to time, Blankman says, there are ways to deal with the more commonplace disturbances using proactive strategies that can also have the effect of encouraging positive behavior in the future.

Co-Signing Classroom Contracts

Instead of handing down a list of rules in your classroom and then punishing students for infractions, you can get student buy-in by letting them in on the process early on in the school year.

Cait O'Connor, a middle school English and English language learners teacher in New York, writes that by developing community contracts with students, each classroom establishes-and then collectively enforces-expectations that feel unique and owned. "Community agreements allow students to build a set of expectations for themselves, the students who are there every day, and hold each other accountable for those expectations as they get to know each other better," she says.

To get started, O'Connor asks students to rank a prepared list of values, which might include loyalty, friendship, respect, or knowledge, for example. She then has students answer reflective questions-"Which value is most important, and why?" and "How do you plan to live and act out this value in our classroom?"-before working with them to craft agreements they can all follow.

For essential values, like respect, O'Connor initiates small group discussions to answer questions like this: "What does respect look, feel, and sound like?" These discussions help students come up with "imagery of respect in action," which can include things like "using kind words, giving everyone's opinion space, not interrupting, and not embarrassing people if they make mistakes," O'Connor said.

Blankman suggests discussing what students can expect from you, too: "What will it look like, sound like, and feel like as you teach and promote these expectations?" she says. "What is the plan when students misstep?"

This can involve laying out clearly for students how you plan to respond to various levels of misbehavior in the classroom. For example, Grace Dearborn, a high school teacher and author of Conscious Classroom Management, developed tiered responses to student misbehavior that she frames "as consequences, not punishments."

Low-level misbehavior receives a "gentle" response-using nonverbal hand signals to encourage students to pay attention or saying the child's name quickly, for example-whereas more extreme or chronic misbehavior will result in calls to parents or removal from the classroom.

Develop Your Emergency Script

Even classrooms with the strongest community agreements will test teachers from time to time, which is why educator Emily Terwilliger says that it's important to prepare for heated scenarios before they arise. Imagining possible conflicts and developing emergency scripts you can use when your buttons are pushed will allow you to move past impulsive responses, according to Terwilliger.

"Think through scenarios that might happen in your classroom and how you want to respond before the start of the year. It will make those first redirects and interventions less intimidating."

While threats of violence or repeated disruptive behavior, for example, often call for escalation, there are alternative options to prepare for run-of-the-mill classroom management issues.

Instead of jumping into "decision-making" mode when a student talks out of turn or causes a distraction, for example, educator Pernille Ripp recommends that teachers remind themselves to pause, assess what is happening beneath the surface of the disruption, and look for solutions. "We must come into each situation recognizing its uniqueness and its opportunity for exploration."

Amanda Morin, an educator and director of thought leadership at Understood.org, says one way to engage in this exploration is to ask questions to try to understand a student's behavior, instead of quickly reacting to it. Even a simple "Are you OK?" expresses your concern for a student personally, aside from the choice they just made a moment ago.

Morin recommends adopting a "nonjudgmental investigative" mode when asking questions, which can help you gather information needed to get to the deeper root of an issue. For example, perhaps a student is acting up because they aren't following the task at hand, or perhaps they're bored and not feeling challenged enough. Understanding the source of the issue can help lead to a productive adjustment in approach that strengthens your relationship to a student, rather than exacerbating the tension.

Model Expectations, Praise Success

Explicit modeling of the behaviors you'd like to see in your classroom is the "fine print" of the contract that students sign, Blankman says. After all, students can agree to all kinds of things, but "defining and describing" the agreements and praising students when they live up to the contract's principles can positively enforce agreed-upon behavior.

In a 2023 interview, best-selling author and former educator Doug Lemov told Edutopia that the "single greatest motivator" for a student is the approval of their peers, and yet in many classrooms, students feel like their attempts at contributing in discussions aren't valued by others.

To create respectful classroom cultures, Lemov addresses positive habits of discussion and attention, things like sitting up when others are speaking, making eye contact, and building on the comments of others instead of dismissing them-which conveys that students are actually "listening and care." Lemov says this approach validates students and makes them feel like they're part of a classroom that talks " to each other," not " past each other."

Blankman said that once these habits are discussed and modeled for students, praise is needed to solidify them. Students should receive "timely, authentic, and action-oriented" praise when they demonstrate one of the rules they've committed to, she says. "When students are doing what you want them to do, tell them specifically, in the moment, what it is that they are doing well and why it matters."

Manage Transitions

Misbehavior thrives in the transitions. One way to ensure that transitions between classrooms, and even between activities, are smooth and frictionless is to take a moment to review expectations before the transition occurs.

For younger students, Blankman says this might look like reviewing how they should line up in the hallways as they head to the lunch room, for example. This type of preemptive reminder is just as useful when students are transitioning into group activities or discussions.

For example, if students in an 11th-grade English class are about to transition into a Socratic discussion, Blankman advises taking a few minutes beforehand to review what the "language of good discussion" looks like, including "how to agree, disagree, add on, or question appropriately." The setup reinforces behaviors at a crucial juncture and helps students "connect the appropriate behaviors with the context and conditions in which they should occur, making it more likely they will (1) perform them in the moment and (2) remember and apply them later."

If, after making some adjustments, you continue to struggle with transitions, consider asking yourself some questions to troubleshoot issues, suggests Todd Finley, a former teacher and professor of English education. For example, "Did I provide too many or too few directions?" or "Did the transition catch kids off guard when they were absorbed in an activity?" or "Are there specific students who created chaos?"

Pick Your Battles

There will always be moments where a student's behavior needs to be addressed directly and publicly. It's important to pick these battles wisely, because they can become costly: Research suggests that students who are frequently called out for minor infractions-things like not paying attention or chatting with other students-are more likely to become disengaged and apathetic, which can lead to more behavioral issues in the future.

But in the moments when you do have to call students out-if, for example, you can't call them aside and address the issue-Blankman advises to try your best to "keep the student's dignity" in mind. Try to "be brief, be objective, be specific, and then be quick to acknowledge and praise any resulting effort to get back on track." The idea, she says, is to stay "focused on the desired behavior" and quickly pivot back to learning.

For example, you might say, "Jemma, you did not put away your social studies materials and get ready for math despite multiple requests to do so, and you were talking with classmates, which distracted them from getting ready for math as well. When we transition to science later, I want to see you focused and ready."

Correctives like this, Blankman says, reinforce what the expectations are for students, as well as how their actions impact the positive classroom community. "Students, like all of us, appreciate clear expectations, boundaries, and consistency," Blankman says. "Trust is strengthened by students knowing what to expect, even when this means a constructive correction."

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How to Improve Classroom Behavior Without Public Shaming

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Instead of clip charts and data walls, try these classroom management techniques to discourage misbehavior and build a stronger classroom community.

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By setting clear expectations for behavior early on, teachers can have fun with their students without losing control of their classrooms.

Whether you have been teaching for 20 minutes or 20 years, it can be easy to fall into acting like a friend with your students. In my experience, I don't realize it until students start to push boundaries.

Preteens and teens seem to have an uncanny talent for sensing when teachers are wavering in their stance. Once you shrug your shoulders or say "Well..." as you think about their request, they will pounce! This shows up in the form of attempts to get the lesson off-topic or bend the rules. "Come on, just let us have a free period today" or "The other teachers let us listen to whatever music we want during class" or "Can we sit wherever we want today? Pleeeeease!"

Proactively Set Expectations

In my two decades plus of teaching middle school students, I have found that setting the tone on the first day of school helps students respect the boundaries of your friendliness. As recommended in the classic book for teachers The First Days of School, by Harry K. Wong and Rosemary T. Wong, I greet all students at the door. I greet them with a welcoming smile and a handshake (in nonpandemic times). After I verify on my roster that they are in the right location, I ask them to find their assigned seat and start independently on an introduction task.

This sets the tone that our classroom has expectations from the very start. They realize quickly that assigned seating is a part of the class culture and working on an assigned task is required.

There will always be one or two students who start whispering or wandering around. My welcoming smile quickly turns into a neutral facial expression, followed by a firm but kind, "Please get back to the assigned task." Every single year this happens, and every single year I get the same wide-eyed expression from the kids that expresses, "OK, I guess she means business."

Use Firm-but Kind-Reminders

After this initial interaction of the first day of school, I begin to let my silliness trickle out. I tell math jokes, use content-related memes in my presentations, and maybe even sing a song along with the lesson. Nerdy teacher? Yes. Fun teacher? Also, yes.

Some students will inevitably see my silly demeanor as an entry to pushing boundaries. Occasionally, you must remind students when a line is crossed. You can warn a noisy class, "It's fun to play Kahoot, but we won't be able to continue the game if you're yelling."

This communicates high expectations with encouragement and respect. Maintain student dignity by talking one-on-one with a student who pushes a boundary. Once, in a one-on-one conversation with an eighth grader, I said, "I'm really glad you're in my class. You come up with some really funny jokes and comments. But I'm going to ask you to dial it down a little because occasionally the comments disrupt the learning for your classmates."

Avoid Potential Pitfalls

Keep your conversations about your personal life to surface topics such as pets, travel, favorite foods, movies, etc. Maintain a professional distance by not oversharing.

Follow your school's guidelines on social media interactions with students. Only communicate with students via your school's designated and monitored email or portal system.

Hold the same boundaries for all students. Be mindful about the perception of favorites or cliques.

Students will want to listen to or talk about music or other media that is not school appropriate. For adults, it gets harder to keep up with popular song lyrics or slang words-it's best not to engage in those conversations. (I know this from experience because I once told my class that I liked a new catchy pop song. They replied, "Do you even know what that song is about?!" No, I apparently did not.)

Middle school students are fun and silly, and often we, the teachers, tend to get fun and silly along with them. To maintain the professional boundaries in your middle school classroom, you'll want to consider these tips to avoid giving the impression that crossing boundaries is acceptable.

Matt Panozzo, who holds a doctorate in education, is a seventh-grade English teacher in Houston. He has a reputation among his middle school students as an engaging and enthusiastic teacher. He also has an amazing talent of balancing being fun and maintaining expectations. I asked him how he does this so skillfully. He told me:

If you're new to teaching, finding this balance takes practice and experience. Be patient with yourself. Even veteran teachers have to rein in the boundaries from time to time. The profession of education typically attracts people who are friendly, welcoming, and engaging, which sometimes can be perceived as a "friendship" by some students. Respect and firm communication of expectations will foster an engaging and fun class culture without crossing any lines.

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By setting clear expectations for behavior early on, teachers can have fun with their students without losing control of their classrooms.

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These tips garnered from in-depth teacher interviews may help you discover or rediscover the values that guide your work.

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Writing and Revisiting Your Teaching Philosophy 

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Writing and Revisiting Your Teaching Philosophy 

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Many of us write teaching philosophies early in our careers. Returning to those same beliefs years later holds the potential to refresh our practice.

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In my 28th year of teaching, I find myself rereading a teaching philosophy I wrote upon graduating from college in 1994. It's a statement I revised in 2002, then again sometime between 2012 and 2015. Now, here I sit in 2023, reminiscing about all that I once believed.

What I read rattles me a bit: At times, it feels like education evolves slowly, yet other times progress abounds so quickly that I don't know if my 1994 ideals have kept up. What holds true, and what has changed, across my years in education?

At its core, my current teaching philosophy is quite similar to that first draft; it serves as an internal compass, a reminder of purpose, my north point. Rereading it helps me realize that classrooms, communities, and content change, but this original compass has not-it has kept me from getting lost.

I was once inclined to lead with statements like "All kids can learn" and "I want to create lifelong learners." I still hold these beliefs, but reading them with seasoned eyes, I have greater insight into the "how"-the strategies that can make these and other elements of my philosophy possible in the classroom.

Below, I share tenets of my philosophy and strategies for enacting them-gleaned from decades of practice-with the overarching invitation to pen your own teaching philosophy that might, as it has for me, serve as a guidepost as you grow through every stage of your career.

Provide Choice

We learn when we feel motivated, when we feel curious. I know this about myself, and I believe this about my students, which causes me to want all students to feed their natural curiosity. So often, by their teen years, students are trying to make their way through the school day one lecture or worksheet at a time, parsing literature or poring over math problems that don't feel relevant to their lives. Is this just a rite of passage?

I don't think so. Providing choice-for example, diversifying the texts we present and promoting student agency through choice reading and writing assignment-leads to deeper and continued inquiry and engagement, putting learners in the driver's seat.

Lead by Learning

Orienting yourself as the lead learner in the classroom is crucial to helping students move forward in their own learning. I notice that students are more fully engaged when I, too, am engaged and transparent about my own curiosity.

If I ask my students to write, I write with them. If I ask my students to read, I read with them. Though there are many days when I am conferencing with students or leading mini-lessons, taking just a few moments to read and write together produces powerful, connected learning and a sense of community fueled by authentic, adult-modeled inquiry.

Ask Questions-Then More Questions

We ask many questions as teachers (and lifelong learners). There is power in realizing that quality questions are not just yes/no questions, but probing questions-ones that make you tilt your head and think before you speak.

Asking deeper questions not only improves self-reflective teaching (e.g., How can I become a better teacher? How does writing change if we start with conversation first? What are better ways to build community in my classroom?) but also coaching and conferencing with students (e.g., What would happen if you flipped these paragraphs? How does the behavior of this character make you think self-acceptance is the theme of your book? Before you begin, what does the end product look like to you?). Open-ended inquiry moves thinking and discussion deeper.

Learn from Students

What I perhaps value most about teaching are the lessons that I learn from students about life in the classroom and beyond. I seek their guidance and advice in relation to my teaching, asking them to reflect on what happens in our classroom, and these debriefs give me insight into how I can change even the minutest of details to improve their learning.

As for lessons that transcend the learning environment, I think of a time when a student I knew well began delivering his valedictory speech to classmates. "There's more to me," he said with tears, "than I let on in this class."

"How true," I thought. How true that this student's statement describes all of us, in everything we do. There is more to us than we let on in any given situation, and his insight serves as a reminder for me still.

Be Flexible

In education, everything is always shifting. Lessons need modifying, calendars need adjusting, and assignments sometimes need to be scrapped. Just today, at the end of third-hour, I said to my students, "This wasn't exactly how I envisioned class going today. I want to change..." and proceeded to make adjustments.

When plans don't work, it's important to make peace with flux-to remember that the best instructors are flexible enough to admit when something isn't working, are open to change, and are models of adaptation, teaching young people, by example, how to respond to the unexpected.

In a politically charged, standardized-test-driven educational climate, how can we hold on to the belief that what we do makes a difference?

Philosophy and pedagogy matter most in the face of conflict and change. Helping students feel confident, powerful, and prepared makes me feel worthy as a teacher, and returning to my "why" reminds me that the classroom holds this potential.

To ground your own practice, no matter if you are in your first or 15th year of teaching, pen your own paragraph, diagram, or bulleted list representative of your teaching philosophy. Does it align with your original approach to education? What has changed, and what stays the same? How might you share your philosophy-and strategies for enacting it-with others?

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How Writing and Revisiting Your Teaching Philosophy Can Fuel Your Practice

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Many of us write teaching philosophies early in our careers. Returning to those same beliefs years later holds the potential to refresh our practice.

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New teachers-and experienced ones too-can find ideas here on how to stop disruptive behavior before it begins.

In the 1950s, psychologists Jacob Kounin and Paul Gump discovered a curious side effect of discipline: If a student was being disruptive and the teacher responded with strict disciplinary measures, the student might stop-but other students would start exhibiting the same misbehavior. Kounin and Gump called this the " ripple effect," and it demonstrated that efforts to control a classroom can backfire.

"The teacher who is interested in controlling ripple effects can generally do so best by giving clear instructions to the child rather than by exerting pressure on him," Kounin and Gump wrote.

Decades later, classroom management is still a thorny issue for teachers. Nearly half of new teachers report that they feel "not at all prepared" or "only somewhat prepared" to handle disruptive students, in part because the average teacher training program devotes just eight hours to the topic, according to a 2014 report from the National Council on Teacher Quality. This lack of training comes with a cost, as teachers report losing 144 minutes of instructional time on average to behavioral disruptions every week, which comes out to roughly three weeks over the course of a year.

Recent research confirms what Kounin and Gump discovered decades ago. A 2016 study found that while negative attention-reprimands like "Stop chitchatting!"-may temporarily stop misbehavior, students eventually became more likely to engage in disruptive behavior. Students in the study felt disengaged, had difficulty concentrating, and weren't able to effectively regulate their thoughts and emotions-a vicious cycle that "actually amplifies students' inappropriate behavior," the study authors explain.

8 Proactive Classroom Management Strategies

Instead of handling disruptions after they've happened, it can be more effective to set up conditions in which they are less likely to occur. Here are eight classroom strategies that teachers have shared with Edutopia, all backed by research.

1. Greet students at the door: At Van Ness Elementary School in Washington, DC, Falon Turner starts the day by giving each of her students a high-five, handshake, or hug. "During that time, I'm just trying to connect with them.... It's kind of like a pulse check to see where they are," she says.

In a study published last year, greeting students at the door helped teachers set a positive tone for the rest of the day, boosting academic engagement by 20 percentage points while reducing disruptive behavior by 9 percentage points-adding roughly an hour of engagement over the course of the school day.

For older students, give plenty of warning if you need them to follow instructions. Reminders and cues are helpful ways to encourage students to follow instructions without being overtly controlling or forceful. For example, if you can anticipate a disruption-such as students getting out of their seats if they finish an assignment early-give a short reminder of what they should do instead.

Reminders are commonly verbal, but can also be visual (flicking the lights to signal that it's time to be quiet), auditory (ringing a small bell to let students know they should pay attention to the teacher), or physical (using a hand signal to let students know to get back in their seats).
Courtesy of Emily Polak
But that doesn't mean choice is always bad. Giving students a sense of ownership in the room, paired with clear expectations for behavior, can have surprisingly positive effects. A welcoming space can reduce anxiety and boost academic performance. Emily Polak, a ninth-grade teacher in Madison, Alabama, gave her room a cozier feel by adding a couch, a loveseat, rugs, a coffee table, and posters. Her students decide where to sit-but if they can't get their work done, they get moved back to a desk. "Discipline issues have significantly decreased. My students seem to feel more relaxed and more motivated in a setting that honors their choices," Polak says.

It's also helpful to avoid using the word don't, suggests Alyssa Nucaro, a sixth-grade English teacher in Memphis. Students are more likely to listen to instructions that include clear reasons.

6. Set clear expectations: Instead of just displaying rules for behavior, have a discussion with your students about why those rules matter. Bobby Shaddox, a seventh-grade social studies teacher in Portland, Maine, works with his students to create a list of norms-words such as inclusive, focused, and considerate -to build a sense of community. "It helps us own the behavior in the classroom," Shaddox says. "Instead of a top-down list of rules that a teacher gives a class, these are words that we generated together. These are words that we believe in."

A 2017 study found that a teacher's nonverbal cues-such as smiling and making eye contact-can "reduce physical and/or psychological distance" with their students, boosting students' positive feelings toward the teacher and the course material while improving behavior.

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New teachers-and experienced ones too-can find ideas here on how to stop disruptive behavior before it begins.

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Co-Regulation within Instance of Discipline

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Co-Regulation within Instance of Discipline

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Helping students regain their calm after misbehavior doesn't mean there are no consequences-it ensures that the right lesson is learned.

Jim West / Alamy Stock Photo

Our schools are currently seeing a dramatic increase in students of all ages carrying in anxiety, adversity, and trauma from a variety of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Social and emotional learning programs are critical for addressing these emotional and mental challenges, but we must also rethink our discipline procedures and policies. We need to understand that traditional discipline works best with the children who need it the least, and works least with the children who need it the most. Discipline ideally is not something we do to students-it should be a quality we want to develop within them.

For students with ACEs, traditional punishments can unintentionally retraumatize and reactivate their stress response systems. Recent research in school discipline is grounded in the neuroscience of attachment, which emphasizes the significance of relationships. Those relationships begin with an adult in a regulated, calm brain state. It takes a calm brain to calm another brain-this co-regulation is something that students with ACEs may have missed out on. Their school can be an environment where they feel safe and connected even when they make poor choices.

This doesn't mean giving students a pass for misbehavior: There are still consequences for poor choices, but regulating the feelings and sensations a student is experiencing is the initial step, one that is critical for a sustainable change in behavior.

Emotions are contagious, and when a teacher is able to model a calm presence through their tone, facial expression, and posture, students are less likely to react defensively. When the teacher listens to what is beneath the behavior, focusing on the student's feelings, this type of validation says to the child that the teacher sees them and is trying to understand. When the teacher takes deep breaths, gets a drink of water, and creates space for reflection for a minute or two, they are modeling the regulation skills they want to see from students.

Co-Regulating Behavior With Students

If I'm the teacher, co-regulation-the process of helping a student who has made a poor choice of behavior to regain their composure-begins with the awareness of my own sensations and feelings when I am disciplining the student. It entails a willingness to regulate my own brain before I act on that discipline. Personally, I try to commit to three quick routines that feel doable to calm me in a short period of time: taking three deep breaths, texting a friend or pulling an affirmation from a prepared jar, and stretching and moving for a minute.

It's much better to wait for a few minutes when we're feeling irritated and angry before we discipline, and this is also excellent modeling for students. Students read our nonverbal communication, so paying attention to our facial expression and posture in addition to our tone of voice is critical when teaching the behaviors we want to see.

Focusing on the student's sensations and the feelings that lie beneath the behavior help us to understand the root causes and patterns of a behavior we might discover when there is rising irritation and anger. I may have a minute or two to redirect-by suggesting that the student go and get a drink of water or take a couple of deep breaths to calm down with me before we talk about the problem.

Creating a friend-in-need system could be helpful so each student has a buddy or even another adult in the building to go to when they begin to feel agitated. For the friend-in-need system, teachers ask students to select one or two peers or adults at the school who they trust and feel comfortable with if they need to take a break and be in another environment or talk through those challenging moments. This is preventative discipline and a way for students to have options when they begin to feel negative. These calming strategies are taught ahead of time and become a part of our procedures and classroom agreements or guidelines.

"That must feel awful."

"You seem really angry."

"You seem really frustrated."

"What a difficult situation you're in."

Validation is powerful way to calm an agitated and angry student. It's calming to be understood and felt by another. Some things you can say to help a student feel validated:

Validation opens the door for teacher and student to discuss choices and consequences and to create a plan of action for the next time there's a conflict.

I once heard that it is critical that a teacher's brain should resemble a thermostat rather than a thermometer when it comes to disciplining a student. What does this mean? Like a thermostat, the teacher needs to maintain a steady temperature throughout a moment of conflict, with a goal of creating conversation and a plan of action with a student who understands their choices and the consequences of those actions. The teacher needs to model the behaviors they want to see and to model self-care and respect during the discipline process.

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The Role of Emotion Co-Regulation in Discipline

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Helping students regain their calm after misbehavior doesn't mean there are no consequences-it ensures that the right lesson is learned.

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Self-Regulation Practices for Teachers and Students

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Using these strategies regularly can help elementary school teachers ensure that their rooms are inviting and productive.

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Strengthening Faculty Bonds within Meetings

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Strengthening Faculty Bonds within Meetings

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Administration & Leadership

Instead of doing icebreakers, facilitators can offer activities that encourage participants to make genuine connections with each other.

Nikola Stojadinovic / iStock

A meeting or workshop is scheduled, and its general purpose is centered around team building or some variation of culture building. The facilitator sets the stage by saying, "OK, in order to get to know each other better, we are going to do an icebreaker." In this moment, you and the group might experience a tsunami of emotions ranging from excitement to indifference to melancholy and even anxiety.

The latter of this range often shows up in ways like a reluctance to participate or, worse, in a situation in which you're essentially "voluntold" either directly or indirectly that your participation is required. Because I've experienced all of the above more times than I'd like to count, I decided many years ago that I would not lead any icebreakers in my work. This led to a definitive shift from icebreakers to community builders.

Icebreakers Often Don't produce the Desired Result

Icebreakers are generally defined as activities or games designed to warm up the participants of a meeting, workshop, or event. Their primary goal is to ease initial tension or awkwardness among the participants who may be unfamiliar with each other or to inject energy into the group.

But icebreakers often go awry. I'd like to take a look at how that happens, and why I choose not to do them.

Time: The activities are often very brief in structure and format. They follow a specific set of rules and tasks that must fit within a short amount time.

Engagement: Because the activities (far too often) create something like a bandwagon effect ethos, the participation is more often superficial. As I like to say, they run the risk of being performative and microwave relationships instead of letting connections develop organically.

Interaction: More often than not, the level of interaction is not relevant to the purpose of the gathering. This runs a very real risk of inducing anxiety in the group's introverts and more reserved members and, quite frankly, forces individuals to reveal something about themselves that may require a higher level of emotional capital expenditure for them than for most other people.

One-off: Icebreakers are typically conducted at the start of a gathering, and due to the above-listed factors, they rarely lead to any meaningful group dynamic beyond the activity itself.

Focus on Characteristics That Build Community

I prefer to engage in activities that are community builders. These carefully and meticulously designed activities aim to curate deeper meaning of our shared connection and purpose for the gathering, create group cohesion, and foster a truly supportive ethos.

Purpose-driven and intentional: Each activity has a clear objective that aligns with the goals of our gathering. They are designed to be accessible and inclusive, and they embrace the individual differences in the room.

Meaningful and purposeful interaction: Community builders encourage participants to engage in more creative and meaningful discussions along with purposeful but voluntary collaboration (which is key). On a side note, collaboration is generally better when it is voluntary. The interactions are set to allow for varying degrees of sharing personal experiences, thoughts, ideas, and goals of the activity.

Engagement: The activities are structured to take participants to meaningful interactions aligned with an investment/ownership of learning within the activity. This dynamic is often referred to as agency.

Flexibility and creativity: The activities you implement should always allow for flexibility and creativity. Also, when designing the activity, it's important for the activity to be nonjudgmental-i.e., free from any opinionated, moral, creative, or rubric intended assessment. This is purely an action-oriented, end-in-itself activity.

How to Design a Meaningful Community-Building Activity

If you're the facilitator, it starts with intentionality: What do you want the participants to feel? What do you want the participants to achieve? How is that achievement connected to the reason why the group is gathered in the first place? Once these design questions are addressed, the next questions are: Can the activity be accessed by all? Did I follow a more Universal Design approach and awareness? What barriers might I anticipate and thus account for prior to the activity? Do ability, race, gender, or personal background hinder the activity?

Next, it's important to communicate the purpose and ethos of the gathering-stressing the importance of active listening and communication. I often share that in our spaces, we carry our experiences in an invisible knapsack, and our goal is to give grace to ourselves and others.

A purposeful way to do this is to encourage open-ended questions that invite thoughtful responses and allow participants to use their agency and share their perspectives to whatever degree they like. Finally, the last thing to consider is the essential communicative component of feedback. In this context, two of my favorite identifiers are laughter and smiles. Often, the best feedback is what you observe rather than what you are told.

So what does all of this look like in action? Although I've designed many different activities, one of my favorites is a meme design task.

The setup: I prepare a shareable slide deck that sets the tone for the activity. I include several slides that show popular memes, what meme design looks like, the types of images most often used in memes, a blank slide that can be used, a few slides with images that can be used as an option, and finally, a slide that contains links to several websites that have meme templates. The primary goal here is to provide guidance and eliminate any anticipatory barriers to getting started. Participants are encouraged to work in pairs, groups, or teams, but not required to do so.

In this setup, people often ask me what topic they should choose. In order for this activity to work best, I always advise them to choose a topic that resonates with them or inspires their creativity.

The instructions: The purpose of the activity is to explore creativity as much as possible. Yes, there will likely be lots of conversations, laughter, and ideas shared, but in this activity, barriers to creativity are removed, natural group dynamics are free to occur without interference, and the choice to be part of a pair or group is purely up to the individuals. This decreases the likelihood of anxiety being induced.

Typically, the activity lasts about 20-25 minutes, and once the design is complete, individuals and groups submit their designs to a gallery where everybody can view them.

Outcome and reflection: When possible, we discuss the process and even share reactions to the memes in the gallery. During breaks in a workshop, I often put the meme gallery on an automatic display to serve as a reminder of our time together.

When we focus on building community, we can definitively address many of the things that are often overlooked when it comes to our gatherings. We can, by design, support the social and emotional health of the group, ensure that each and every individual is welcomed as a part of the group, foster a shift from surface-level engagement to investment and ownership, and invoke both fun and play into our time together.

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Building Authentic Community During Meetings

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Instead of doing icebreakers, facilitators can offer activities that encourage participants to make genuine connections with each other.

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Decompression: Emotional Expression Worksheet 

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Decompression: Emotional Expression Worksheet 

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I have the Spot feeling plushies in my office and my client love to use them! I thought having some of these represented in classroom could help connect the two experiences! I made this form, so I can send you a blank copy at any time!

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Break Time Emotion Expression with Spots Emotions

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Great to gauge where kiddos are at! Does not have to be done every day, your teachers senses will probably know good days to do these.

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Great as an activity or an every day group activity to build connection and self-esteem!

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Can be good for some hyperactive kiddos to have a visual reminder to what was said.

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Can be useful while kiddos use the calm down area. Allows for them to distract their mind from thinking about what is causing them distress.

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Another tool to keep kiddos' mind distracted in decompression area.

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A survey of U.S. public sector workers released in October found that K-12 public school educators were the most likely to report higher levels of anxiety, stress and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic. That's obviously no surprise. After a quick and difficult transition to full-time virtual learning, to the unrelenting pressure to return to school before the approval of the vaccines, to being targets in heated, potentially dangerous political battles, educators have endured staggering levels of anxiety and pressure.

Districts are also reporting shortages of classroom teachers, cafeteria workers, bus drivers and substitute teachers, exacerbating an already tense environment for educators who-for now at least-choose to remain in their profession. Nearly four in 10 reported that working during the pandemic has made them consider changing jobs, mirroring recent surveys from the National Education Association and the RAND Corporation that found high percentages of teachers thinking about exiting the profession

However, compared to other public sector workers, K-12 employees were more likely to say they prefer to stay in their jobs.

Educators like Charity Turpeau, the 2021-22 middle school teacher of the year in her Louisiana school district, love being in the classroom, but are worried about the mounting pressures of the job and the lower pay. "With the workload, demands from the state, pandemic restrictions, and lack of pay, I feel as if I am doing less of what I love, which is teaching," she told Good Morning America hosts on Nov. 8. "The paycheck does not match the amount of workload we are given and the overtime we work to try and complete it all."

If the education system is to avoid the fast approaching "teacher turnover cliff," says Doris Santoro, professor of education at Bowdoin College in Maine, districts and school leaders have to focus on structural change in schools beyond doing what is necessary to fill shortages.

"These are opportunities for school leaders to really look at what we are asking teachers to do. Let's eliminate the part so the job that are not as important. Give them the choices in the kinds of work they do. There is incredible power in giving educators work that they find meaningful and important."

Turpeau says burnout among educators is more prevalent now than at any time in her 16 years of teaching.

Demoralization is equally prevalent. "Burnout and demoralization are meaningfully different forms of work dissatisfaction that each affect teachers' ability to do their jobs and influence decisions to remain in the profession, Santoro says.

Burnout is often a more temporary condition in which an educator has exhausted the personal and professional resources necessary to to the job. Demoralization occurs when an educator believes she is unable to perform the work in ways that uphold the high standards of the profession.

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Getting Serious About Teacher Burnout | NEA

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To avoid a "Great Resignation," districts need to make substantive changes to reduce stress and improve morale in schools. Educators don't need any more chair massages or Casual Fridays, says one expert. "This is about support and autonomy."

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As psychologists continue to help those suffering from the impact of COVID-19, they should watch for signs of their own distress or burnout.

Cite this

Clay, R. A. (2020, June 11). Are you experiencing compassion fatigue? http://www.apa.org/topics/covid-19/compassion-fatigue

Psychologist Heidi Allespach, PhD, of the University of Miami's Miller School of Medicine, knows that the big hearts that propel people into psychology and other caregiving careers also put them at risk of developing compassion fatigue. Ironically, she explains, caregivers can become so over-empathic that they find themselves growing numb to their patients' suffering. That's why she urges the medical residents she teaches to develop what she calls a "semi-permeable membrane" around their hearts. "Without enough of a shield, everything just comes in," says Allespach. "And being overwhelmed with the feelings of others can feel like drowning."

Now Allespach and other psychologists are worried that psychologists are facing increased risks of compassion fatigue as the COVID-19 pandemic stretches on.

Compassion fatigue occurs when psychologists or others take on the suffering of patients who have experienced extreme stress or trauma, explains Charles R. Figley, PhD, founder of the Traumatology Institute at Tulane University. It is an occupational hazard of "any professionals who use their emotions, their heart," he says, and represents the psychological cost of healing others. "It's like a dark cloud that hangs over your head, goes wherever you go and invades your thoughts," he says.

Compassion fatigue doesn't just make it difficult to feel empathy for your patients, says Kerry A. Schwanz, PhD, of Coastal Carolina University. One component of the condition is burnout, which is associated with too much work and not enough resources to do that work well. Burnout can result in depression and anxiety, physical and emotional exhaustion, less enjoyment of work, and more arguing. Another component of compassion fatigue is secondary traumatic stress, or indirect exposure to trauma via helping others. "I sometimes refer to this component as 'empathy overload,'" says Schwanz, adding that symptoms include anxiety, intrusive thoughts, hypervigilance, numbness or feelings of having nothing left to give.

To keep compassion fatigue from developing or to address it if it does, compassion fatigue experts suggest that psychologists do the following.

Recognize the signs

"Psychologists and other people in helping roles really do forget that they're vulnerable," says Schwanz, explaining that psychologists are trained to be empathic but also to put their own emotions aside. If psychologists suspect they are experiencing compassion fatigue, Schwanz recommends they assess themselves with the free Professional Quality of Life measure developed by psychologist Beth Hudnall Stamm, PhD. This self-report tool covers symptoms, such as loss of productivity, depression, intrusive thoughts, jumpiness, tiredness, feelings of being on edge or trapped, or inability to separate personal and professional life. The measure also assesses compassion satisfaction-the positive emotions associated with helping others, such as happiness, pride and satisfaction.

Make self-care part of a routine

Psychologists should adopt the mantra of flight attendants: "Put your own oxygen mask on before helping others," says psychologist Amy M. Williams, PhD, of the Henry Ford Health System. Good self-care means developing a routine that makes each day predictable and that includes what Williams calls the big five of self-care: adequate sleep, healthy nutrition, physical activity, relaxation and socializing. The schedule should also include five minutes for a self check-in each morning to assess tension in the body and worries in the mind. "Don't do it 10 minutes before bed, when the mind spins off into worry," she suggests.

Examine beliefs about self-care

It's not enough to just go through the motions of self-care, emphasizes Schwanz. It needs to be a legitimate attempt. "In our society, we applaud people who work themselves to death, who neglect their own self-care to help others," says Schwanz. "We rarely applaud people for taking the day off." Psychologists may have internalized this message, viewing self-care as selfish, says Schwanz, who is studying such beliefs' relationship with compassion fatigue. As a result, psychologists may not reap the benefit of any self-care efforts they make, because they engage in behaviors such as worrying about work on a day off. And psychologists shouldn't feel guilty about taking time for fun and laughter during this sad, anxious time, adds Thomas Skovholt, PhD, of the University of Minnesota. Playing games, watching funny movies and the like can replenish the energy needed to help others, he says. Even a tiny dose of positive emotion, such as noticing flowers blooming, can help.

Practice self-compassion

Psychologists are having a hard time along with everyone else, says Allespach, and that's unusual. Most psychologists are now experiencing the same problems their patients are experiencing-worries about safety, uncertainty, financial concerns and disrupted routines. "Psychologists are usually the rocks in the river of life's uncertainty for our patients, but right now, we're in that river with them," she says. "For those of us in the helping professions, we're trying to help our patients make sense of this strange new reality while doing that ourselves." That unusual situation can increase psychologists' stress, says Allespach. But so can psychologists' own tendencies, says psychologist Anna Baranowsky, PhD, founder of Toronto's Traumatology Institute, who says psychologists tend to be "over-copers." "They are capable of working really hard and delivering great results," says Baranowsky. "But they are very self-demanding and very focused on the perfection of what they're delivering, until the point of total exhaustion." It's important for psychologists to take time to reflect-alone, with a trusted colleague, religious leader, or therapist-on any wounds that are surfacing during this uncertain time, she says. "You want to really respect the fact that you're human, too," she says. "Bearing witness to another person's suffering ignites things within ourselves."

Create community

Connecting with like-minded others is another strategy that can help prevent compassion fatigue. "It may not sound fancy or sophisticated, but building community is the most powerful thing you can do," says Geoffry White, PhD, a private practitioner in Los Angeles who has worked to prevent compassion fatigue in mental health practitioners responding after terrorism and war. In addition to staying connected with family and friends, psychologists could set up Zoom consultation or supervision groups to check in with each other and prevent and address signs of compassion fatigue. "Compared with other societies, the United States has a very mind-your-own business culture, prizing independence and self-reliance over community" says White. "But anything that takes away from that isolation-peer support-will help."

Help colleagues

The pandemic is exacerbating what was already a crisis of burnout for health-care providers, say researchers and medical professionals at Texas A&M University and Houston Methodist Hospital. They found that intensive care unit workers are facing longer shifts, increased patient deaths, lack of personal protective equipment and financial fears among other stressors (Sasangohar, F., et al., Anesthesia and Analgesia, published online ahead of publication, 2020). Those stressors can also lead to compassion fatigue. If psychologists see signs that a colleague, whether another psychologist or a health-care professional, is developing compassion fatigue, they should check in, says Schwanz. Psychologists and trusted colleagues can give each other permission to point out potential problems and keep at it despite attempts to deflect or deny, says Schwanz. Schwanz herself has a self-care buddy. They text each other to check in on each other's stress levels and to report daily acts of self-care, such as taking breaks and drinking enough water to stay hydrated.

It's also important to normalize compassion fatigue, adds Williams. "You could say, 'These are crazy times, and I'm struggling,'" she says. "Then ask, 'Is that something you're going through, too?'" In the support groups she runs, for example, participants often admit that they didn't realize compassion fatigue is normal, and so they were hesitant to ask for help. Once they realize that feeling this way is normal for others, she says, they are more willing to talk about their struggles and to accept help.

Focus on compassion satisfaction

Psychologists should celebrate the positives of helping others. "There can be terrible things going on, but focus on the wins," suggests Schwanz, citing the celebrations health-care providers hold when patients come off ventilators. Focusing on gratitude can also help, she says.

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Are you experiencing compassion fatigue?

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As psychologists continue to help those suffering from the impact of COVID-19, they should watch for signs of their own distress or burnout. Cite this Clay, R. A. (2020, June 11). Are you experiencing compassion fatigue?

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Most principals and teachers know that classmates can affect a student's learning, but they do not know how to arrange students across classrooms to optimize all students' learning.

In their recently published paper in the Journal of Educational Psychology, Ming Ming Chiu, Bonnie Chow, and Sung Wook Joh's (2017) study of 208,057 fourth-grade students in 40 countries showed that both classmate attributes and their distribution are linked to a student's reading test scores.

On average, a student has higher reading test scores when classmates are from advantaged families (parents with better schooling, jobs, or incomes), have better reading attitudes, or have higher test scores. Chiu, Chow, and Joh argue that a student learns more when classmates are from privileged families, have more education materials (books, computers, etc.), and experiences (attend plays) to share.

The authors propose that classmates with better reading attitudes serve as role models for students with poorer reading attitudes to imitate. The authors also argue that classmates with more knowledge and skills can share them to help other students learn more.

When students with similar past reading test scores are placed into the same schools (streaming), current reading test scores are higher, consistent with teachers customizing their instruction for their students with similar aptitudes. However, when students with similar past reading test scores are grouped into the same classes within a school (tracking), current reading test scores are lower. This suggests that teachers do not prepare multiple lesson plans for different students with different abilities in similar courses.

Instead, when high- and low-achieving students were mixed together in classes within a school, they had higher reading scores, consistent with more help opportunities in which both the recipient and the helper learn more. On one hand, help recipients can benefit from the helper's new information. On the other hand, when helpers explain ideas or answers to a classmate, they often elaborate or re-organize their knowledge to help the classmate understand, thereby improving their own understanding.

Furthermore, schools that mixed students with different family backgrounds or different reading attitudes into the same classroom had higher overall reading test scores. The authors propose that mixing students from different family backgrounds (schooling, jobs, or incomes) aids their learning from one another's varied and diverse experiences.

The results are consistent with the view that mixing students with different reading attitudes helps them recognize classmates' sharp differences in attitudes and positive and negative consequences (contrasting cases), which can help students appreciate the benefits of positive reading attitudes and thereby imitate them to learn more.

Citation

Chiu, M. M., Chow, B. W.-Y., & Joh, S. W. (2017). Streaming, tracking and reading achievement: A multilevel analysis of students in 40 countries. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 915-934. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000188

Note: This article is in the Educational Psychology, School Psychology & Training topic area. View more articles in the Educational Psychology, School Psychology & Training topic area.

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How to Group Students Into Classrooms to Increase Overall Learning

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By mixing high- and low-achieving students in classrooms, schools can enable helping behavior and improve reading achievement.

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School Response to Self-Injury Research Article

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School Response to Self-Injury Research Article

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Danger signals for suicide include someone talking about committing suicide, having trouble eating or sleeping, exhibiting drastic changes in behavior, withdrawing, and more.

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Tools to help prevent youth suicide

Cite this

American Psychological Association. (2019, December 4). Talking to teens: Suicide prevention. https://www.apa.org/topics/suicide/prevention-teens

Suicide is a difficult topic, but it's too important to ignore. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suicide is the second leading cause of death for young people ages 15 to 24 in the United States. Despite a common belief that only teens and adults die by suicide, younger children can also be at risk.

Depression and suicide often coincide. Yet not everyone who is depressed attempts suicide-and not everyone who attempts suicide is depressed. If you're a parent, a teacher, or anyone who spends time with children and teens, it's important to learn the warning signs. These tools can help you prevent youth suicide.

Risk factors

Several factors increase the risk of suicidal thoughts or behaviors, including:

Mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders

Alcohol and substance use

Impulsive behaviors

History of trauma or abuse

Family history of suicide

Previous suicide attempt(s)

Warning signs

Not everyone exhibits the same signs that they're thinking about suicide, but these warning signs are cause for concern:

Physical changes in appearance or hygiene

Increase in alcohol or drug use

Sudden drop in grades

Social withdrawal

Talking about suicide or preoccupation with death

Risky or reckless behaviors (such as reckless driving or unsafe sex)

Self-harm behaviors such as cutting

Talking about feeling hopeless or having nothing to live for

Researching suicide methods and/or acquiring weapons

If you have any concerns about a young person's mental health, take action.

These steps can help

Express your concern. It's a myth that if you mention suicide, you might plant the idea. By honestly and openly expressing your concerns, you'll send an important message that you care and understand.

Really listen. Parents can be tempted to shut down an upsetting conversation by saying, "I don't want to hear those things," or "I had a hard time as a teen, but I got over it." Instead, say, "Tell me more about how you're feeling." Then listen.

Maintain connection. You might want to safeguard a child or teen by keeping him home in a protective cocoon, but isolation can increase the risk of suicidal behaviors. Help a struggling child maintain connections with friends and loved ones. As a parent, spend extra time with your child. Even watching TV or playing video games together sends a signal that you're there.

Be compassionate. Express your love for the child or teen. Tell her you hear her pain, that it can get better, that you will make sure she gets help, and will support her every step of the way.

Trust your judgment. If a young person denies that he is having suicidal thoughts, but you doubt his honesty, trust your intuition. Take further steps to ensure his safety.

Prioritize safety. Remove weapons from the house, make sure the child or teen is not left alone, and consult a mental health professional right away.

Where to find help

In an emergency, call 911 or take the child to a hospital or crisis center for evaluation. If your concerns are less urgent, seek help as soon as possible from a mental health professional. The child's school psychologist might be able to share resources in your community.

To find a licensed psychologist in your area, use our Psychologist Locator. Ideally, seek out a mental health professional with specialized training in treating children or adolescents.

APA gratefully acknowledges psychologists Mary Alvord, PhD, Nadine Kaslow, PhD, Shane Owens, PhD, and Robin Gurwitch, PhD, for their help with this fact sheet.

The full text of articles from APA Help Center may be reproduced and distributed for noncommercial purposes with credit given to the American Psychological Association. Any electronic reproductions must link to the original article on the APA Help Center. Any exceptions to this, including excerpting, paraphrasing or reproduction in a commercial work, must be presented in writing to the APA. Images from the APA Help Center may not be reproduced.

Recommended Reading

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Tools to help prevent youth suicide Cite this American Psychological Association. (2019, December 4). Talking to teens: Suicide prevention. https://www.apa.org/topics/suicide/prevention-teens Suicide is a difficult topic, but it's too important to ignore. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, suicide is the second leading cause of death for young people ages 15 to 24 in the United States.

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Tips for grieving adults, children, and schools dealing with a death by suicide.

Cite this

American Psychological Association. (2019, October 25). Coping after suicide loss. https://www.apa.org/topics/suicide/coping-after

Death by suicide is always a tragic event. It can trigger a host of complicated and confusing emotions. Whether you are coping with the loss of a loved one or are helping a child or adult navigate such a loss, these tools can help.

How to cope when a friend or loved one dies by suicide

Accept your emotions. You might expect to feel grief and despair, but other common feelings include shock, denial, guilt, shame, anger, confusion, anxiety, loneliness, and even, in some cases, relief. Those feelings are normal and can vary throughout the healing process.

Don't worry about what you "should" feel or do. There's no standard timeline for grieving and no single right way to cope. Focus on what you need, and accept that others' paths might be different from yours.

Care for yourself. Do your best to get enough sleep and eat regular, healthy meals. Taking care of your physical self can improve your mood and give you the strength to cope.

Draw on existing support systems. Accept help from those who have been supports in the past, including your family, your friends, or members of your faith-based community.

Talk to someone. There is often stigma around suicide, and many loss survivors suffer in silence. Speaking about your feelings can help.

Join a group. Support groups can help you process your emotions alongside others who are experiencing similar feelings. People who don't think of themselves as support group types are often surprised by how helpful such groups can be.

Talk to a professional. Psychologists and other mental health professionals can help you express and manage your feelings and find healthy coping tools.

Talking to children and teens about death by suicide

Parents, teachers, school administrators, and other adults in a child's life often feel unprepared to help a young person cope with a death by suicide. These strategies can help you foster open dialogue and offer support.

Deal with your own feelings first. Pause to reflect on and manage your own emotions so you can speak calmly to the child or children in your life.

Be honest. Don't dwell on details of the act itself, but don't hide the truth. Use age-appropriate language to discuss the death with children.

Validate feelings. Help the child put names to her emotions: "It sounds like you're angry," or "I hear you blaming yourself, but this is not your fault." Acknowledge and normalize the child's feelings. Share your own feelings, too, explaining that while each person's feelings are different, it's okay to experience a range of emotions.

Avoid rumors. Don't gossip or speculate about the reasons for the suicide. Instead, when talking to a child or teen, emphasize that the person who died was struggling and thinking differently from most people.

Tailor your support. Everyone grieves at his or her own pace and in his or her own way. Some people might need privacy as they work through their feelings. Respect their privacy, but check in regularly to let them know they don't have to grieve alone. Other children might want someone to talk to more often. Still others prefer to process their feelings through art or music. Ask the child how they'd like you to help. Let them know it's okay to just be together.

Extend the conversation. Use this opportunity to reach out to others who might be suffering. Ask children: How can you and your peers help support each other? Who else can you reach out to for help? What can you do if you're struggling with difficult emotions?

Tips for schools

Handle the announcement with care. Schools should not report the cause of a death as suicide if the information hasn't been released by the family or reported in the media. When discussing a student's death by suicide, avoid making announcements over the public address system. It's helpful if teachers read the same announcement to each classroom, so that students know everyone is getting the same information.

Identify students who need more support. These can include friends of a student who died by suicide, those who were in clubs or on teams with the deceased, and those who are dealing with life stressors similar to the stressors experienced by the deceased. Less obviously, peers who had unfriendly relationships with the deceased-including those who teased or bullied the deceased or were bullied by the deceased. These students may also have complicated feelings of guilt and regret that require extra support.

Prevent imitation. Researchers have found news stories that use graphic language, sensationalize the death, or explicitly describe the method of suicide can increase the risk of additional deaths by suicide. When talking to children, avoid graphic details and focus instead on hope, healing, and the value of the person when they were alive.

Minimize positive attention. Dedicating special events to the deceased can make him or her seem like a celebrity. Vulnerable children might see such attention and think suicide is a way to be noticed. Instead of memorials, consider acknowledging the death through events such as suicide awareness walks or campaigns.

Choose words carefully. To protect peers who may also have suicidal thoughts, avoid phrases such as "She's no longer suffering," or "He's in a better place." Instead, focus on positive aspects of the person's life. Avoid the term "committed suicide," and instead use "died by suicide."

Keep the lines of communication open. Help students identify adults they can trust and other resources they can draw on if they struggle with sadness or with their own suicidal feelings. Make sure students know where they can turn for help, not only after this loss, but in the months and years to come.

Finding help

If you or a child in your life is grieving a death by suicide, a psychologist can help you express and manage your feelings and find healthy ways to cope. Clinical psychologists are professionals trained to identify mental, emotional, and behavioral problems or challenges and find solutions for handling them. To find a licensed psychologist in your area, use our Psychologist Locator.

APA gratefully acknowledges psychologists Mary Alvord, PhD, Nadine Kaslow, PhD, Shane Owens, PhD, and Robin Gurwitch, PhD, for their help with this fact sheet.

Recommended Reading

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Tips for grieving adults, children, and schools dealing with a death by suicide. Cite this American Psychological Association. (2019, October 25). Coping after suicide loss. https://www.apa.org/topics/suicide/coping-after Death by suicide is always a tragic event. It can trigger a host of complicated and confusing emotions.

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988 lifeline sees big increase in calls for help a year after launch

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A year after the launch of the 988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline, call centers nationwide are seeing a significant increase in people reaching out for help.

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NEA Today All News & Articles Seven Ways to Make This a Great School Year!

Summer's over! But things are about to heat up in classrooms and other workspaces. Here are seven things you can do now to smooth the way for a positive and powerful school year to come.

Focus on student relationships first-and learning will follow, advises Yahaira Rodriguez, a Worcester, Mass., paraeducator.

"Just sit down. Talk to them. What'd they do over the summer? Students want to feel seen by you as more than just a test score," she says.

Rodriguez's students often ask her: "Are you married? Do you have kids? Can I see pictures?" She always answers. (No, yes, and of course!) Relationships are a two-way street.

"There's always been this distinction between educator and child, but we have to let them see us as imperfect human beings, too," she says.

The time that you spend on relationships now will help everything go more smoothly in the months ahead, Rodriguez promises. When your students know you care, when you trust in each other, you become a well-functioning team that can learn and grow together.

Lastly, make an effort to pronounce their names right, she urges. Repeated mispronunciations are disrespectful and dehumanizing. And nicknames are lazy. (Fun tip: If Rodriguez mispronounces a students' name, she gives them a candy. When they see her practicing, they know she cares.)

Write down what works-and doesn't-in your classroom. The act of reflection will help you better respond to students' needs in the future. Take inspiration from National Teacher of the Year Rebecka Peterson, who wrote about something good that happened every day in her classroom for 1,400 days! Finding the good has made her a better teacher, she says.

After 29 years of teaching, Alison Tingle knows her way around a classroom. Even better, within days of school starting, so do her students. Tingle, a second-grade teacher at West Seaford Elementary School, in Delaware, provides a neat, organized, and predictable environment.

"Anything I can do to minimize stress and unpredictability for my students is my priority. There should be no zingers! Nothing to ramp up their anxiety," she says. "Neat and organized are my strengths. And hopefully I'm teaching them organizational skills, too."

Set up your space to support the student behaviors you want to see and to buttress the procedures that make your class run smoothly, says Tingle, a National Board Certified Teacher. "We joke that your bedroom might be messy, but this classroom, which is your home away from home, is not. The custodians love us!"

Step inside Ms. Tingle's classroom

Click on the images below for more of Ms. Tingle's classroom setup strategies.

Think about who you want to be as an educator and what you want to accomplish in the year ahead-for your students, your colleagues, and yourself. Maybe you need to take better care of yourself or focus on a specific aspect of your professional practice. Self-reflection is key. When setting an intention, consider your strengths, weaknesses, motives, and desires.

When we asked NEA members about their goals or intentions for the new school year, this is what we heard:

Reach out as soon as you can to introduce yourself to parents and set a good foundation for the school year. A quick survey can be helpful. Find out how and when they prefer to be contacted: by text, email, or phone, and if they will need English translation services. Ask them to tell you about their child's interests!

For more tips see: "Better Communication with Families Starts with the Basics."

Your local and state unions have a calendar of events for this school year. Tap into those calendars now, advises Washington high school teacher and union leader Gabrielle Wright.

The offerings for professional development- whether you're a teacher or support staff member-are often geared toward recertification.

"Ask yourself: What do you need for recertification? Or what are you hoping to improve in your practice?" Wright says.

When she gets her class list at the start of the school year, she also turns to NEA's library of micro-credentials for quick help.

"There's a lot of really brilliant things in there!" she says.

Whether you want to brush up on trauma-informed supports or learn about LGBTQ+ anti-bias curriculum, there's a microcredential to help you meet students' specific needs.

If you don't see what you're looking for in your union's offerings, get involved.

"Is there an equity event you're interested in leading?" asks Wright. "Is there a book study you want to propose? Maybe you took a course that inspired you, and you want to share it with other educators."

Consider this, she urges: "What can you bring to the table?"

Don't wait until the dark days of winter to focus on your physical and mental well-being. Instead, take steps at the start of the school year so you can stay healthy in the months to come. Taraja Shephard Allen, a school counselor who now works for the Ohio Education Association, provides trainings on self-care to fellow educators. She offers this advice for establishing good habits:

Create daily routines so that your days are as predictable and stressfree as possible. Lay out your clothes the night before, pack lunch in advance, and make sure to have a go-bag of snacks.

"When things go haywire and you've got to cover an additional class or drive an extra route, you need your snacks," she advises. Also, and this is key: Decide on a daily shut-down time, after which you don't grade papers or respond to emails, and stick to it!

Set up your physical environment. Family photos, posters with affirmative messages, and other decorations or trinkets can help make you feel good. If you're a staff person without the ability to decorate a space, Shephard Allen recommends slipping a meditation rock into your pocket. "It's something you can hold onto, and they're cold, so they calm you down when you're feeling hot," she says.

"Decide on a daily shut-down time, after which you don't grade papers or respond to emails, and stick to it!"

- Taraja Shephard Allen, school counselor, Ohio

Figure out healthy coping strategies. These look different for different people. Develop interests outside of work and put them on your schedule now.

"For me, I enjoy volunteering," she says. "It's so soothing to feel that I'm actually making a difference."

Also identify your "go-to people" who will listen and provide constructive advice. (Hint: It's likely not the people in the lounge!)

Start practicing moments of mindfulness. Try taking three deep breaths when you get into your car at the start and end of the day. When you eat lunch (don't skip lunch!) try focusing for a minute on how it smells and tastes, and on the texture of your meal, suggests Shephard Allen.

Finally, identify additional resources before you need them. Your local and state unions likely have wellness programs. Through NEA Member Benefits, you can also get one year of free access to Sanvello, an app that helps dial down the symptoms of stress and anxiety.

Mary Ellen Flannery

Senior Writer

Great public schools for every student

The National Education Association (NEA), the nation's largest professional employee organization, is committed to advancing the cause of public education. NEA's 3 million members work at every level of education-from pre-school to university graduate programs. NEA has affiliate organizations in every state and in more than 14,000 communities across the United States.

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Seven Ways to Make This a Great School Year! | NEA

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Summer's over! But things are about to heat up in classrooms and other workspaces. Here are seven things you can do now to smooth the way for a positive and powerful school year to come.

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Nearly all K-12 public school districts have restrictive dress codes that impact female students, students of color and LGBTQ+ students more than their classmates, a recent study by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) found.

For example, while 90 percent of dress codes prohibit at least one clothing item typically worn by girls, such as strapless tops or yoga pants, about 70 percent prohibit an item typically worn by boys. Additionally, almost all school districts use subjective language, such as "revealing" or immodest, which are more often associated with clothing worn by female students and leave enforcement up to interpretation.

The GAO study also found that Black and Hispanic students are more likely to suffer strict consequences for dress code violations, as four in five predominantly Black schools and nearly two-thirds of predominantly Hispanic schools have codes that remove students from class for dress-code violations, compared to one-third of predominantly White schools.

Such removal policies, enforced by about 44 percent of school districts, tend to be vague and "informal," with unclear disciplinary measures once a student is removed for a dress code violation.

Compared to other regions in the country, schools located in southern states are more likely to enforce strict dress codes.

Rules on Hair Styles and Head Coverings

Students' hair is a specific target of many dress codes, as an estimated 59 percent of dress codes contain restrictions about students' hair.

Such dress codes may disproportionately affect Black students, GAO researchers learned through interviews with district officials. One in five dress codes include subjective language in rules about student hair, such as "natural," "clean," "well-groomed," or that the students' hair must not be distracting.

The study found that some dress codes even prohibit shaved lines in hair and include rules specific to natural, textured hair or "excessive curls," which also disproportionately affect Black students.

Additionally, more than 80 percent of school districts prohibit head coverings, and only one-third of the dress codes specify that they allow coverings for religious or medical exemptions, despite many head coverings holding religious or cultural significance for students.

Impact on LGBTQ+ Students

Some LGBTQ+ students are also restricted by dress code policies.

In 2019, 18 percent of LGBTQ+ students reported that their school prevented them from wearing clothes that did not match with administrators' vision of appropriate attire for their gender.

GAO's review also found that 15 percent of dress codes specify different rules, based on perceived gender, for things like nail polish or makeup, attire, and hairstyle.

None of the GAO-reviewed dress codes with gender-based policies protect transgender or nonbinary students' ability to dress per their gender identity.

Consequences of Dress Codes

In addition to learning loss, which results when students are removed from their classrooms for dress code violations, dress codes may have other unintended consequences.

Officials from national organizations and districts interviewed by GAO researchers found that mandatory school uniforms may create obstacles for low-income families who struggle to afford the specific, required clothing. Nearly three-quarters of predominantly Black schools and more than half of predominantly Hispanic schools require uniforms, compared to just 2 percent of predominantly White schools.

School districts often say the intent of their dress codes is to keep students safe, GAO researchers found. However, as such policies emphasize what students look like or what they wear, dress codes also can foster a less equitable environment for those adversely affected by the policies.

Since many dress codes require teachers to touch students-typically female students-as they measure a student's body to ensure the dress code is complied with, female students do not feel as safe at school, they told GAO researchers.

For example, one suburban charter district's policy suggests a measurement of "no straps smaller than three adult fingers." Another states its test for dress-code compliance is this: ""The test: No bare midsection or back is revealed when arms are stretched over head."

Possible Solutions

Making matters worse, educators who try to revise dress code policies often have trouble finding guidance on how to create equitable dress codes, researchers found. By offering information on how to revise dress codes to promote safe school culture, the U.S. Department of Education has an opportunity to act on its goal of promoting an equitable, supportive learning environment, GAO suggests.

The report provides three major recommendations:

The Department should include dress code information within its existing resources for safe and supportive schools;

The Department should offer resources on equitable enforcement of dress codes;

The Department also should provide information on the effects and prevalence of informal removals of students from classrooms and disseminate alternatives to exclusionary discipline to states.

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Equitable Dress Codes Missing From Schools | NEA

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Nearly all K-12 public school districts have restrictive dress codes that disproportionately impact female students, students of color and LGBTQ+ students.

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NEA President Becky Pringle visited Iowa City on Monday to meet with union and district leaders and learn more about the results of their collaborative work. It was one stop on her nationwide tour, which is focused on how schools can boost racial equity as they emerge from the pandemic.

The district encourages universal masking indoors regardless of vaccination status.

Face coverings required on school buses.

Protocols are adjusted depending on transmission rates.

Ventilation system upgrades to meet CDC requirements.

NEA is "using every strategy at our disposal to ensure students and educators are safe as they return to in-person learning," NEA's Becky Pringle said. "Everything is on the table because at the end of the day if our students aren't safe, they can't learn. If our educators aren't safe, they can't do the jobs they love educating the students of Iowa."

Shutt also introduced Pringle to fellows taking part in the Iowa City Community School District's "Grow Our Own" initiative, which supports educators of color who aspire to become administrators and school leaders. The fellows have the opportunity to serve in building level leadership positions for two school years. They also work to build the district's capacity in the area of restorative justice practices.

Both the union local and Iowa City Community School District administrators are determined to improve in the area of racial equity. In response to concerns from educators and parents, the district undertook a review of its discipline policies that resulted in a 189-page report released this summer.

"Everything is on the table because at the end of the day if our students aren't safe, they can't learn."

The study found that while Black students make up around 20 percent of enrolled students, they are 60 percent of those students punished through suspensions. Over 80 percent of suspended students are from lower income households, and a third are special education students.

That's why ICEA advocated for federal funds distributed through the American Rescue Plan be devoted to the Fellows program and ongoing work to change district discipline policies.

As part of her tour, NEA President Pringle has visited California and Kentucky as well as Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York before heading to the Midwest, with stops in Iowa, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Later this fall, she will visit the southwest.

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Iowa City Educators Unwavering in their Advocacy for Safe, Just Schools | NEA

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Through labor-management collaboration, Iowa City educators have maintained a strong voice in district priorities, as NEA President Becky Pringle observed first-hand.

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Why is that kiddo refusing something they once enjoyed? Can be applied to classroom behaviors as well.

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I have been seeing an increasing number of school refusal cases in my clinical practice. I have yet to read any studies that provide empirically based findings as to why this challenging set of behaviors is on the rise, but I do have a few (unsubstantiated) theories:

1. Children and adolescents have access to too many enjoyable activities when they stay home. When I was a child, if I were to stay home from school, I would be bored out of my mind. Unless I could have quickly caught up with the story line of "General Hospital," there would be nothing to distract me from the long, drawn-out day, where I was lacking in social interactions. Today, the average home has TVs hooked up to cable, computers, iPads and smartphones galore and gaming systems, etc. Who would not want to stay home and "play" with their gadgets, in contrast to engaging in the challenging curriculum and unchartered social relations of an average day at school? I am always shocked when I hear how the children and adolescents who are too "emotionally ill" to go to school are allowed to be home, having access to technology. IF you are too sick to go to school, then you need to be engaging in a behavior that as closely as possible approximates the behaviors one would engage in at school. As long as your kid does not go to a school for programmers and gamers, chances are their school day does not entail being locked into technology. So they should not be allowed to do that if they are engaging in school refusal behaviors.

2. Parents fail to see the dangerous waters their child is entering when they engage in school refusal behaviors. When your child is little and screaming about not wanting to go to the doctor, what do you do? Do you negotiate? Do you wait until they are ready to obtain their annual checkup? Going to school is as mission-critical to survival as obtaining appropriate medical care. I always tell parents who meet with me that we need to treat school refusal as a psychiatric emergency. Children not showing up for school is equivalent to adults not showing up for work and not caring for their families' needs.

3. It is unclear why the child is refusing to attend school. In treating school refusal, it is critical to first conduct a functional analysis to determine why a child is refusing to go to school. School refusal is not a diagnosis; it is a symptom of a disorder. Is a child refusing to go to school because he is being bullied? Is she refusing to go to school because she is having panic attacks in the cafeteria? Is he refusing to go to school because he fears he will not make straight A's and his rigid, perfectionistic thinking is getting in his way? It is critical to figure out why a child is having a difficult time going to school in order to develop an effective treatment plan, to assist your child in reintegrating back into school.

It is also critical to have the support and the assistance of your child's school. It can assist you in creating an appropriate action plan to get your child back to school. That plan may entail a school staff member temporarily coming over to escort your child to school in the mornings (nothing quite as effective at getting a kid up and out as a school security guard entering the home). The plan may also entail accommodations such as your child being able to take a break from class if he or she feels a panic attack coming on. There are many creative strategies to assist a child in more effectively managing distress and obtaining the tools and skills necessary to handle life's challenging moments. What is most important is for children to learn that quitting, avoiding, or running away from problems is not a viable long-term solution. As we adults have all learned the hard way, it just leads to digging ourselves deeper into the pain and suffering.

If your child is struggling with school refusal or school anxiety, I recommend you contact a mental health professional trained in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) or pharmacotherapies or both. You can search for a therapist in your area on the Anxiety and Depression Association of American (ADAA) website to help you with this challenging, but very important work.

Related

how to deal with anxiety anxiety disorder anxiety Parents anxiety tips

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In treating school refusal, it is critical to first conduct a functional analysis to determine why a child is refusing to go to school. School refusal is not a diagnosis; it is a symptom of a disorder.

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If you're lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ) and you struggle with anxiety or depression, let's start by putting things into context. By that I mean let's think through powerful life experiences that fundamentally impact your sense of well-being.

Anxiety and Depression for Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, and Transgender People

Somewhere between 30 and 60 percent of lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, or transgender people deal with anxiety and depression at some point in their lives. That rate is 1.5 to 2.5 times higher than that of their straight or gender-conforming counterparts.

It's a strikingly high number, and it raises a lot of questions. While the entire answer is undoubtedly complex as to why you or your LGBTQ loved ones are more apt to struggle with anxiety or depression, here's where context is key to understanding it for yourself.

It's About Context

If you're LGBTQ I'd wager a bet that you're really good at reading a situation to determine how much you can safely be yourself. This skill, while adaptive, comes at a cost because it was developed in response to being subjected to high levels of persistent prejudice and discrimination.

For example, just ask any teenager who's attracted to people of the same sex (or think back to your own experiences) and you'll hear (or remember) vivid examples of the fear, shame, and ridicule that lead to learning how to read a situation.

Being highly attuned to context as a lesbian, gay man, bisexual, or transgender person shapes your internal world, too. It affects how you think and feel about yourself. In response to an outside world full of negative messages about what it means to be attracted to people of the same sex or gender nonconforming, many people come to view themselves as deeply flawed, unlovable, unworthy, and hopeless.

Minority Stress

Psychologists refer to this contextual process of dealing with persistent prejudice and discrimination as minority stress. Many studies have shown that it has powerful, lasting, and negative impacts on the mental health and well-being of LGBTQ people. Bottom line: It creates a situation ripe for struggling with anxiety and depression.

Your Life in a Larger Context

Coping with minority stress does not tell the whole story, though, in the lives of lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, or transgender individuals. There's way more to each person's life than that: Camaraderie, pride, strength, and sense of belonging are found in community, friendship, and the love of other LGBTQ people and their supportive allies. All of us, whether gay, straight, gender conforming or not - or somewhere in between - are more than a constellation of the difficulties that we've had to face.

If You're Searching for Help

The ways that anxiety and depression are part of your life are determined by many factors. Our bodies, predispositions, and life experiences all play a role. My advice for LGBTQ people seeking help with their anxiety or depression is this: Seek a professional who gets the larger contextual picture and what it means to be you.

Find a LGBTQ-Affirming Mental Health Care Provider
About the Author
Brad Brenner, PhD, is a counseling psychologist and the founder and Clinical Director of the Therapy Group of DC. He also cofounded The Capital Therapy Project, a community-based psychotherapy training institute.

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Understanding Anxiety and Depression for LGBTQ People

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If you're lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ) and you struggle with anxiety or depression, let's start by putting things into context. By that I mean let's think through powerful life experiences that fundamentally impact your sense of well-being.

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Disordered Eating/ Eating Disorders and Intuitive Eating 

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Disordered Eating/ Eating Disorders and Intuitive Eating 

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Principle 1: Reject Diet Culture

Throw out the diet books, food plans, and articles that offer you false hope that that food restriction or dieting by any name you call it will grant all of your wishes for a better life. Rather than getting angry at yourself, get angry at the lies from diet culture have led you to feel as if you were a failure every time a new diet or food plan stopped working. If you allow even one small hope to linger that a new and better diet might be lurking around the corner, it will prevent you from being free to rediscover Intuitive Eating.

Principle 2: Honor Your Hunger

Keep your body biologically fed with adequate energy and carbohydrates. Otherwise, you can trigger a primal drive to eat beyond comfortable fullness. Once you reach the moment of excessive hunger, all intentions of moderate, conscious eating are fleeting and irrelevant. Learning to honor the first biological signal of hunger sets the stage for rebuilding trust with yourself and food.

Principle 3: Make Peace with Food

Call a truce-stop the food fight! Give yourself unconditional permission to eat. If you tell yourself that you can't or shouldn't have a particular food, it can lead to intense feelings of deprivation that build into uncontrollable cravings and, often, bingeing. When you finally give in to your forbidden food, eating will be experienced with such intensity that it usually results in Last Supper overeating and overwhelming guilt.

Principle 4: Discover the Satisfaction Factor

The Japanese have the wisdom to promote pleasure as one of their goals of healthy living. In our fury to be thin and healthy, we often overlook one of the most basic gifts of existence-the pleasure and satisfaction that can be found in the eating experience. When you eat what you really want, in an environment that is inviting and conducive, the pleasure you derive will be a powerful force in helping you feel satisfied and content. By providing this experience for yourself, you will find that you'll eat the right amount of food to feel physically and emotionally satisfied.

Principle 5: Feel Your Fullness

Listen for the body signals that tell you that you are no longer hungry. Observe the signs that show that you're comfortably full. Pause in the middle of eating and ask yourself how the food tastes and what your current fullness level is.

Principle 6: Challenge the Food Police

The food police monitor the unreasonable rules that dieting has created. The police station is housed deep in your psyche, and its loudspeaker shouts negative barbs, hopeless phrases, and guilt-provoking indictments. Chasing the food police away is a critical step in returning to Intuitive Eating.

Principle 7: Cope with Your Emotions with Kindness

First, recognize that food restriction, both physically and mentally, can, in and of itself, trigger loss of control, which can feel like emotional eating. Find kind ways to comfort, nurture, distract, and resolve your issues. Anxiety, loneliness, boredom, and anger are emotions we all experience throughout life. Each has its owntrigger, and each has its own appeasement. Food won't fix any of these feelings. It may comfort for the short term, distract from the pain, or even numb you. But food won't solve the problem. If anything, eating for anemotional hunger may only make you feel worse in the long run. You'll ultimately have to deal with the source of the emotion, as well as the discomfort of eating beyond comfortable fullness.

Principle 8: Respect Your Body

Accept your genetic blueprint. Just as a person with a shoe size of eight would not expect to realistically squeeze into a size six, it is equally futile (and uncomfortable) to have a similar expectation about body size. But mostly, respect your body so you can feel better about who you are. It's hard to reject the diet mentality ifyou are unrealistic and overly critical of your body size or shape. All bodies deserve dignity.

Principle 9: Movement-Feel the Difference

Forget militant exercise. Just get active and feel the difference. Shift your focus to how it feels to move your body, rather than the calorie-burning effect of exercise. If you focus on how you feel from working out, suchas energized, it can make the difference between rolling out of bed for a brisk morning walk or hitting the snooze alarm.

Principle 10: Honor Your Health-Gentle Nutrition

Make food choices that honor your well-being, taste buds, and culture; while attuning to how your body feels. Remember that you don't have to eat perfectly to be healthy. You will not suddenly get a nutrient deficiency from one snack, one meal, or one day of eating. It's what you eat consistently over time that matters. It might be surprising for you to learn that what you eat and how you move your body only accounts for ten percent of your health. Progress, not perfection, is what counts.

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10 Principles of Intuitive Eating - Intuitive Eating

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Overcoming Drug & Alcohol Problems Among Teens

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Learn about problems with drugs or alcohol and options for treatment and recovery. Hear from people who took control of substance use in their teens.

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Disordered Eating vs. Eating Disorders - National Eating Disorders Association

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Learn about differences between disordered eating and eating disorders. Visit the Resource Center at National Eating Disorders Association.

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Support Child Back to School with Eating 

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The Trevor Project | For Young LGBTQ Lives

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The Trevor Project provides 24/7 crisis support services to LGBTQ young people. Text, chat, or call anytime to reach a trained counselor. Free and confidential.

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Full of great resources to other peer reviewed articles.

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Outcomes of Teacher Wellbeing- systematic review

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Great resources. Quitting Plan.

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Get help with the unique challenges that teens have when quitting smoking or vaping. Find information and tools designed to help you stop for good.

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Sleep Problems

No. 34; Updated March 2023

Sleep is very important for mental, physical and overall health. According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, the amount of sleep needed varies by age:

Infants up to 12 months: 12 to 16 hours of sleep

Children 1 to 2 years: 11 to 14 hours of sleep

Children 3 to 5 years: 10 to 13 hours of sleep

Children 6 to 12 years: 9 to 12 hours of sleep

Teenagers 13 to 18 years: 8 to 10 hours of sleep

Many children have sleep problems. Examples include:

Problems falling asleep or staying asleep

Feeling sleepy during the day (daytime fatigue)

Having nightmares or night terrors

Bedwetting

Teeth grinding and clenching

Snoring and mouth breathing

Sleepwalking or talking during sleep

Moving around too much during sleep

Sleeping during the day and staying awake at night (sleep-wake reversal)

Many childhood sleep problems are related to poor sleep habits or anxiety about going to bed and falling asleep. Regular bedtime and sleep routines for children can be helpful. Bedtime routines, such as reading stories and teeth-brushing, help children understand it is time for bed.

Nightmares are fairly common during childhood. Children may remember nightmares, and this may lead to fears and worries about bedtime. For some children, nightmares are frequent and interfere with restful sleep. Ways to help a younger child with nightmares can include helping the child know before bed the dreams are not real, using "dream catchers", or even writing up the story of the nightmare and ripping up the paper. These are ways to give the child some sense of control over the nightmares. Some children have sleep terrors which are different from nightmares. Children with sleep terrors will scream uncontrollably and appear to be awake but are confused and cannot respond. Sleep terrors can also be scary for parents and caregivers to see. The child usually has no memory of the sleep terror in the morning. Sleep terrors begin between the ages of 4 and 12 years. Like sleep terrors (night terrors), sleepwalking and sleep talking are part of a rare group of sleep disorders, called "parasomnias." Children who sleepwalk may seem awake as they move around but they are actually asleep and in danger of hurting themselves. Sleepwalking usually begins between the ages of 6 and 12 years. Both sleep terrors and sleepwalking run in families and affect boys more often than girls. Sometimes a sleep specialist can help with sleep terrors, sleepwalking and talking during sleep.

Sleep problems for teens can be different than for younger children. Sleep-wake reversal, meaning someone is awake in the night and asleep during daytime hours, is common in teens and can cause problems with daily life. Sleep-wake disorders are due to the circadian rhythm (internal biological clock) that controls sleep being mismatched with the sleep-wake schedule needed for school and other activities. Many travelers have experienced this as "jet lag" with the circadian rhythm signaling sleep for the previous time zone.

Sleep problems during teenage years could also be from problems such as mood disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance use, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and anxiety.

Behavioral changes can help improve your teen's ability to fall asleep and wake up at appropriate times. Here are some recommendations to support a restful sleep plan:

Have planned bedtime and wake up times. For weekends, sleep and wake schedule should be within 1 to 2 hours of weekday schedule.

Build a simple and relaxing bedtime routine.

Try not to exercise within 3 to 4 hours of bedtime. Exercise earlier in the day can help with sleep.

No caffeinated/'energy" drinks within 6 hours of bedtime. Nicotine, alcohol and drugs can affect sleep as well and should be avoided.

All use of electronics (computer, tablet, smartphone, etc.) should be stopped within 1 hour of bedtime. Screens can affect the brain's natural signal to fall asleep.

The bed should only be used for sleep. Using computers, tablets, smart phones, and watching TV in bed can tell the brain that the bed is not for sleep. This includes not eating or doing homework in bed.

Keeping electronics out of the bedroom at bedtime is preferred.

Keep the bedroom quiet, comfortably cool, and dark at night.

If your child is unable to fall asleep within 15 to 20 minutes of going to bed, they can try getting out of bed and doing a quiet and relaxing activity. They should not return to bed until they are sleepy.

If your child returns to bed and is still unable to fall asleep, try doing a quiet and relaxing activity again.

No matter how many hours your child slept, have your child wake up at a regular time each day.

Try not to take naps during the day even if tired.

Fortunately, as children age, they usually get over common sleep problems and the more serious sleep disorders (parasomnias). However, some sleep problems require a comprehensive medical evaluation. Examples include:

Loud snoring and mouth breathing can be from a condition called obstructive sleep apnea. Your child will need to be checked for enlarged tonsils and/or adenoids.

Restless legs, which can be happen during sleep, can be from low blood iron levels

Daytime sleepiness despite getting enough hours of sleep can be from a condition called narcolepsy

When your child has medical or psychiatric disorders that are significantly impacting their sleep.

For a comprehensive review and assessment of sleep problems and available treatments, please refer to the AACAP Sleep Disorders: Parents' Medication Guide

Parents with ongoing concerns about their child's sleep should contact their pediatrician, a sleep specialist, or a trained child mental health professional for a comprehensive evaluation.

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Many childhood sleep problems are related to poor sleep habits or to anxiety about going to bed and falling asleep.

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Internet Use in Children

No. 59; Updated October 2015

The internet is fast becoming trusted by both children and adults as reliable and accurate sources of information. Through the internet children now have access to an almost endless supply of information and opportunity for interaction. However, there can be real risks and dangers for an unsupervised child.

Most online services give children resources such as encyclopedias, current events coverage, and access to libraries and other valuable material. They can also play games and communicate with friends on social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, etc. The ability to "click" from one area to another appeals to a child's natural impulsivity and curiosity and needs for immediate gratification or feedback.

Most parents teach their children not to talk with strangers, not to open the door if they are home alone, and not to give out information on the telephone to unknown callers. Most parents also monitor where their children go, who they play with, and what TV shows, books, or magazines they are exposed to. However, many parents don't realize that the same level of guidance and supervision must be provided for a child's online experience.

Parents cannot assume that their child will be protected by the supervision or regulation provided by the online services. Most "chat rooms" and social media sites are completely unsupervised. Because of the anonymous nature of the "screen name," children who communicate with others in these areas will not know if they are "talking" with another child or a child predator pretending to be a child or teen. Unlike the mail and visitors that a parent sees a child receive at home, e-mail or "chat room" activity is not seen by parents. Unfortunately, there can be serious consequences to children who have been persuaded to give personal information, (e.g. name, passwords, phone number, email or home address) or have agreed to meet someone in person.

Some of the other risks or problems include:

accessing areas that are inappropriate or overwhelming

being exposed to online information that promotes hate, violence, and pornography

being misled and bombarded with intense advertising

being invited to register for prizes or to join a club when they are providing personal or household information to an unknown source

losing time from developing real social skills and from physical activity and exercise

revealing too much personal information on social media sites

being bullied on social media sites

In order to make a child's online experience more safe and educational, parents should:

limit the amount of time a child spends online and "surfing the web"

teach a child that talking to "screen names" in a "chat room" is the same as talking with strangers

teach a child never to give out any personal identifying information to another individual or website online

teach a child to never agree to actually meet someone they have met online

never give a child credit card numbers or passwords that will enable online purchases or access to inappropriate services or sites

remind a child that not everything they see or read online is true

make use of the parental control features offered with your online service, or obtaining commercially available software programs, to restrict access to "chat lines," news groups, and inappropriate websites

provide for an individual e-mail address only if a child is mature enough to manage it, and plan to periodically monitor the child's e-mail and online activity

monitor the content of a child's personal webpage and screen name profile information

teach a child to use the same courtesy in communicating with others online as they would if speaking in person -- i.e. no vulgar or profane language, no name calling, etc.

insist that a child follow the same guidelines at other computers that they might have access to, such as those at school, libraries, or friends' homes

Parents should remember that communicating online does not prepare children for real interpersonal relationships. Spending time with a child initially exploring an online service and periodically participating with a child in the online experience gives parents an opportunity to monitor and supervise the activity. It is also an opportunity to learn together.

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Internet Use in Children No. 59; Updated October 2015 The internet is fast becoming trusted by both children and adults as reliable and accurate sources of information. Through the internet children now have access to an almost endless supply of information and opportunity for interaction.

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I have a very touchy relationship with the diagnosis of ODD. Feel free to reach out to hear my rant on how harmful this label can be for kiddos!

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Oppositional Defiant Disorder

No. 72; Reviewed January 2019

All children are oppositional from time to time, particularly when tired, hungry, stressed, or upset. They may argue, talk back, disobey, and defy parents, teachers, and other adults. Oppositional behavior is a normal part of development for two to three year olds and early adolescents. However, openly uncooperative and hostile behavior becomes a serious concern when it is so frequent and consistent that it stands out when compared with other children of the same age and developmental level and when it affects the child's social, family, and academic life.

In children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), there is an ongoing pattern of uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behavior toward authority figures that seriously interferes with the child's day to day functioning.

Symptoms of ODD may include:

Frequent temper tantrums

Excessive arguing with adults

Often questioning rules

Active defiance and refusal to comply with adult requests and rules

Deliberate attempts to annoy or upset people

Blaming others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior

Often being touchy or easily annoyed by others

Frequent anger and resentment

Mean and hateful talking when upset

Spiteful attitude and revenge seeking

The symptoms are usually seen in multiple settings but may be more noticeable at home or at school. One to sixteen percent of all school-age children and adolescents have ODD. The causes of ODD are unknown, but many parents report that their child with ODD was more rigid and demanding than the child's siblings from an early age. Biological, psychological, and social factors may have a role.

A child presenting with ODD symptoms should have a comprehensive evaluation. It is important to look for other disorders which may be present, such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, mood disorders (depression, bipolar disorder), and anxiety disorders. It may be difficult to improve the symptoms of ODD without treating the coexisting disorder. Some children with ODD may go on to develop conduct disorder.

Treatment of ODD may include:

Parent Management Training to help parents and others manage the child's behavior

Individual Psychotherapy to develop more effective anger management

Family Psychotherapy to improve communication and mutual understanding

Cognitive Problem-Solving Skills Training and Therapies to decrease negativity

Social Skills Training to increase flexibility and improve social skills and frustration tolerance with peers

Medications may be helpful in controlling some of the more distressing symptoms of ODD as well as the symptoms related to coexistent conditions such as ADHD, anxiety, and mood disorders.

A child with ODD can be very difficult for parents. These parents need support and understanding. Parents can help their child with ODD in the following ways:

Always build on the positives, give the child praise and positive reinforcement when s/he shows flexibility or cooperation.

Take a time-out or break if you are about to make the conflict with your child worse, not better. This is good modeling for your child. Support your child if s/he decides to take a time-out to prevent overreacting.

Pick your battles. Since the child with ODD has trouble avoiding power struggles, prioritize the things you want your child to do. If you give your child a time-out in his room for misbehavior, don't add time for arguing. Say "your time will start when you go to your room."

Set reasonable, age appropriate limits with consequences that can be enforced consistently.

Maintain interests other than your child with ODD, so that managing your child doesn't take all your time and energy. Try to work with and obtain support from the other adults (teachers, coaches, and spouse) dealing with your child.

Manage your own stress with healthy life choices such as exercise and relaxation. Use respite care and other breaks as needed.

Many children with ODD will respond to the positive parenting techniques. Parents may ask their pediatrician or family physician to refer them to a child and adolescent psychiatrist or other qualified mental health professional who can help diagnose and treat ODD and any coexisting psychiatric condition.

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Oppositional Defiant Disorder No. 72; Reviewed January 2019 All children are oppositional from time to time, particularly when tired, hungry, stressed, or upset. They may argue, talk back, disobey, and defy parents, teachers, and other adults. Oppositional behavior is a normal part of development for two to three year olds and early adolescents.

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Self-Injury In Adolescents Self-injury is the act of deliberately harming body tissue, at times to change a way of feeling. Self-injury is seen differently by groups and cultures within society. The behavior has become more popular lately, especially in adolescents. The causes and severity of self-injury can vary.

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Educational Disparities among Racial and Ethnic Minorities 

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Educational Disparities among Racial and Ethnic Minorities 

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Summary+

While the gap in high school completion has narrowed over time, the percentage of Black and Hispanic high school graduates is still significantly less than that of their White counterparts. Throughout the nation, minority students experience disparities in their educational experience that directly impact their long-term learning and success. The most significant contributors to educational disparities amongst the nation's racial and ethnic minorities include poverty, segregation and racial school districting, inadequate language resources for English language learners, bullying, and lack of access to health resources. The consequences of educational disparities among these minorities include continued poverty, decreased college enrollment and performance, long-term professional disparities, and decreased political participation. Leading practices to reduce educational disparities include sending adequately trained educators to regions in need, providing free, easily-accessible means of education to students requiring additional assistance, implementing early educational programs, and providing the nation's most disparaged students with tutoring, mentorship, and financial support.

Key Takeaways+

While advances in policy and practice have increased overall equality towards the nation's minorities, the United States' history of racial segregation in schools and overall societal structure continues to play a key role in the educational disparities experienced among minority students.

Educational inequality throughout the nation is most commonly caused by poor funding or diminished attention to impoverished or minority school districts, often leading to poor performance and achievement levels.

National economic reports suggest there is a strong correlation between educational achievement and income, suggesting lower quality education can lead to lower income later in life.

Poverty level, minority or racial status, language, and peer or family history are proven to contribute to educational disparities; most of which are also found to be consequences of low academic involvement and achievement. This is referred to as the education disparity cycle.

The most successfully reported interventions to reduce continuation of the education disparity cycle are to provide early childhood education programs, financial support, and individualized mentoring and assistance to help students mobilize out of the cycle.

Key Terms+

Educational disparity-Inequalities within the education system reflected in test scores assessing academic achievement, such as reading and mathematics; percentages of those repeating one or more grades; dropout and graduation rates; proportions of students involved in gifted and talented programs; enrollment in higher education; and behavioral markers of adjustment, including discipline, suspension, and expulsion rates. ¹

Education disparity cycle-The cyclical continuation of diminished educational involvement or academic success across multiple generations. Similar to repeating patterns of the poverty cycle. ²

Dropout-A student who discontinues their schooling prior to the reception of a high school diploma, preventing him or her from graduating high school or starting college. ³

Gifted and talented programs-Programs that cater to students with the capability to academically perform at higher levels than other students of their same age, experience, and environment. These programs help these students to progress at levels equivalent to their abilities. 4, 5

No Child Left Behind-Officially titled the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, this US federal law aimed at improving public primary and secondary school performance. The law significantly increased the federal government's role in holding schools responsible for the academic progress of all students and placed a special focus on ensuring that states and schools boosted performance of typically underperforming students (such as English language learners), students in special education, and poor and minority students whose achievement, on average, did not meet that of their peers. ⁶

Redlining-Resulting from government surveying and economic districting in the 1930s, redlining is "the systematic denial of various services to residents of specific, often racially associated, neighborhoods or communities, either directly or through the selective raising of prices." ⁷

The United States' history of racial segregation in schools and in other areas of life has played a key role in the educational disparities experienced among minorities in modern times. Prior to 1954, the principle of "separate but equal" was the norm in the nation's education system, allowing for "acceptable" segregation and unequal treatment of the nation's minorities in schools across the country. This racial segregation began inciting conflict in the late 20th century during the Civil Rights Movement. ¹⁴ Reacting to the conflict and public attention throughout the nation, the US Supreme Court ruled on the matter in Brown v. Board of Education, deeming racial segregation in schools unconstitutional. In his statement on the ruling, Chief Justice Earl Warren explained, "In the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." ¹⁵ Decades later, the Supreme Court's decision still stands as one of the most pivotal cases in the history of the US education system. However, American public schools continue to remain largely separate and unequal, though no longer due to legal requirements, leaving profound consequences for students of color and minority status. ¹⁶

Diminished resources and attention given to the nation's minority students has caused high numbers of America's students to underperform in key academic measurements. Between 2011 and 2012, a reported 57% of Black students had access to a full range of math and science courses necessary for college readiness compared to 71% of White students. ¹⁷ The results of such disparities lowered the performance of minority students, both on the elementary and secondary school level. In 2019, White students in the fourth grade scored an average of 230 points on reading exams compared to an average score of 204 points for Black students and 209 points for Hispanic students. White fourth graders similarly earned higher mathematics scores, with an average score of 249 points compared to an average score of 224 points for black students and 231 for Hispanic students. ¹⁸ In twelfth grade, White students scored almost twice as high as Blacks and Hispanics on reading proficiency, with 46% of white students scoring at or above the proficiency level, compared to 17% of Black students and 25% of Hispanic students. ¹⁹ Mathematics scores for twelfth grade students show similar results. ²⁰ The consistency of lower performance measures for minority students has remained steady for the past 20 years with clear impacts on the overall educational performance level of American students, increasing more each year as the minority population grows. ²¹

In addition to these disparities, minority students have been underrepresented in gifted and talented programs in public schools since the programs' inceptions in 1958. ²⁶ Throughout the nation, a significantly lower percentage of minority students are currently involved in gifted and talented programs, particularly within the STEM field. The small number of minority students who are involved in gifted and talented programs indicate a greater lack of perceived support, motivation, and social or cultural connection to their respective programs than indicated by White students. ²⁷ As a result, minority students represent a significantly lower percentage of the nation's gifted and talented program graduates, ultimately leading to lower representation in upper academia and overall decreases in academic performance measures compared to their non-minority peers. ²⁸

Despite claims that children who grow up in poverty can achieve academic success when given adequate attention and opportunity, educational reports consistently show that by the time they are 9 years old, the 13 million children being raised in impoverished households are already an average of 3 grade levels behind their higher-income peers. ³² While programs such as No Child Left Behind have centered their attention on providing greater educational equity for students of all backgrounds and economic status, ³³ poverty still remains one of the most influential factors of education disparity. ³⁴

Due to the country's history of residential segregation, Black and Hispanic students are much more likely to live in low-income neighborhoods. ⁴³ In the 1930s, government surveyors graded neighborhoods throughout the country, color coding them by location, economic status, and potential for growth. The "best" and most economically advanced neighborhoods were labeled green, blue neighborhoods were "still desirable," yellow neighborhoods were "definitely declining" areas, and "hazardous" neighborhoods with the least economically-stable inhabitants were labeled red. ⁴⁴ This process is referred to as redlining

Compared to the predominantly White "green" and "blue" neighborhoods, the typical "red" neighborhood was composed of majority Black or Hispanic families. ⁴⁵ Contrasts in culture, economic status, and historical views on racial minorities were further exacerbated by the impacts of impoverished living within redlined neighborhoods. Throughout the nation's history, Black and Hispanic individuals have consistently fallen into lower income brackets, representing significantly higher percentages of those living at or below the poverty level than White individuals. ⁴⁶ As a result, redlined districts have continued to house those living in poverty, a key determinant in the continued culture and diminished opportunities for growth of those living in red neighborhoods. The discriminatory practices initially captured by the 1930s districting continued until the 1968 Fair Housing Act, which banned racial discrimination in housing. However, locational and cultural ties-further strengthened by the inability for many red neighborhood "natives" to afford moving to other locations-continue to demonstrate a lack of change in these districts with the lingering effects of redlining clearly illustrated through continued racial and residential segregation in many US cities. ⁴⁷ Spanning across the nation, 3 out of 4 formerly redlined neighborhoods continue to struggle economically, ⁴⁸ contributing not only to the continuation of poverty amongst their inhabitants but also to the increased likelihood that redlined children will experience educational disparities throughout their years of schooling and for generations to come. ⁴⁹

Currently, more than half of the nation's schoolchildren live in racially concentrated school districts, where over 75% of students are of minority status. ⁵⁰ The relationship between location, economic status and taxing, and diminished academic performance results in unequal levels of funding for school services, with students of color most directly impacted. ⁵¹ Based on a combination of property taxes and overall income level of primarily White versus minority regions, federal funding for public schools is consistently higher for primarily White schools throughout the nation. In 2016, the overall gap in state and local funding for minority schools was reported at $23 billion with White districts receiving, on average, over $2,000 more in funding per student than minority districts. ⁵² Many teachers and administrators of racially districted schools refer to the unequal levels of school funding as the result of federal funding "loopholes" that unjustly enable lower political spending on minority students or students attending segregated schools. ⁵³ As a result, these schools are unable to provide their students with equal resources and opportunities, which directly impact the academic performance of minority students. ⁵⁴

As a whole, ELL students consistently demonstrate lower levels of academic achievement than English-speaking students. Compared to the 82% national rate of high school graduates, only 63% of ELL students graduated from high school in 2017, with the highest discrepancy between English-speaking and ELL student graduation rates representing low-income, minority-centric regions. ⁶⁶ Of ELL students who do graduate, only an average of 1.4% take college entrance exams such as the SAT and ACT, ⁶⁷ compared to the national rate of 36% in 2018. ⁶⁸ Without the resources and attention needed to help this increasing population of students receive an education that matches their English-speaking peers, academic performance measures are likely to continue yielding diminished results, both for ELL minority students and the nation as a whole.

While bullying is not unique to minority groups, ethnic and racial minority students often experience increased measures of bullying compared to White students. ⁶⁹ In general, children and youth who are vulnerable or marginalized in society tend to be at higher risk for victimization and bullying by their peers, especially if they are one of the few minority students at a mostly-white school. ⁷⁰ Starting in elementary school, minority students report higher levels of bullying compared to non-minority students. In 2006, twice as many elementary school-aged minority students reported being bullied because of their ethnicity than their non-minority peers. ⁷¹ These findings were shown to continue throughout students' schooling with similar results carrying on throughout high school. ⁷² As a result, minority students are more likely than White students to negatively associate school with bullying, causing diminished school involvement and academic performance. ⁷³

A 2016 report of 96,000 US public schools reported that 23% of reports of bullying involved harassment or aggression based on race, with the highest percentage of bullying being towards Black and Hispanic students. ⁷⁴ However, despite being bullied at high rates, racial minorities-specifically males-are the least likely group to report having been bullied, likely due to cultural beliefs that reporting aggressions could be seen as a sign of weakness to their families. ⁷⁵ As a result, a higher percentage of racial and ethnic minority students are likely to experience continued physical and verbal bullying throughout their educational experience with no intervention from school authorities, leading to poor school adjustment, increased school avoidance, and decreased levels of student success. ⁷⁶

Due to their inability to access health resources, many students who experience poor health outcomes experience diminished educational experiences and show decreased measures of academic performance. Regardless of how well teachers are prepared to teach or what systems of governance are established for these schools, educational progress is profoundly limited if students are unable to learn at an optimal physical and mental level. ⁸⁴ Health factors show direct and indirect effects on educational outcomes, including standardized test scores and GPA. ⁸⁵ Students who are well nourished, physically active, well rested, and who have received needed medical supplies such as eyewear or hearing aids have clear advantages in cognition and performance compared to students with deficiencies in these areas. ⁸⁶Health conditions, disabilities, and unhealthy behaviors directly correlate with educational outcomes, with illness, poor vision, mental health, asthma, poor vision, and inattention/hyperactivity amongst minority students consistently contributing to diminished school performance. ⁸⁷

Due to the cyclical nature of impoverished living, poverty is both a contributing factor and a core consequence of dropout amongst the nation's minority students. As a whole, the majority of students who do not receive basic levels of secondary education are less likely to find careers that will finance movement beyond the poverty level. ⁸⁸ Each year, nearly 1.3 million students drop out of high school, a higher percentage of which identify as Black or Hispanic, at 6.4% and 8% compared to the dropout rate of White students that stands at 4.2%. ⁸⁹ Of 513 dropouts surveyed in a 2012 academic report, only 17% held full-time jobs, and 46% of dropouts who were currently employed in either full-time or part-time jobs reported having little to no opportunity to advance in their current positions. ⁹⁰ The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 2012, students without a high school diploma earned a 30% lower annual income than their peers who graduated from high school-a correlational contributor to the wage gap amongst the nation's minority population. ⁹¹ In contrast, students who received a high school diploma-a greater percentage of which are White-were more likely to graduate and find jobs to provide for living beyond the poverty level. ⁹²

One of the key contributors to continued poverty amongst minorities that results from an incomplete high school education stems from lack of representation, opportunities, and support for minority students that many of their White peers experience throughout their public school experience. ⁹³ The lesser quality of education and education disparities experienced by any of the nation's minority students directly contribute to increases in high school dropout rates by minority students, many of whom go on to experience poverty and income inequality throughout their lives. ⁹⁴ Consistently, the less education an individual receives, the higher likelihood that they will struggle financially throughout their life. As a result, these individuals remain in poverty without the means or training to take on careers that will result in earning that will allow them to escape the poverty cycle.

Obtaining a college education continues to represent a major pathway through which individuals can achieve upward mobility in society. However, many of the nation's high school students are not entering and completing college at the rates necessary to benefit the full expanse of American students. ⁹⁵ These findings are illustrated to an even greater extent among the nation's Black and Hispanic students. Racial, ethnic, and economic inequalities in primary and secondary education are largely evidenced by college readiness and acceptance rates, university graduation rates, and overall college performance. As a whole, minorities are less likely to continue their education past high school.

A national survey of minority and White students' post-high school plans and aspirations indicated that the decline in minority students' college participation rates cannot be attributed to changes in motivation or interest in secondary education. ⁹⁶ In fact, when compared to their non-minority peers, many minority students see more value in receiving a college diploma and express a stronger desire to pursue tertiary education. ⁹⁷ Decreased college enrollment and performance among minorities, then, can be attributed to structural barriers in the educational system. Explanations for the consistently lower rate of minority students pursuing higher education include such disparities as racial segregation in lower-track classes with larger class sizes, less qualified teachers, and lower-quality curriculum to minority students. ⁹⁸ These and other key contributing factors clearly point to the lower percentage of minority students who apply to college, but they only tell half of the story in explaining diminished performance of the nation's minority students who do attend and graduate from college. At both private and public universities, White students completed their programs at a rate of 62%, contrasted by Black and Hispanic students who graduated at rates of 45.8% and 38%, respectively. ⁹⁹ Similarly, Black and Hispanic students consistently graduate with college-level credentials around 20 points lower than White students pursuing the same programs or specialties. ¹⁰⁰

Early academic engagement is critical for students to develop foundational skills that will help them throughout the school experience. Between the ages of 8 and 12, children experience significant growth through development of cognitive skills, personality traits, and interpersonal relationships that help them understand societal values and where they contribute in a social context. ¹⁰⁴ Underrepresentation in the classroom, conflict with teachers, and rejection from non-minority peers greatly impact minority students' classroom identification, diminishing their sense of school, community, and societal connection. ¹⁰⁵ As a result, these students are more likely to pass through this growth stage without key social and interpersonal skills, directly contributing to increased struggles of minority students that are carried into tertiary education and professional work. ¹⁰⁶ Beyond the lack of representation in school leadership and governance, many minority students' first experiences with racial discrimination occur in the classroom, beginning a pattern of decreased societal connection and inclusion that students will continue to experience in various contexts.

A study performed to analyze the impact of TFA found that students taught by TFA teachers demonstrated nearly two months of additional math growth, compared to other permanent teachers in the same schools. TFA classrooms also out-performed other classrooms in reading and reading comprehension by nearly two weeks. Fourth through eight grade students in metro Atlanta who were taught by TFA instructors similarly demonstrated significantly increased growth in science and social studies with nearly two months more growth than other teachers in the same schools. The US Department of Education reported that in 2018, Pre-K through second grade students with TFA teachers received the equivalent of an additional 1.3 months in reading instruction in a year, compared to students of non-TFA teachers at the same school. ¹²³

Created in 1965, Head Start's early childhood education program and comprehensive family support program effectively takes on this role of supporting and educating the nation's disparaged children, a significant number of which are of Black and Hispanic backgrounds. High quality child care and early education is proven as an effective means to build a strong foundation for young children's healthy development and long-term learning. Yet many of the nation's low-income children who could most benefit from these programs lack access to early childhood opportunities. ¹³⁸ Head Start aims to combat this by providing the nation's impoverished 3- and 4-year-old children with free early educational training, compliment by a range of additional services such as health screenings, referrals and follow-up support, parenting resources, and social services. ¹³⁹

Rather than focusing on changing the education system from the top down, this practice employs a "bottom up" approach by focusing on the students themselves and their peers who are reported as being the greatest influence in these students' lives. By partnering struggling students with peers who have worked through and overcome similar challenges, they can gain friendships and motivation that teachers cannot provide. ¹⁴⁹ PeerForward focuses on the belief that it is the students themselves who have the power to transform the educational system and level the playing field for all students to lift each other towards reaching college and career success. Reports of college enrollment rates show that fewer than half of low-income students enroll in college, even when academically qualified to do so. The program aims to reduce this number through peer mentorship and support on the student level with the ultimate goal of helping more students apply to and graduate from college. ¹⁵⁰

The main conflict with this solution is the requirement for positive peer mentors and leaders who can take on the role of peer mentors for struggling students. Regions with the most educational disparity, such as those within minority-heavy or formerly "red" financial districts, may struggle to find students who can act as these positive leaders and mentors based on the all-around struggling education system of the region. Other districts may be able to identify students to act as peer leaders and mentors, but who fear judgment for their academic success that keeps them from accepting or taking on the role of a peer leader within their region. Bringing in peers from outside regions to mentor those in more highly disparaged regions has shown lower success rates, as students struggle to connect with peers who have not experienced similar situations as their own and see them as being privileged or unable to understand their needs. As a result, PeerForward is unable to yield the results it could were there more peer involvement.

Additionally, the mentorship and relationships fostered by the PeerForward program only represent one area of each student's academic situation without an ability to influence additional areas of each student's life. External factors such as income and financial status, family relations, bullying/gang affiliation, personal motivation, and other personal circumstances profoundly influence students' efforts and ability to progress beyond high school. Regardless of how beneficial the program is or how positive of an impact peer mentors can have on their mentees, the program cannot guarantee that mentees will move beyond the program to actualize the program's mission.

Preferred Citation: Bushnell, Lauren. "Educational Disparities Among Racial and Ethnic Minority Youth in the United States." Ballard Brief. April 2021. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Lauren Bushnell

Lauren is majoring in marketing with minors in communications and nonprofit management. During her time at BYU, Lauren became involved with various projects (one being an internship with Teach for America) that instilled within her a passion for education. She is passionate about the need for all students to receive an adequate education. She plans to use her education in business and communications to contribute to prominent organizations and impact the academic sector. Her ultimate goal is to work at an executive level of an organization, such as Teach for America, and change the state of education in America.

Summary+

While the gap in high school completion has narrowed over time, the percentage of Black and Hispanic high school graduates is still significantly less than that of their White counterparts. Throughout the nation, minority students experience disparities in their educational experience that directly impact their long-term learning and success. The most significant contributors to educational disparities amongst the nation's racial and ethnic minorities include poverty, segregation and racial school districting, inadequate language resources for English language learners, bullying, and lack of access to health resources. The consequences of educational disparities among these minorities include continued poverty, decreased college enrollment and performance, long-term professional disparities, and decreased political participation. Leading practices to reduce educational disparities include sending adequately trained educators to regions in need, providing free, easily-accessible means of education to students requiring additional assistance, implementing early educational programs, and providing the nation's most disparaged students with tutoring, mentorship, and financial support.

Key Takeaways+

While advances in policy and practice have increased overall equality towards the nation's minorities, the United States' history of racial segregation in schools and overall societal structure continues to play a key role in the educational disparities experienced among minority students.

Educational inequality throughout the nation is most commonly caused by poor funding or diminished attention to impoverished or minority school districts, often leading to poor performance and achievement levels.

National economic reports suggest there is a strong correlation between educational achievement and income, suggesting lower quality education can lead to lower income later in life.

Poverty level, minority or racial status, language, and peer or family history are proven to contribute to educational disparities; most of which are also found to be consequences of low academic involvement and achievement. This is referred to as the education disparity cycle.

The most successfully reported interventions to reduce continuation of the education disparity cycle are to provide early childhood education programs, financial support, and individualized mentoring and assistance to help students mobilize out of the cycle.

Key Terms+

Educational disparity-Inequalities within the education system reflected in test scores assessing academic achievement, such as reading and mathematics; percentages of those repeating one or more grades; dropout and graduation rates; proportions of students involved in gifted and talented programs; enrollment in higher education; and behavioral markers of adjustment, including discipline, suspension, and expulsion rates. ¹

Education disparity cycle-The cyclical continuation of diminished educational involvement or academic success across multiple generations. Similar to repeating patterns of the poverty cycle. ²

Dropout-A student who discontinues their schooling prior to the reception of a high school diploma, preventing him or her from graduating high school or starting college. ³

Gifted and talented programs-Programs that cater to students with the capability to academically perform at higher levels than other students of their same age, experience, and environment. These programs help these students to progress at levels equivalent to their abilities. 4, 5

No Child Left Behind-Officially titled the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, this US federal law aimed at improving public primary and secondary school performance. The law significantly increased the federal government's role in holding schools responsible for the academic progress of all students and placed a special focus on ensuring that states and schools boosted performance of typically underperforming students (such as English language learners), students in special education, and poor and minority students whose achievement, on average, did not meet that of their peers. ⁶

Redlining-Resulting from government surveying and economic districting in the 1930s, redlining is "the systematic denial of various services to residents of specific, often racially associated, neighborhoods or communities, either directly or through the selective raising of prices." ⁷

The United States' history of racial segregation in schools and in other areas of life has played a key role in the educational disparities experienced among minorities in modern times. Prior to 1954, the principle of "separate but equal" was the norm in the nation's education system, allowing for "acceptable" segregation and unequal treatment of the nation's minorities in schools across the country. This racial segregation began inciting conflict in the late 20th century during the Civil Rights Movement. ¹⁴ Reacting to the conflict and public attention throughout the nation, the US Supreme Court ruled on the matter in Brown v. Board of Education, deeming racial segregation in schools unconstitutional. In his statement on the ruling, Chief Justice Earl Warren explained, "In the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." ¹⁵ Decades later, the Supreme Court's decision still stands as one of the most pivotal cases in the history of the US education system. However, American public schools continue to remain largely separate and unequal, though no longer due to legal requirements, leaving profound consequences for students of color and minority status. ¹⁶

Diminished resources and attention given to the nation's minority students has caused high numbers of America's students to underperform in key academic measurements. Between 2011 and 2012, a reported 57% of Black students had access to a full range of math and science courses necessary for college readiness compared to 71% of White students. ¹⁷ The results of such disparities lowered the performance of minority students, both on the elementary and secondary school level. In 2019, White students in the fourth grade scored an average of 230 points on reading exams compared to an average score of 204 points for Black students and 209 points for Hispanic students. White fourth graders similarly earned higher mathematics scores, with an average score of 249 points compared to an average score of 224 points for black students and 231 for Hispanic students. ¹⁸ In twelfth grade, White students scored almost twice as high as Blacks and Hispanics on reading proficiency, with 46% of white students scoring at or above the proficiency level, compared to 17% of Black students and 25% of Hispanic students. ¹⁹ Mathematics scores for twelfth grade students show similar results. ²⁰ The consistency of lower performance measures for minority students has remained steady for the past 20 years with clear impacts on the overall educational performance level of American students, increasing more each year as the minority population grows. ²¹

In addition to these disparities, minority students have been underrepresented in gifted and talented programs in public schools since the programs' inceptions in 1958. ²⁶ Throughout the nation, a significantly lower percentage of minority students are currently involved in gifted and talented programs, particularly within the STEM field. The small number of minority students who are involved in gifted and talented programs indicate a greater lack of perceived support, motivation, and social or cultural connection to their respective programs than indicated by White students. ²⁷ As a result, minority students represent a significantly lower percentage of the nation's gifted and talented program graduates, ultimately leading to lower representation in upper academia and overall decreases in academic performance measures compared to their non-minority peers. ²⁸

Despite claims that children who grow up in poverty can achieve academic success when given adequate attention and opportunity, educational reports consistently show that by the time they are 9 years old, the 13 million children being raised in impoverished households are already an average of 3 grade levels behind their higher-income peers. ³² While programs such as No Child Left Behind have centered their attention on providing greater educational equity for students of all backgrounds and economic status, ³³ poverty still remains one of the most influential factors of education disparity. ³⁴

Due to the country's history of residential segregation, Black and Hispanic students are much more likely to live in low-income neighborhoods. ⁴³ In the 1930s, government surveyors graded neighborhoods throughout the country, color coding them by location, economic status, and potential for growth. The "best" and most economically advanced neighborhoods were labeled green, blue neighborhoods were "still desirable," yellow neighborhoods were "definitely declining" areas, and "hazardous" neighborhoods with the least economically-stable inhabitants were labeled red. ⁴⁴ This process is referred to as redlining

Compared to the predominantly White "green" and "blue" neighborhoods, the typical "red" neighborhood was composed of majority Black or Hispanic families. ⁴⁵ Contrasts in culture, economic status, and historical views on racial minorities were further exacerbated by the impacts of impoverished living within redlined neighborhoods. Throughout the nation's history, Black and Hispanic individuals have consistently fallen into lower income brackets, representing significantly higher percentages of those living at or below the poverty level than White individuals. ⁴⁶ As a result, redlined districts have continued to house those living in poverty, a key determinant in the continued culture and diminished opportunities for growth of those living in red neighborhoods. The discriminatory practices initially captured by the 1930s districting continued until the 1968 Fair Housing Act, which banned racial discrimination in housing. However, locational and cultural ties-further strengthened by the inability for many red neighborhood "natives" to afford moving to other locations-continue to demonstrate a lack of change in these districts with the lingering effects of redlining clearly illustrated through continued racial and residential segregation in many US cities. ⁴⁷ Spanning across the nation, 3 out of 4 formerly redlined neighborhoods continue to struggle economically, ⁴⁸ contributing not only to the continuation of poverty amongst their inhabitants but also to the increased likelihood that redlined children will experience educational disparities throughout their years of schooling and for generations to come. ⁴⁹

Currently, more than half of the nation's schoolchildren live in racially concentrated school districts, where over 75% of students are of minority status. ⁵⁰ The relationship between location, economic status and taxing, and diminished academic performance results in unequal levels of funding for school services, with students of color most directly impacted. ⁵¹ Based on a combination of property taxes and overall income level of primarily White versus minority regions, federal funding for public schools is consistently higher for primarily White schools throughout the nation. In 2016, the overall gap in state and local funding for minority schools was reported at $23 billion with White districts receiving, on average, over $2,000 more in funding per student than minority districts. ⁵² Many teachers and administrators of racially districted schools refer to the unequal levels of school funding as the result of federal funding "loopholes" that unjustly enable lower political spending on minority students or students attending segregated schools. ⁵³ As a result, these schools are unable to provide their students with equal resources and opportunities, which directly impact the academic performance of minority students. ⁵⁴

As a whole, ELL students consistently demonstrate lower levels of academic achievement than English-speaking students. Compared to the 82% national rate of high school graduates, only 63% of ELL students graduated from high school in 2017, with the highest discrepancy between English-speaking and ELL student graduation rates representing low-income, minority-centric regions. ⁶⁶ Of ELL students who do graduate, only an average of 1.4% take college entrance exams such as the SAT and ACT, ⁶⁷ compared to the national rate of 36% in 2018. ⁶⁸ Without the resources and attention needed to help this increasing population of students receive an education that matches their English-speaking peers, academic performance measures are likely to continue yielding diminished results, both for ELL minority students and the nation as a whole.

While bullying is not unique to minority groups, ethnic and racial minority students often experience increased measures of bullying compared to White students. ⁶⁹ In general, children and youth who are vulnerable or marginalized in society tend to be at higher risk for victimization and bullying by their peers, especially if they are one of the few minority students at a mostly-white school. ⁷⁰ Starting in elementary school, minority students report higher levels of bullying compared to non-minority students. In 2006, twice as many elementary school-aged minority students reported being bullied because of their ethnicity than their non-minority peers. ⁷¹ These findings were shown to continue throughout students' schooling with similar results carrying on throughout high school. ⁷² As a result, minority students are more likely than White students to negatively associate school with bullying, causing diminished school involvement and academic performance. ⁷³

A 2016 report of 96,000 US public schools reported that 23% of reports of bullying involved harassment or aggression based on race, with the highest percentage of bullying being towards Black and Hispanic students. ⁷⁴ However, despite being bullied at high rates, racial minorities-specifically males-are the least likely group to report having been bullied, likely due to cultural beliefs that reporting aggressions could be seen as a sign of weakness to their families. ⁷⁵ As a result, a higher percentage of racial and ethnic minority students are likely to experience continued physical and verbal bullying throughout their educational experience with no intervention from school authorities, leading to poor school adjustment, increased school avoidance, and decreased levels of student success. ⁷⁶

Due to their inability to access health resources, many students who experience poor health outcomes experience diminished educational experiences and show decreased measures of academic performance. Regardless of how well teachers are prepared to teach or what systems of governance are established for these schools, educational progress is profoundly limited if students are unable to learn at an optimal physical and mental level. ⁸⁴ Health factors show direct and indirect effects on educational outcomes, including standardized test scores and GPA. ⁸⁵ Students who are well nourished, physically active, well rested, and who have received needed medical supplies such as eyewear or hearing aids have clear advantages in cognition and performance compared to students with deficiencies in these areas. ⁸⁶Health conditions, disabilities, and unhealthy behaviors directly correlate with educational outcomes, with illness, poor vision, mental health, asthma, poor vision, and inattention/hyperactivity amongst minority students consistently contributing to diminished school performance. ⁸⁷

Due to the cyclical nature of impoverished living, poverty is both a contributing factor and a core consequence of dropout amongst the nation's minority students. As a whole, the majority of students who do not receive basic levels of secondary education are less likely to find careers that will finance movement beyond the poverty level. ⁸⁸ Each year, nearly 1.3 million students drop out of high school, a higher percentage of which identify as Black or Hispanic, at 6.4% and 8% compared to the dropout rate of White students that stands at 4.2%. ⁸⁹ Of 513 dropouts surveyed in a 2012 academic report, only 17% held full-time jobs, and 46% of dropouts who were currently employed in either full-time or part-time jobs reported having little to no opportunity to advance in their current positions. ⁹⁰ The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in 2012, students without a high school diploma earned a 30% lower annual income than their peers who graduated from high school-a correlational contributor to the wage gap amongst the nation's minority population. ⁹¹ In contrast, students who received a high school diploma-a greater percentage of which are White-were more likely to graduate and find jobs to provide for living beyond the poverty level. ⁹²

One of the key contributors to continued poverty amongst minorities that results from an incomplete high school education stems from lack of representation, opportunities, and support for minority students that many of their White peers experience throughout their public school experience. ⁹³ The lesser quality of education and education disparities experienced by any of the nation's minority students directly contribute to increases in high school dropout rates by minority students, many of whom go on to experience poverty and income inequality throughout their lives. ⁹⁴ Consistently, the less education an individual receives, the higher likelihood that they will struggle financially throughout their life. As a result, these individuals remain in poverty without the means or training to take on careers that will result in earning that will allow them to escape the poverty cycle.

Obtaining a college education continues to represent a major pathway through which individuals can achieve upward mobility in society. However, many of the nation's high school students are not entering and completing college at the rates necessary to benefit the full expanse of American students. ⁹⁵ These findings are illustrated to an even greater extent among the nation's Black and Hispanic students. Racial, ethnic, and economic inequalities in primary and secondary education are largely evidenced by college readiness and acceptance rates, university graduation rates, and overall college performance. As a whole, minorities are less likely to continue their education past high school.

A national survey of minority and White students' post-high school plans and aspirations indicated that the decline in minority students' college participation rates cannot be attributed to changes in motivation or interest in secondary education. ⁹⁶ In fact, when compared to their non-minority peers, many minority students see more value in receiving a college diploma and express a stronger desire to pursue tertiary education. ⁹⁷ Decreased college enrollment and performance among minorities, then, can be attributed to structural barriers in the educational system. Explanations for the consistently lower rate of minority students pursuing higher education include such disparities as racial segregation in lower-track classes with larger class sizes, less qualified teachers, and lower-quality curriculum to minority students. ⁹⁸ These and other key contributing factors clearly point to the lower percentage of minority students who apply to college, but they only tell half of the story in explaining diminished performance of the nation's minority students who do attend and graduate from college. At both private and public universities, White students completed their programs at a rate of 62%, contrasted by Black and Hispanic students who graduated at rates of 45.8% and 38%, respectively. ⁹⁹ Similarly, Black and Hispanic students consistently graduate with college-level credentials around 20 points lower than White students pursuing the same programs or specialties. ¹⁰⁰

Early academic engagement is critical for students to develop foundational skills that will help them throughout the school experience. Between the ages of 8 and 12, children experience significant growth through development of cognitive skills, personality traits, and interpersonal relationships that help them understand societal values and where they contribute in a social context. ¹⁰⁴ Underrepresentation in the classroom, conflict with teachers, and rejection from non-minority peers greatly impact minority students' classroom identification, diminishing their sense of school, community, and societal connection. ¹⁰⁵ As a result, these students are more likely to pass through this growth stage without key social and interpersonal skills, directly contributing to increased struggles of minority students that are carried into tertiary education and professional work. ¹⁰⁶ Beyond the lack of representation in school leadership and governance, many minority students' first experiences with racial discrimination occur in the classroom, beginning a pattern of decreased societal connection and inclusion that students will continue to experience in various contexts.

A study performed to analyze the impact of TFA found that students taught by TFA teachers demonstrated nearly two months of additional math growth, compared to other permanent teachers in the same schools. TFA classrooms also out-performed other classrooms in reading and reading comprehension by nearly two weeks. Fourth through eight grade students in metro Atlanta who were taught by TFA instructors similarly demonstrated significantly increased growth in science and social studies with nearly two months more growth than other teachers in the same schools. The US Department of Education reported that in 2018, Pre-K through second grade students with TFA teachers received the equivalent of an additional 1.3 months in reading instruction in a year, compared to students of non-TFA teachers at the same school. ¹²³

Created in 1965, Head Start's early childhood education program and comprehensive family support program effectively takes on this role of supporting and educating the nation's disparaged children, a significant number of which are of Black and Hispanic backgrounds. High quality child care and early education is proven as an effective means to build a strong foundation for young children's healthy development and long-term learning. Yet many of the nation's low-income children who could most benefit from these programs lack access to early childhood opportunities. ¹³⁸ Head Start aims to combat this by providing the nation's impoverished 3- and 4-year-old children with free early educational training, compliment by a range of additional services such as health screenings, referrals and follow-up support, parenting resources, and social services. ¹³⁹

Rather than focusing on changing the education system from the top down, this practice employs a "bottom up" approach by focusing on the students themselves and their peers who are reported as being the greatest influence in these students' lives. By partnering struggling students with peers who have worked through and overcome similar challenges, they can gain friendships and motivation that teachers cannot provide. ¹⁴⁹ PeerForward focuses on the belief that it is the students themselves who have the power to transform the educational system and level the playing field for all students to lift each other towards reaching college and career success. Reports of college enrollment rates show that fewer than half of low-income students enroll in college, even when academically qualified to do so. The program aims to reduce this number through peer mentorship and support on the student level with the ultimate goal of helping more students apply to and graduate from college. ¹⁵⁰

The main conflict with this solution is the requirement for positive peer mentors and leaders who can take on the role of peer mentors for struggling students. Regions with the most educational disparity, such as those within minority-heavy or formerly "red" financial districts, may struggle to find students who can act as these positive leaders and mentors based on the all-around struggling education system of the region. Other districts may be able to identify students to act as peer leaders and mentors, but who fear judgment for their academic success that keeps them from accepting or taking on the role of a peer leader within their region. Bringing in peers from outside regions to mentor those in more highly disparaged regions has shown lower success rates, as students struggle to connect with peers who have not experienced similar situations as their own and see them as being privileged or unable to understand their needs. As a result, PeerForward is unable to yield the results it could were there more peer involvement.

Additionally, the mentorship and relationships fostered by the PeerForward program only represent one area of each student's academic situation without an ability to influence additional areas of each student's life. External factors such as income and financial status, family relations, bullying/gang affiliation, personal motivation, and other personal circumstances profoundly influence students' efforts and ability to progress beyond high school. Regardless of how beneficial the program is or how positive of an impact peer mentors can have on their mentees, the program cannot guarantee that mentees will move beyond the program to actualize the program's mission.

Preferred Citation: Bushnell, Lauren. "Educational Disparities Among Racial and Ethnic Minority Youth in the United States." Ballard Brief. April 2021. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Lauren Bushnell

Lauren is majoring in marketing with minors in communications and nonprofit management. During her time at BYU, Lauren became involved with various projects (one being an internship with Teach for America) that instilled within her a passion for education. She is passionate about the need for all students to receive an adequate education. She plans to use her education in business and communications to contribute to prominent organizations and impact the academic sector. Her ultimate goal is to work at an executive level of an organization, such as Teach for America, and change the state of education in America.

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Educational Disparities among Racial and Ethnic Minority Youth in the Unites States - Ballard Brief

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The United States' history of racial segregation continues to play a key role in educational disparities experienced among minority students.

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Educational Disparities Among Girls in India 

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Educational Disparities Among Girls in India 

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Educational Disparities Among Girls in India - Ballard Brief

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The female literacy rate in India is significantly (18%) lower than the global average female literacy rate.

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Usage of Electronic Cigarettes Among Youth in the United States - Ballard Brief

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One in five high school students in the United States consistently use e-cigarettes.

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+ Summary

As the worldwide refugee population has steadily increased over the past decade, mental health concerns among refugees have become more prevalent. In the United States, adolescent refugees face higher rates of mental illness in comparison to non-refugee adolescents. Mental health concerns stem from traumatic experiences, challenges with acculturation, discrimination from peers, separation from parents, and cultural perceptions of mental illness in refugees' country of origin. As a result of these traumatic experiences, adolescent refugees are at a higher risk of mental illnesses such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety, creating barriers to their ability to smoothly transition into the United States. In order to address the problem of mental illness in adolescent refugees, current practices focus on intervention in schools, promising therapy techniques, and cultural awareness education of mental health providers.

+ Key Takeaways

Due to trauma prior to resettlement, discrimination from peers, challenges with acculturation, and cultural perceptions of mental illness, adolescent refugees have a greater propensity to struggle with mental illnesses, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD.

Mental illness among adolescent refugees has a number of negative effects that make it hard for adolescents to adjust to the cultural expectations of the United States, including behavioral problems, inability to succeed in academic settings, and struggles with social interactions.

Although there are several successful treatment programs implemented in the United States, including EMDR, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and Trauma-Systems Therapy for Refugees, more research must be done in order to meet the unique needs of adolescent refugees.

+ Key Terms

Refugee-The 1951 Refugee Convention defines a refugee as "someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion." ¹

Mental Illness-The American Psychiatric Association defines mental illnesses as "health conditions involving changes in emotion, thinking, or behavior (or a combination of these). Mental illnesses are associated with distress and problems functioning in social, work, or family activities." ²

Acculturation-Acculturation is defined as the process by which a refugee adopts the cultural behaviors of their host country, which leads to changes in diet, physical activity level, and environmental exposures. ³

Adolescent -For the purposes of this paper, adolescents refer to youth between the ages of 11-18.

Unaccompanied Refugee Minor (URM)-This refers to children under the age of 18 who come to the United States without at least one parent and also hold one of the following statuses: refugee, entrant, asylee, victim of trafficking, Special Immigrant Juvenile Status, or U visa holders. ⁴

Trauma-In general, trauma can be defined as a psychological, emotional response to an event or an experience that is deeply distressing or disturbing. ⁵ Refugee trauma refers to the experiences refugees face prior to resettlement, including violence (as witnesses, victims, or perpetrators), war, lack of food, lack of water, lack of shelter, physical injuries, infections, diseases, torture, forced labor, sexual assault, lack of medical care, loss of loved ones, and disruption in or lack of access to schooling. ⁶

Context

Ongoing violence worldwide has forced millions of people out of their home countries. In 2017, an estimated 16.2 million individuals were newly displaced refugees worldwide. ⁷ Of those 16.2 million displaced refugees, 53,716 were resettled in the United States, or approximately 3% of all refugees. More than half of resettled refugees were under the age of 18. ⁸ Due to the high volume of refugees in the past decade, the United States has been required to increase its understanding of the unique needs refugees face in order for the United States to be able to better support refugees.

The United States has a long history of refugee resettlement, starting with resettlement efforts during World War II. Post World War II, the United States settled over 400,000 European refugees. ⁹ The tradition of resettlement continued throughout the next decade, as the United States accepted refugees from the former Soviet Union, Southeast Asia, and Cuba. The current refugee crisis is centered on the conflict in Syria, which began in 2011. Of the 5 million refugees who have left Syria since 2011, only 62 Syrian refugees were admitted to the United States in 2018. ¹⁰ Although in the past the United States has resettled over 50,000 refugees per year, only 30,000 refugees were resettled in 2017 and only 22,000 were resettled in 2018. ¹¹ The median time spent in refugee camps prior to resettlement is 4 years. ¹² Recent stats from UNHCR reveal that 68% of refugees resettled in the United States come from just 5 countries: Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan, Myanmar, and Somalia (see Figure 1). ¹³

After arriving in the United States, refugees are resettled through affiliate programs from one of the following 10 placement programs: Church World Service, Episcopal Migration Ministries, Ethiopian Community Development Council, HIAS, International Rescue Committee, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, or World Relief. These organizations resettle refugees in compliance with the regulations from the Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) and the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR). The ORR requires a health screening in the first 90 days; however, there is a lack of procedural or financial support for mental health screening for refugees. ¹⁴ According to a report from 2010, only 4 out of 44 states employed proper health screening techniques, and 68% used informal conversation as a form of screening. ¹⁵ Further, screening of mental health in refugee camps is often conducted by interviewers with little training. Special protection and consideration for traumatized individuals may be overlooked due to the interviewer's inadequate methods. ¹⁶

Prior to resettlement in the United States, refugees face a wide variety of challenges. Typically, refugee status is offered to individuals identified by the UNHCR as "most vulnerable," such as women and children, the elderly, survivors of violence and torture, and those with acute medical needs. ¹⁷ After refugees travel long distances from home to new countries, refugees may struggle to adjust to the culture. Traumatic life events such as exposure to war, torture, internment in refugee camps, rape, human trafficking, and loss of family may lead to psychological stress. Additionally, once refugees are in the United States, the stress of adapting to a new culture, low socioeconomic status, and unemployment may affect mental health. ¹⁸ According to the Refugee Health Technical Assistance Center, PTSD and major depression in settled refugees range from 10-40% and 5-15%, respectively, based on several studies. ¹⁹

Although the onset of mental illnesses can occur at any age, the typical age of onset occurs in the late teens and early twenties. ²⁰ Thus, when adolescent refugees come to the United States, they may find themselves navigating both a new social and cultural environment as well as new and unforeseen mental conditions. Although statistics on mental illness are difficult to find due to a lack of adequate research and a wide variety of assessment techniques, an estimated 50-90% of adolescent refugees show symptoms of PTSD, while an estimated 6-40% show symptoms of major depression. Rates of mental illness are lower among native-born US citizens, where approximately 9% of adolescents between 12 and 17 have been diagnosed with depression while approximately 5% of adolescents have been diagnosed with PTSD. 21, 22 High rates of mental illness among refugee adolescents are further impacted by informal screening techniques and stigmatism of mental illness.

Contributing Factors

Traumatic Experiences

Much of the trauma that children and adolescents face prior to coming to the United States continues to affect them as they adjust to civilian life, putting them at risk of mental illness. Prior to resettlement, refugee children may have experienced traumatic events or hardships, including violence (as victims or perpetrators), lack of food, lack of water, lack of shelter, physical injuries, war, torture, forced labor, sexual assault, loss of loved ones, and disruption or lack of access to education. ²³ Studies conducted with Syrian adolescent refugees found that direct exposure to violence such as rockets or bombs falling on and damaging neighbors' homes, as well as harm done to friends and families as a result of war, leads to an increase in psychological problems such as PTSD (see Figure 2). ²⁴

Additionally, refugee children and adolescents may be exposed to secondary traumatization through the experiences of their parents. ²⁵ In refugee populations where experiences with war and other intense conflicts are common, the parents' mental health has been linked with the mental health of their children, leading to social, cognitive, and behavioral problems. ²⁶ A study done among Bhutanese and Somali refugee parents found similar levels of overall trauma between the two groups, although Somali parents reported higher levels of ongoing trauma post-resettlement. According to the study, 13% of Somali refugee parents self-reported anxiety disorders, while 8% of Bhutanese refugee parents reported anxiety. Also, 16% of Somali and 9% of Bhutanese respondents reported major depression. ²⁷

In addition to dealing with the effects of previous traumatic experiences, refugees are often exposed to unhealthy living conditions while living in the camps, which may also contribute to mental health risks. While in camps, refugees may lack access to clean water, electricity, and sometimes even food, which adds further stress to their already stressful experience. Further, fear of sexual assault and disease contributes to the degradation of mental health. ²⁸ A study done in a Syrian refugee camp found that adolescents who had arrived in the camp in the past 6 months reported fewer psychological problems than those who had been there for longer than 6 months. ²⁹ Although refugee adolescents in this study reported having a strong sense of hope for their future, these adolescent refugees reported a low sense of coherence, which refers to an individual's ability to cope with stress. ³⁰ Stress that accompanies living in refugee camps may exacerbate the existing stress from previous trauma.

Challenges with Acculturation

After coming to the United States, refugees are expected to assimilate quickly into US society, potentially leading to discouragement and mental illness. As adolescent refugees resettle in the United States, they may find the experience difficult due to a number of stressors, including:

Conflicts between children and parents over new and old cultural views

Conflicts with peers related to cultural misunderstandings

Necessity to translate for family members who are not fluent in English

Lack of education, putting them behind their peers

Problems trying to fit in at school

Struggles to form an integrated identity including elements of their new culture and their culture of origin³¹

Despite large communities in states such as California, where 30% of all refugees came from Iran, or Michigan, which has accepted the highest number of Syrian refugees, most refugees are resettled in areas where there are very few people from their same country. ³² Because refugees who lived in camps were previously surrounded by people with similar cultural and traumatic experiences, transitioning refugees to a new culture with a lack of social support may create additional stress.

In a study of 135 Somali refugees under the age of 18 in New England, researchers sought to find the relationship between acculturation and depression. In order to measure the burden of acculturation, the researchers used the Acculturative Hassles Inventory, consisting of 14 items assessing the severity of stress related to an adolescent's experience, such as "having to translate or explain American culture to family members" and experiencing "parental criticism [for] 'becoming too American.'" ³³ Higher severity of stress found from the Acculturation Hassles Inventory was associated with higher rates of both PTSD symptoms and symptoms of depression. ³⁴ Previous studies of Eastern European refugees found that higher levels of stress about acculturation among refugee adolescents were only associated with depression when parental acculturation was low. ³⁵

A study done with Burmese refugees living in Iowa highlighted a lack of understanding of social cues among adolescent refugees. "In-group members," known as those who are native to the United States, could be "demanding in terms of maintenance of their own [traditions and culture]." ³⁶ Further, problems at home created stress such as "lack of money for food, rent, and bills, children losing moral education, completing homework at home, and communication between children and adults." ³⁷ These problems contributed to higher feelings of isolation and were correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Additionally, the shifting roles of adolescent refugees in their families and new communities may cause confusion and psychological problems.In the study, cultural differences regarding respect for parents in the United States versus Burma created tension between parents and children, which the children "attributed [this tension] to their parents' lack of desire to change." ³⁸ Cultural adjustments of adolescents may present risks of mental illness due to the burden of understanding their new roles in their communities, families, and schools.

Discrimination and Bullying

The bullying of and discrimination against adolescent refugees by other youth may also lead to increased levels of mental illness. While 1 in 4 children in the US school system reported incidents of bullying, the rates may be higher among refugees due to racial diversity, religious differences, and misunderstanding of social cues. 39, 40 A 2015 study done in New York found that among teenage refugees, the most common forms of bullying were race-based bullying, language-based bullying, accent-based bullying, clothing-based bullying, and religion-based bullying. ⁴¹ This study was done as a focus group in order to assess common types of bullying among refugees instead of understanding the frequency of bullying in refugee communities. Information on the bullying of refugees is difficult to find due to the low concentration of refugees in school districts.

A 2009 study showed that race-based bullying was common among non-white refugees, and those who attended "predominantly white schools were racially targeted by their peers." ⁴² The concept of race-based bullying is new to many refugee students because of the racial homogeneity of their home countries. Even in schools where white students were not the majority, refugees were still bullied for racial reasons. Participants in the 2015 study reported that the people who bullied them because of their race were typically other students of color. This bullying may occur because victims of racial discrimination are often more likely to engage in racial discrimination against others. ⁴³ Perceived discrimination was the strongest predictor of depression in a study done on the mental health of recently resettled Somalian teens. ⁴⁴ Among these teens, perceived discrimination was also indicative of negative self-image, which has been shown to lead to further depression.

Religious discrimination may disproportionately affect refugee adolescents due to the high number of refugees from countries with predominantly Muslim populations. Syrian, Iranian, and Burmese refugees who identify as Muslim are often discriminated against due to negative perceptions of Islam in the United States. Among conservatives in the United States, 63% said they believed Islam encouraged violence. ⁴⁵ For high school-aged girls, this discrimination may be more common due to the visible nature of their distinctive religious hijab. ⁴⁶ Religious differences can cause teens to stand apart from their peers, creating additional stress and feelings of isolation. Additionally, religious discrimination often leads to rejection from peers, which is correlated with a higher likelihood of depression and dropping out of school. ⁴⁷

Separation from Parents

Currently, there are approximately 1,300 unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs) across various US states, which creates concern regarding mental wellbeing, as separation from parents is a factor in mental illness. ⁴⁸ Although some URMs may be reunited with their parents at a later time, many initially come to the United States without parents or even familial connections. Unaccompanied minors face a variety of risks prior to resettlement, as mentioned in the traumatic experiences section, often putting them at a higher risk of experiencing PTSD. ⁴⁹ During times of war, the effect of separation from a parent can create higher levels of anxiety in children and youth. ⁵⁰ Additionally, some refugees who come to the United States may be separated from siblings in the process of migration, which further contributes to feelings of isolation.

Studies have shown that parental support is crucial to children during traumatic experiences and have "identified separation from family members as an important threat to the mental health of refugee children and adolescents." ⁵¹ A number of reasons have been determined pertaining to the higher likelihood of psychological distress among URMs: "the lack of social support necessary to cope with the stresses inherent in migration, the deprivation of emotional relationships and the loss of familiar environment, their increased exposure to traumas before or during the flight, and their relative lack of social and economic resources." ⁵² The lack of parental support during the transitional stage of resettlement may lead to depression.

Awareness of Mental Illness

Despite increasing understanding of mental illness in the United States, mental health awareness varies in different cultural contexts, making it less likely for struggling refugees to receive help. In many countries where refugee crises occur, mental health services are associated with patients with severe mental health concerns, often classified as psychotic. Due to the perception of mental health services and those who use them, mental illness is often stigmatized. ⁵³ Some refugees from regions of the world with negative perceptions of mental illness may be dissuaded from seeking medical attention or even acknowledging the existence of mental illness as a health concern.

Understandings of mental illness vary among refugees due to cultural differences, making it difficult to assess mental illness. For example, some groups from Southeast Asia "perceive that supernatural forces/phenomena are responsible for mental health issues" associated with "denial of spirit or deities." ⁵⁴ Further, some individuals in African countries, including Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya, believe that "supernatural agents can possess a person and might cause physical or psychological disorders." ⁵⁵ The idea of spirits making demands leads individuals to believe that to be free of the influence of the spirit, they must fulfill such demands in order to be free of the influence of the spirit. Mental illness is often stigmatized in Arab communities, where religious-psychological healing is preferred. Individuals with mental illness "may not seek advice from professionals or even family members. Most Christian and Muslim Arabs hold strong religious principles that play a substantial role." ⁵⁶ Additionally, Arab culture typically maintains that individual behavior is a reflection of the family, which puts pressure on individuals to maintain dignity. The perceptions of mental illness significantly impact one's willingness to seek out mental health services, allowing mental illness to have lasting effects on refugees.

Misconceptions about mental health may cause problems in attempting to diagnose mental illness in refugees. Due to different understandings of mental illness among refugees, they may explain symptoms in ways that are unfamiliar to health professionals, which, in turn, may make diagnosis difficult. For example, in Syria and Myanmar, mental illnesses may be spoken about in terms of spirituality or physical illness. 57, 58, 59 When the mental health of refugees are assessed in camps, mental health assessments is often done by interviewers with little to no training. Special protection and consideration for traumatized individuals may be overlooked due to inadequate methods used by interviewers. ⁶⁰ The combination of informal practices, as well as a lack of understanding of cultural terms and practices, further contributes to the unaddressed mental health needs of adolescent refugees.

Consequences

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is common in the refugee population, where the rates are estimated to be almost twice as high as the general population. ⁶¹ As of 2019, approximately 3.5% of adults in the United States suffer from PTSD, while rates among those under the age of 18 are slightly higher at 4%. 62, 63 Although estimates vary depending on the measurement techniques used, between 10-15% of refugees show symptoms of PTSD. A 2011 review of over 20 studies of refugee mental health found that PTSD occurred at even higher rates among children and adolescents, with studies finding that 19-54% of adolescents showed symptoms. ⁶⁴ Additionally, a study conducted in 2016 of refugee camps in Germany found that 33% of Syrian refugees between the ages of 7 and 18 displayed symptoms of PTSD. ⁶⁵

In adolescents, PTSD can cause a variety of behaviors: anxiety, depression, extreme aggression, behavioral problems, inability to form bonds with others, sexual promiscuity, substance abuse, self-harm, suicidal thoughts, and borderline personality disorder. ⁶⁶ Teens are more likely to exhibit impulsive and aggressive behaviors, and additional stress from migration may make these behaviors especially pronounced in refugee teens. ⁶⁷ Although other common consequences of migration, such as anxiety and depression, affect migrants of all backgrounds and ages, adolescent refugees, specifically those who are unaccompanied, are at a higher risk of developing PTSD. ⁶⁸ Consistent stress associated with PTSD has physical costs in addition to the mental costs. Effects of continual stress on the brain and nervous system result in "wear and tear" on the body. Physical ailments associated with PTSD include heart disease, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome. ⁶⁹

Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illnesses in the United States, with 18.1% of individuals over 18 reporting symptoms of anxiety at any given time. ⁷⁰ Adolescent refugees typically have higher rates of anxiety, although rates vary depending on country of origin. A self-completed survey found that 19% of Bhutanese refugees in Australia showed symptoms of anxiety, while a study of Iraqi refugees in Jordan found that 60.8% displayed high levels of anxiety. 71, 72

Syrian refugee children who resettle in the United States reportedly face higher rates of anxiety in comparison to children born in the United States. Recent studies done in Michigan found that 61% of Syrian children had probable anxiety diagnoses while 85% had probable separation anxiety diagnosis. Additionally, higher PTSD symptoms among mothers were associated with higher anxiety levels among children. ⁷³ Overall, Syrian children had higher diagnoses of anxiety in comparison to refugees who were not from Syria. A number of physical symptoms are associated with generalized anxiety disorder, including ⁷⁴:

Feeling restlessness

Feeling on edge

Being easily fatigued

Having difficulty concentrating

Feeling irritable

Experiencing muscle tension

Experiencing sleep disturbance

Those who suffer from panic disorders may have difficulty breathing, chest pain, dizziness, numbness in arms and legs, gastrointestinal issues, sweating, and trembling. ⁷⁵ Anxiety may also have long-term effects on health. Women with high levels of anxiety were 59% more likely to have a heart attack, and gastrointestinal issues often increase a person's vulnerability to developing Crohn's disease (ongoing inflammation of the membrane lining the colon). Anxiety has also been linked with chronic respiratory disorders such as asthma. ⁷⁶

Depression

In addition to PTSD and anxiety, refugees suffer from depression at a higher rate than the general population. An estimated 5-15% of refugees in the United States suffer from depression, compared to approximately 6.5% of the general population. 77, 78 Large differences in mental health diagnoses may occur between refugees due to differing experiences and a wide variety of measurement techniques used by surveyors. Additionally, research focused on the mental health of adolescent refugees in the United States is minimal. In consequence, analyzing studies from a variety of countries where refugees reside are needed to better examine the effects. A study done on Syrian refugees in German refugee camps found that 88.2% of those referred to mental health services had some form of depression, making it the most common mental illness. ⁷⁹ More specifically, one study done of Yazidi youth who resettled in Turkey found that 32.7% of adolescents aged 7-17 had symptoms of depression. ⁸⁰ Of adolescent refugees in Uganda, 31-42.5% showed high levels of depression, and rates were higher among those whose caregivers showed symptoms of depression. ⁸¹

Depression is linked to serious social and educational challenges, as well as an increased rate of smoking, substance misuse, and obesity. ⁸² Further, mental illnesses, specifically depression, are often cited as the cause of suicide or suicidal thoughts. A study done in 2001 reported that bullying targeting Haitian and Hmong refugee students on the basis of race often caused suicidal thoughts and decreased self-value. ⁸³ Recent suicide rates in the Bhutanese refugee community are nearly 3 times higher than the general population. ⁸⁴ Suicide rates among teens in refugee camps occur at higher rates than those outside refugee camps. In a study conducted in a refugee camp in Lesbos, Greece, researchers found that between February and June of 2018, nearly a quarter of the children (18 out of 74) aged between 6 and 18 years had self-harmed, attempted suicide, or had thought about attempting suicide. ⁸⁵ In the United States, adolescent refugees may be more likely to attempt suicide due to higher rates of depression.

Substance Abuse

Research about the prevalence of substance abuse and its effect on mental illness in US refugee communities is limited, but there is evidence that it may be a problem. A study of refugee children and adolescents receiving treatment through the National Child Traumatic Stress Network found that less than 4% had a substance use disorder. ⁸⁶ However, mental illness is often correlated with problems of substance abuse, as individuals try to self-medicate.

Although many studies measure substance abuse in relation to alcohol consumption, it is important to note that some countries have other preferences for mood-altering substances or drugs. In Southeast Asian communities, chewing areca nut (also known as betel nut) is common, as it is believed to be an aphrodisiac and a source of energy. ⁸⁷ With an influx of refugees from Southeast Asia, betel nut is becoming more common in the United States. Betel nut contains ingredients known to boost mood and increase energy. ⁸⁸ However, betel nut is not harmless. Betel nut has been associated with oral cancer, peptic ulceration, and abnormal liver functions. ⁸⁹ Further, betel nut is available at a variety of East Asian grocery stores around the United States, unregulated by the FDA. ⁹⁰ Despite low rates of substance abuse, more research is necessary to understand how mood stimulants native to refugees' homeland affect mental health.

Social Consequences

Mental illness often impairs the social capabilities of individuals. For refugees who have recently resettled, the consequences of mental illness may affect their success in adjusting to their new community. Trauma affects the performance of refugees in school as well as their ability to adapt to a new culture. Effects of PTSD also lead to reduced interest in school and anxiety in new circumstances, negatively impacting the adjustment phase. ⁹¹

A study in 2017 shows that higher rates of anxiety among Syrian children negatively affect their chances of succeeding in school. ⁹² Anxiety in teens causes a variety of physical and mental challenges, which often leads to performance problems in school, sports, and social interactions. ⁹³ Adolescent refugees may struggle to adjust to their new surroundings in US culture, where competence and value are sometimes measured by success in these 3 areas.

A study of depression in teens revealed that those with severe depression were less likely to succeed in school. While 76% of teens with low levels of depression obtained a GPA of 2.0 or better, only 68% of teens with mid-range levels of depression had a 2.0 or better, and only 57% of teens with the most severe level of depression had a 2.0 or better. ⁹⁴ Depression also affects youth in other ways, including a withdrawal from friends and family, an inability to concentrate, and irritability. ⁹⁵ Additionally, those who are depressed as youth have a higher probability of unemployment, higher rates of divorce, and lower rates of income in the future. ⁹⁶

Besides the effect on educational attainment, mental illness may affect the social abilities of adolescent refugees. Studies done on Yazidi refugees in Iraq found that some adolescents might have had increased stress due to the pressure to take care of younger siblings, making it hard to participate in social gatherings with other youth. ⁹⁷ Children who had been exposed to violence in refugee camps struggled with social situations, appearing very shy and avoiding contact with other children in the camp. ⁹⁸ It is also important to note that teenage girls are more than twice as likely to be diagnosed with a mood disorder as boys, about 14-20%. ⁹⁹ Due to the prevalence of mental illness in teens and the unique experiences of refugees, these combined circumstances may impact their ability to socially assimilate.

Practices

Intervention in Schools and Community

Due to the challenges adolescent refugees face assimilating to their new culture, many mental health practices for refugee youth focus on creating support in schools and communities. The underlying goal of these organizations is to create safe spaces for adolescent refugees where they can grow in their understanding of both educational pursuits and mental health concerns. Because schools can be a source of a considerable amount of stress for adolescent refugees, many programs focus on intervention in schools, while others incorporate community support into their strategies.

One example of school intervention is Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS). CBITS was first implemented in urban areas to alleviate the effect of violence on children. The program consists of 10 group sessions, 1-3 individual sessions, 2 parent psychoeducational sessions, and 1 teacher education session. ¹⁰⁰ Due to unfamiliarity with mental health services among refugees, engagement is critical. ¹⁰¹ Engagement strategies include offering practical assistance to the families and making sure they are linked to other services including general health care. Including families and important members of the cultural community in the process is also important in reducing stigmas surrounding mental health. ¹⁰² So far, it has been implemented in 13 states and the District of Columbia. Cognitive-behavioral therapy uses several techniques such as psychoeducation, relaxation, social problem-solving, and cognitive restructuring. ¹⁰³

Boston Children's Hospital's Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center created its own variation of community based therapy, Trauma Systems Therapy for Refugees (TST-R), with the intent to create a holistic approach supporting refugee youth. ¹⁰⁴ The goals of this program are: to build a support system for the adolescent; to intervene through direct interaction with the teen, their family, and their peer groups; to reduce distrust of authorities by connecting with the community; to reduce the stigma of mental health services by combining services with existing and familiar services; to reduce cultural barriers by creating partnerships between providers and cultural experts; and to reduce resettlement stressors by integrating services. ¹⁰⁵ Currently, TST-R practices are being utilized in several initiatives across the United States, including cities in Maine, Massachusetts, and Kentucky.

Another strategy that focuses on community support is the Trauma Sensitive Schools (TSS) approach. TSS attempts to address individual trauma holistically, focusing on school-wide engagement in promoting a safe environment for students to process traumatic events. ¹⁰⁶ TSS provides resources for educators to practice trauma-sensitive techniques while also providing a platform where ideas can be exchanged between educators.

Impact

Although there is limited to no research on intervention in schools for refugee populations, there is evidence that it is an effective solution for some similar populations. According to a study by the CDC, there were "significant improvements in symptoms of PTSD and depression" in school settings in the case of CBTIS, especially for urban minority groups living in poverty with limited access to health care. ¹⁰⁷ A 2003 study of CBTIS involved 200 Spanish-speaking immigrant students in Los Angeles who had been exposed to violence or had similar mental health diagnoses (PTSD or depression). Using those who were referred to mental health services as a baseline, a 17% decrease in depressive symptoms was found in the students while the control group did not see any significant decrease. Those with PTSD symptoms found a decrease of 29%. ¹⁰⁸

Additionally, a qualitative evaluation of TST-R from a 2012 study of the Somalian and Bhutanese refugee communities showed overall success (see Figure 3). ¹⁰⁹

Gaps

Despite the successes of CBITS with children in low-income areas, there has been no conclusive evidence of the work done with refugees. Furthermore, the model in schools is not specifically for refugees, which means there may be some disconnect between refugees and their peers. Studies done on CBITS focus on homogenous racial groups, such as majority Latino areas in Los Angeles and American Indian reservations in Montana and New Mexico. ¹¹⁰ Thus, the results may be different in areas where refugees are not the majority and school administration does not see the need for such programs. Additionally, this practice does not account for cultural differences that may exist between those of differing refugee backgrounds.

Although qualitative results of TST-R show promising results, the surveys observed did not include evaluation from a psychologist after the process, instead relying on self-reporting from the refugees themselves. Additionally, the phase-based intervention lasts a long time (often a year) and requires an interdisciplinary team assembled through various funding sources. The high level of community engagement required may present problems for individuals who live in communities without high levels of engagement. Additionally, some components are not reimbursable through insurance, which may prevent implementation. ¹¹¹

Individual Therapy

Therapy for adolescent refugees is important to the recovery process. A variety of therapy practices are currently utilized to address mental health concerns among refugees. Although the availability of therapeutic techniques varies from state to state, two main practices have been associated with treating mental illness among adolescent refugees. These methods are Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) and Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET). These therapeutic techniques have been implemented in refugee camps internationally as well as in private clinics within the United States.

EMDR has been suggested for survivors of trauma and torture since its initial creation in 1991 but has only recently found its way into the refugee community. ¹¹² The purpose of EMDR is to help individuals confront traumatizing experiences from their past. Like other forms of therapy, EMDR requires individuals to relive the experience through memory. Unlike other forms of therapy, EMDR focuses on the movement of the eyes, in which the purpose is to shift the "stuck memory" into a new experience. 113, 114 Refugee-specific modifications to EMDR include accommodation techniques such as sessions held in the native tongue of refugees and treatments administered by those familiar with the customs of the people. ¹¹⁵ Cultural awareness is key in the practice of EMDR, especially for those who have never been introduced to therapy previously.

In contrast to EMDR, NET focuses on the traumatic experiences of refugees in-depth, encouraging them to construct a narrative of their life up to the present and elaborate on specific experiences. ¹¹⁶ Whereas other forms of therapy focus on single traumatic events, NET addresses the traumatic event in the timeline of the individual's entire life, requiring patients to become accustomed to the emotional responses associated with traumatic events. ¹¹⁷ Adaptations have been made in which refugees are treated by other refugees trained as counselors in order to lessen the impact of cultural barriers. Variations of NET have been adapted to meet the needs of youth (ages 7-16) in the form of KIDNET. In this variation, therapists may use visual aids such as rope, string, rocks, and flowers in order to help children reconstruct traumatic events. 118, 119

Impact

In a study of 30 Syrian refugees in Turkey aged 16-34, a control group of individuals who were "waitlisted" was compared to a group that received EMDR treatment. The study found that those who received treatment had significantly lower rates of PTSD symptoms in comparison to the control group. ¹²⁰ Despite lower rates of PTSD symptoms, they did not find any difference in symptoms of depression in the control group and treatment group.

A 2010 study of the effectiveness of KIDNET assessed 26 refugee youth who participated in 6 sessions of the treatment. After 9 months, the KIDNET group had a clinically significant decrease in PTSD symptoms. At a 6-month follow-up, 70% of participants in the control group showed signs of PTSD, compared to 17% in the KIDNET group. ¹²¹

Gaps

Despite the positive results of the two studies, these study groups are relatively small samples that do not yield overall conclusive results. There would need to be more tests done in bigger areas, especially in the United States. Additionally, existing research focuses mainly on Syrian refugees due to the higher prevalence of PTSD in these communities, calling into question whether or not studies would yield similar results when done with refugees from different regions of the world. Also, the study using EMDR treatment proved to be ineffective in treating symptoms of depression, which is found more often among adolescents. EMDR has also been modified specifically for refugees currently residing in camps or recently brought from camps. ¹²² Thus, research focuses on the effects of EMDR in refugee camps and not resettlement in the United States. Additionally, because EMDR is mainly practiced in private clinics in the United States, data is not readily available. Similar caveats exist in studies done on NET treatments, focusing mainly on those in refugee camps and not treatments done in the United States.

Mental Health Education for Refugees and Providers

Instead of educating refugees directly about mental health, some programs seek to provide resources to those who already provide general mental health care in order to help them adapt to refugee needs. One of the concerns with treating mental illness in younger refugees is knowing how to bridge the gap between US culture and the culture of their homelands. An increase in understanding of cultural differences among refugees by health care providers can improve the quality and effect of the mental health care the refugees receive.

Several organizations and agencies provide information about the mental health of refugee youth, including the Refugee Health Technical Assistance Center (RHTAC), the Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center, and the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). The RHTAC provides an overview of mental health in adolescent refugees, which includes several webinars meant to train professionals on implementation strategies. These webinars include topics such as risks and concerns of refugee youth adjustment and suicide among refugees. ¹²³ One of the services recommended by RHTAC is the Refugee Services Core Stressor Assessment Tool, ¹²⁴which is used in order to identify stressors related to relocation and past experiences. ¹²⁵

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network provides information about the mental health considerations of refugee adolescents. This information includes how providers can best with refugees in a medical setting, how trauma might prevent itself in a primary care setting and in families, and how providers can work within an existing service system to support refugee patients. Suggested provider considerations include using interpreters and understanding language barriers, respecting the roles of caregivers in adolescents' lives (for example, parents not using children as interpreters), and not assuming any information. Additionally, NCTSN mentions how mental illness may be manifested in terms of physical symptoms (such as stomachaches) and how it may be necessary to explain mental health to parents in terms of stress and readjustment. ¹²⁶

Impact

Research on the effectiveness of educating mental health care providers is minimal. There are currently no reported impact analyses of resources for mental health care providers. However, several studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of mental health education overall. A review of mental health education in 2012 examined over 26 studies regarding changing attitudes about mental health corresponding to theoretical education. ¹²⁷ The methods included showing videos to healthcare students and providing lectures and presentations by people with mental illness in order to educate students about the issue. Overall, the review showed that mental health-related education was effective in changing the attitudes of healthcare providers toward mental illness.

Gaps

Although there are studies concerning mental health education generally, there are no current studies regarding educating refugees about mental health concerns. In general, there is a lack of data on the dissemination of information to mental health care providers and how it impacts mental health. Thus, it is difficult to discern if the quality of health care provided to refugees has increased as a result of providers' access to resources.

Preferred Citation: Lloyd, Kate. "Mental Illness Among Adolescent Refugees in the United States." Ballard Brief. February 2019. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Kate hails from Salt Lake City where she began interacting with refugees at a young age. Recently Kate and her family have been involved in Refugee Foster Care. This instilled in her a passion for seeking platforms of reform in the refugee resettlement process. She has channeled that passion into her studies at BYU where she is currently completing her Bachelors in Political Science with an emphasis on legal studies and a minor in Global Women's Studies. In the future Kate hopes to continue her education and find a way to combine her love of politics, social innovation and conflict resolution. Kate loves hiking, eating a good meal with friends or family and roaming the aisles during sample time at Costco.

+ Summary

As the worldwide refugee population has steadily increased over the past decade, mental health concerns among refugees have become more prevalent. In the United States, adolescent refugees face higher rates of mental illness in comparison to non-refugee adolescents. Mental health concerns stem from traumatic experiences, challenges with acculturation, discrimination from peers, separation from parents, and cultural perceptions of mental illness in refugees' country of origin. As a result of these traumatic experiences, adolescent refugees are at a higher risk of mental illnesses such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety, creating barriers to their ability to smoothly transition into the United States. In order to address the problem of mental illness in adolescent refugees, current practices focus on intervention in schools, promising therapy techniques, and cultural awareness education of mental health providers.

+ Key Takeaways

Due to trauma prior to resettlement, discrimination from peers, challenges with acculturation, and cultural perceptions of mental illness, adolescent refugees have a greater propensity to struggle with mental illnesses, including anxiety, depression, and PTSD.

Mental illness among adolescent refugees has a number of negative effects that make it hard for adolescents to adjust to the cultural expectations of the United States, including behavioral problems, inability to succeed in academic settings, and struggles with social interactions.

Although there are several successful treatment programs implemented in the United States, including EMDR, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and Trauma-Systems Therapy for Refugees, more research must be done in order to meet the unique needs of adolescent refugees.

+ Key Terms

Refugee-The 1951 Refugee Convention defines a refugee as "someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion." ¹

Mental Illness-The American Psychiatric Association defines mental illnesses as "health conditions involving changes in emotion, thinking, or behavior (or a combination of these). Mental illnesses are associated with distress and problems functioning in social, work, or family activities." ²

Acculturation-Acculturation is defined as the process by which a refugee adopts the cultural behaviors of their host country, which leads to changes in diet, physical activity level, and environmental exposures. ³

Adolescent -For the purposes of this paper, adolescents refer to youth between the ages of 11-18.

Unaccompanied Refugee Minor (URM)-This refers to children under the age of 18 who come to the United States without at least one parent and also hold one of the following statuses: refugee, entrant, asylee, victim of trafficking, Special Immigrant Juvenile Status, or U visa holders. ⁴

Trauma-In general, trauma can be defined as a psychological, emotional response to an event or an experience that is deeply distressing or disturbing. ⁵ Refugee trauma refers to the experiences refugees face prior to resettlement, including violence (as witnesses, victims, or perpetrators), war, lack of food, lack of water, lack of shelter, physical injuries, infections, diseases, torture, forced labor, sexual assault, lack of medical care, loss of loved ones, and disruption in or lack of access to schooling. ⁶

Context

Ongoing violence worldwide has forced millions of people out of their home countries. In 2017, an estimated 16.2 million individuals were newly displaced refugees worldwide. ⁷ Of those 16.2 million displaced refugees, 53,716 were resettled in the United States, or approximately 3% of all refugees. More than half of resettled refugees were under the age of 18. ⁸ Due to the high volume of refugees in the past decade, the United States has been required to increase its understanding of the unique needs refugees face in order for the United States to be able to better support refugees.

The United States has a long history of refugee resettlement, starting with resettlement efforts during World War II. Post World War II, the United States settled over 400,000 European refugees. ⁹ The tradition of resettlement continued throughout the next decade, as the United States accepted refugees from the former Soviet Union, Southeast Asia, and Cuba. The current refugee crisis is centered on the conflict in Syria, which began in 2011. Of the 5 million refugees who have left Syria since 2011, only 62 Syrian refugees were admitted to the United States in 2018. ¹⁰ Although in the past the United States has resettled over 50,000 refugees per year, only 30,000 refugees were resettled in 2017 and only 22,000 were resettled in 2018. ¹¹ The median time spent in refugee camps prior to resettlement is 4 years. ¹² Recent stats from UNHCR reveal that 68% of refugees resettled in the United States come from just 5 countries: Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan, Myanmar, and Somalia (see Figure 1). ¹³

After arriving in the United States, refugees are resettled through affiliate programs from one of the following 10 placement programs: Church World Service, Episcopal Migration Ministries, Ethiopian Community Development Council, HIAS, International Rescue Committee, Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, or World Relief. These organizations resettle refugees in compliance with the regulations from the Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC) and the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR). The ORR requires a health screening in the first 90 days; however, there is a lack of procedural or financial support for mental health screening for refugees. ¹⁴ According to a report from 2010, only 4 out of 44 states employed proper health screening techniques, and 68% used informal conversation as a form of screening. ¹⁵ Further, screening of mental health in refugee camps is often conducted by interviewers with little training. Special protection and consideration for traumatized individuals may be overlooked due to the interviewer's inadequate methods. ¹⁶

Prior to resettlement in the United States, refugees face a wide variety of challenges. Typically, refugee status is offered to individuals identified by the UNHCR as "most vulnerable," such as women and children, the elderly, survivors of violence and torture, and those with acute medical needs. ¹⁷ After refugees travel long distances from home to new countries, refugees may struggle to adjust to the culture. Traumatic life events such as exposure to war, torture, internment in refugee camps, rape, human trafficking, and loss of family may lead to psychological stress. Additionally, once refugees are in the United States, the stress of adapting to a new culture, low socioeconomic status, and unemployment may affect mental health. ¹⁸ According to the Refugee Health Technical Assistance Center, PTSD and major depression in settled refugees range from 10-40% and 5-15%, respectively, based on several studies. ¹⁹

Although the onset of mental illnesses can occur at any age, the typical age of onset occurs in the late teens and early twenties. ²⁰ Thus, when adolescent refugees come to the United States, they may find themselves navigating both a new social and cultural environment as well as new and unforeseen mental conditions. Although statistics on mental illness are difficult to find due to a lack of adequate research and a wide variety of assessment techniques, an estimated 50-90% of adolescent refugees show symptoms of PTSD, while an estimated 6-40% show symptoms of major depression. Rates of mental illness are lower among native-born US citizens, where approximately 9% of adolescents between 12 and 17 have been diagnosed with depression while approximately 5% of adolescents have been diagnosed with PTSD. 21, 22 High rates of mental illness among refugee adolescents are further impacted by informal screening techniques and stigmatism of mental illness.

Contributing Factors

Traumatic Experiences

Much of the trauma that children and adolescents face prior to coming to the United States continues to affect them as they adjust to civilian life, putting them at risk of mental illness. Prior to resettlement, refugee children may have experienced traumatic events or hardships, including violence (as victims or perpetrators), lack of food, lack of water, lack of shelter, physical injuries, war, torture, forced labor, sexual assault, loss of loved ones, and disruption or lack of access to education. ²³ Studies conducted with Syrian adolescent refugees found that direct exposure to violence such as rockets or bombs falling on and damaging neighbors' homes, as well as harm done to friends and families as a result of war, leads to an increase in psychological problems such as PTSD (see Figure 2). ²⁴

Additionally, refugee children and adolescents may be exposed to secondary traumatization through the experiences of their parents. ²⁵ In refugee populations where experiences with war and other intense conflicts are common, the parents' mental health has been linked with the mental health of their children, leading to social, cognitive, and behavioral problems. ²⁶ A study done among Bhutanese and Somali refugee parents found similar levels of overall trauma between the two groups, although Somali parents reported higher levels of ongoing trauma post-resettlement. According to the study, 13% of Somali refugee parents self-reported anxiety disorders, while 8% of Bhutanese refugee parents reported anxiety. Also, 16% of Somali and 9% of Bhutanese respondents reported major depression. ²⁷

In addition to dealing with the effects of previous traumatic experiences, refugees are often exposed to unhealthy living conditions while living in the camps, which may also contribute to mental health risks. While in camps, refugees may lack access to clean water, electricity, and sometimes even food, which adds further stress to their already stressful experience. Further, fear of sexual assault and disease contributes to the degradation of mental health. ²⁸ A study done in a Syrian refugee camp found that adolescents who had arrived in the camp in the past 6 months reported fewer psychological problems than those who had been there for longer than 6 months. ²⁹ Although refugee adolescents in this study reported having a strong sense of hope for their future, these adolescent refugees reported a low sense of coherence, which refers to an individual's ability to cope with stress. ³⁰ Stress that accompanies living in refugee camps may exacerbate the existing stress from previous trauma.

Challenges with Acculturation

After coming to the United States, refugees are expected to assimilate quickly into US society, potentially leading to discouragement and mental illness. As adolescent refugees resettle in the United States, they may find the experience difficult due to a number of stressors, including:

Conflicts between children and parents over new and old cultural views

Conflicts with peers related to cultural misunderstandings

Necessity to translate for family members who are not fluent in English

Lack of education, putting them behind their peers

Problems trying to fit in at school

Struggles to form an integrated identity including elements of their new culture and their culture of origin³¹

Despite large communities in states such as California, where 30% of all refugees came from Iran, or Michigan, which has accepted the highest number of Syrian refugees, most refugees are resettled in areas where there are very few people from their same country. ³² Because refugees who lived in camps were previously surrounded by people with similar cultural and traumatic experiences, transitioning refugees to a new culture with a lack of social support may create additional stress.

In a study of 135 Somali refugees under the age of 18 in New England, researchers sought to find the relationship between acculturation and depression. In order to measure the burden of acculturation, the researchers used the Acculturative Hassles Inventory, consisting of 14 items assessing the severity of stress related to an adolescent's experience, such as "having to translate or explain American culture to family members" and experiencing "parental criticism [for] 'becoming too American.'" ³³ Higher severity of stress found from the Acculturation Hassles Inventory was associated with higher rates of both PTSD symptoms and symptoms of depression. ³⁴ Previous studies of Eastern European refugees found that higher levels of stress about acculturation among refugee adolescents were only associated with depression when parental acculturation was low. ³⁵

A study done with Burmese refugees living in Iowa highlighted a lack of understanding of social cues among adolescent refugees. "In-group members," known as those who are native to the United States, could be "demanding in terms of maintenance of their own [traditions and culture]." ³⁶ Further, problems at home created stress such as "lack of money for food, rent, and bills, children losing moral education, completing homework at home, and communication between children and adults." ³⁷ These problems contributed to higher feelings of isolation and were correlated with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Additionally, the shifting roles of adolescent refugees in their families and new communities may cause confusion and psychological problems.In the study, cultural differences regarding respect for parents in the United States versus Burma created tension between parents and children, which the children "attributed [this tension] to their parents' lack of desire to change." ³⁸ Cultural adjustments of adolescents may present risks of mental illness due to the burden of understanding their new roles in their communities, families, and schools.

Discrimination and Bullying

The bullying of and discrimination against adolescent refugees by other youth may also lead to increased levels of mental illness. While 1 in 4 children in the US school system reported incidents of bullying, the rates may be higher among refugees due to racial diversity, religious differences, and misunderstanding of social cues. 39, 40 A 2015 study done in New York found that among teenage refugees, the most common forms of bullying were race-based bullying, language-based bullying, accent-based bullying, clothing-based bullying, and religion-based bullying. ⁴¹ This study was done as a focus group in order to assess common types of bullying among refugees instead of understanding the frequency of bullying in refugee communities. Information on the bullying of refugees is difficult to find due to the low concentration of refugees in school districts.

A 2009 study showed that race-based bullying was common among non-white refugees, and those who attended "predominantly white schools were racially targeted by their peers." ⁴² The concept of race-based bullying is new to many refugee students because of the racial homogeneity of their home countries. Even in schools where white students were not the majority, refugees were still bullied for racial reasons. Participants in the 2015 study reported that the people who bullied them because of their race were typically other students of color. This bullying may occur because victims of racial discrimination are often more likely to engage in racial discrimination against others. ⁴³ Perceived discrimination was the strongest predictor of depression in a study done on the mental health of recently resettled Somalian teens. ⁴⁴ Among these teens, perceived discrimination was also indicative of negative self-image, which has been shown to lead to further depression.

Religious discrimination may disproportionately affect refugee adolescents due to the high number of refugees from countries with predominantly Muslim populations. Syrian, Iranian, and Burmese refugees who identify as Muslim are often discriminated against due to negative perceptions of Islam in the United States. Among conservatives in the United States, 63% said they believed Islam encouraged violence. ⁴⁵ For high school-aged girls, this discrimination may be more common due to the visible nature of their distinctive religious hijab. ⁴⁶ Religious differences can cause teens to stand apart from their peers, creating additional stress and feelings of isolation. Additionally, religious discrimination often leads to rejection from peers, which is correlated with a higher likelihood of depression and dropping out of school. ⁴⁷

Separation from Parents

Currently, there are approximately 1,300 unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs) across various US states, which creates concern regarding mental wellbeing, as separation from parents is a factor in mental illness. ⁴⁸ Although some URMs may be reunited with their parents at a later time, many initially come to the United States without parents or even familial connections. Unaccompanied minors face a variety of risks prior to resettlement, as mentioned in the traumatic experiences section, often putting them at a higher risk of experiencing PTSD. ⁴⁹ During times of war, the effect of separation from a parent can create higher levels of anxiety in children and youth. ⁵⁰ Additionally, some refugees who come to the United States may be separated from siblings in the process of migration, which further contributes to feelings of isolation.

Studies have shown that parental support is crucial to children during traumatic experiences and have "identified separation from family members as an important threat to the mental health of refugee children and adolescents." ⁵¹ A number of reasons have been determined pertaining to the higher likelihood of psychological distress among URMs: "the lack of social support necessary to cope with the stresses inherent in migration, the deprivation of emotional relationships and the loss of familiar environment, their increased exposure to traumas before or during the flight, and their relative lack of social and economic resources." ⁵² The lack of parental support during the transitional stage of resettlement may lead to depression.

Awareness of Mental Illness

Despite increasing understanding of mental illness in the United States, mental health awareness varies in different cultural contexts, making it less likely for struggling refugees to receive help. In many countries where refugee crises occur, mental health services are associated with patients with severe mental health concerns, often classified as psychotic. Due to the perception of mental health services and those who use them, mental illness is often stigmatized. ⁵³ Some refugees from regions of the world with negative perceptions of mental illness may be dissuaded from seeking medical attention or even acknowledging the existence of mental illness as a health concern.

Understandings of mental illness vary among refugees due to cultural differences, making it difficult to assess mental illness. For example, some groups from Southeast Asia "perceive that supernatural forces/phenomena are responsible for mental health issues" associated with "denial of spirit or deities." ⁵⁴ Further, some individuals in African countries, including Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Kenya, believe that "supernatural agents can possess a person and might cause physical or psychological disorders." ⁵⁵ The idea of spirits making demands leads individuals to believe that to be free of the influence of the spirit, they must fulfill such demands in order to be free of the influence of the spirit. Mental illness is often stigmatized in Arab communities, where religious-psychological healing is preferred. Individuals with mental illness "may not seek advice from professionals or even family members. Most Christian and Muslim Arabs hold strong religious principles that play a substantial role." ⁵⁶ Additionally, Arab culture typically maintains that individual behavior is a reflection of the family, which puts pressure on individuals to maintain dignity. The perceptions of mental illness significantly impact one's willingness to seek out mental health services, allowing mental illness to have lasting effects on refugees.

Misconceptions about mental health may cause problems in attempting to diagnose mental illness in refugees. Due to different understandings of mental illness among refugees, they may explain symptoms in ways that are unfamiliar to health professionals, which, in turn, may make diagnosis difficult. For example, in Syria and Myanmar, mental illnesses may be spoken about in terms of spirituality or physical illness. 57, 58, 59 When the mental health of refugees are assessed in camps, mental health assessments is often done by interviewers with little to no training. Special protection and consideration for traumatized individuals may be overlooked due to inadequate methods used by interviewers. ⁶⁰ The combination of informal practices, as well as a lack of understanding of cultural terms and practices, further contributes to the unaddressed mental health needs of adolescent refugees.

Consequences

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is common in the refugee population, where the rates are estimated to be almost twice as high as the general population. ⁶¹ As of 2019, approximately 3.5% of adults in the United States suffer from PTSD, while rates among those under the age of 18 are slightly higher at 4%. 62, 63 Although estimates vary depending on the measurement techniques used, between 10-15% of refugees show symptoms of PTSD. A 2011 review of over 20 studies of refugee mental health found that PTSD occurred at even higher rates among children and adolescents, with studies finding that 19-54% of adolescents showed symptoms. ⁶⁴ Additionally, a study conducted in 2016 of refugee camps in Germany found that 33% of Syrian refugees between the ages of 7 and 18 displayed symptoms of PTSD. ⁶⁵

In adolescents, PTSD can cause a variety of behaviors: anxiety, depression, extreme aggression, behavioral problems, inability to form bonds with others, sexual promiscuity, substance abuse, self-harm, suicidal thoughts, and borderline personality disorder. ⁶⁶ Teens are more likely to exhibit impulsive and aggressive behaviors, and additional stress from migration may make these behaviors especially pronounced in refugee teens. ⁶⁷ Although other common consequences of migration, such as anxiety and depression, affect migrants of all backgrounds and ages, adolescent refugees, specifically those who are unaccompanied, are at a higher risk of developing PTSD. ⁶⁸ Consistent stress associated with PTSD has physical costs in addition to the mental costs. Effects of continual stress on the brain and nervous system result in "wear and tear" on the body. Physical ailments associated with PTSD include heart disease, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome. ⁶⁹

Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illnesses in the United States, with 18.1% of individuals over 18 reporting symptoms of anxiety at any given time. ⁷⁰ Adolescent refugees typically have higher rates of anxiety, although rates vary depending on country of origin. A self-completed survey found that 19% of Bhutanese refugees in Australia showed symptoms of anxiety, while a study of Iraqi refugees in Jordan found that 60.8% displayed high levels of anxiety. 71, 72

Syrian refugee children who resettle in the United States reportedly face higher rates of anxiety in comparison to children born in the United States. Recent studies done in Michigan found that 61% of Syrian children had probable anxiety diagnoses while 85% had probable separation anxiety diagnosis. Additionally, higher PTSD symptoms among mothers were associated with higher anxiety levels among children. ⁷³ Overall, Syrian children had higher diagnoses of anxiety in comparison to refugees who were not from Syria. A number of physical symptoms are associated with generalized anxiety disorder, including ⁷⁴:

Feeling restlessness

Feeling on edge

Being easily fatigued

Having difficulty concentrating

Feeling irritable

Experiencing muscle tension

Experiencing sleep disturbance

Those who suffer from panic disorders may have difficulty breathing, chest pain, dizziness, numbness in arms and legs, gastrointestinal issues, sweating, and trembling. ⁷⁵ Anxiety may also have long-term effects on health. Women with high levels of anxiety were 59% more likely to have a heart attack, and gastrointestinal issues often increase a person's vulnerability to developing Crohn's disease (ongoing inflammation of the membrane lining the colon). Anxiety has also been linked with chronic respiratory disorders such as asthma. ⁷⁶

Depression

In addition to PTSD and anxiety, refugees suffer from depression at a higher rate than the general population. An estimated 5-15% of refugees in the United States suffer from depression, compared to approximately 6.5% of the general population. 77, 78 Large differences in mental health diagnoses may occur between refugees due to differing experiences and a wide variety of measurement techniques used by surveyors. Additionally, research focused on the mental health of adolescent refugees in the United States is minimal. In consequence, analyzing studies from a variety of countries where refugees reside are needed to better examine the effects. A study done on Syrian refugees in German refugee camps found that 88.2% of those referred to mental health services had some form of depression, making it the most common mental illness. ⁷⁹ More specifically, one study done of Yazidi youth who resettled in Turkey found that 32.7% of adolescents aged 7-17 had symptoms of depression. ⁸⁰ Of adolescent refugees in Uganda, 31-42.5% showed high levels of depression, and rates were higher among those whose caregivers showed symptoms of depression. ⁸¹

Depression is linked to serious social and educational challenges, as well as an increased rate of smoking, substance misuse, and obesity. ⁸² Further, mental illnesses, specifically depression, are often cited as the cause of suicide or suicidal thoughts. A study done in 2001 reported that bullying targeting Haitian and Hmong refugee students on the basis of race often caused suicidal thoughts and decreased self-value. ⁸³ Recent suicide rates in the Bhutanese refugee community are nearly 3 times higher than the general population. ⁸⁴ Suicide rates among teens in refugee camps occur at higher rates than those outside refugee camps. In a study conducted in a refugee camp in Lesbos, Greece, researchers found that between February and June of 2018, nearly a quarter of the children (18 out of 74) aged between 6 and 18 years had self-harmed, attempted suicide, or had thought about attempting suicide. ⁸⁵ In the United States, adolescent refugees may be more likely to attempt suicide due to higher rates of depression.

Substance Abuse

Research about the prevalence of substance abuse and its effect on mental illness in US refugee communities is limited, but there is evidence that it may be a problem. A study of refugee children and adolescents receiving treatment through the National Child Traumatic Stress Network found that less than 4% had a substance use disorder. ⁸⁶ However, mental illness is often correlated with problems of substance abuse, as individuals try to self-medicate.

Although many studies measure substance abuse in relation to alcohol consumption, it is important to note that some countries have other preferences for mood-altering substances or drugs. In Southeast Asian communities, chewing areca nut (also known as betel nut) is common, as it is believed to be an aphrodisiac and a source of energy. ⁸⁷ With an influx of refugees from Southeast Asia, betel nut is becoming more common in the United States. Betel nut contains ingredients known to boost mood and increase energy. ⁸⁸ However, betel nut is not harmless. Betel nut has been associated with oral cancer, peptic ulceration, and abnormal liver functions. ⁸⁹ Further, betel nut is available at a variety of East Asian grocery stores around the United States, unregulated by the FDA. ⁹⁰ Despite low rates of substance abuse, more research is necessary to understand how mood stimulants native to refugees' homeland affect mental health.

Social Consequences

Mental illness often impairs the social capabilities of individuals. For refugees who have recently resettled, the consequences of mental illness may affect their success in adjusting to their new community. Trauma affects the performance of refugees in school as well as their ability to adapt to a new culture. Effects of PTSD also lead to reduced interest in school and anxiety in new circumstances, negatively impacting the adjustment phase. ⁹¹

A study in 2017 shows that higher rates of anxiety among Syrian children negatively affect their chances of succeeding in school. ⁹² Anxiety in teens causes a variety of physical and mental challenges, which often leads to performance problems in school, sports, and social interactions. ⁹³ Adolescent refugees may struggle to adjust to their new surroundings in US culture, where competence and value are sometimes measured by success in these 3 areas.

A study of depression in teens revealed that those with severe depression were less likely to succeed in school. While 76% of teens with low levels of depression obtained a GPA of 2.0 or better, only 68% of teens with mid-range levels of depression had a 2.0 or better, and only 57% of teens with the most severe level of depression had a 2.0 or better. ⁹⁴ Depression also affects youth in other ways, including a withdrawal from friends and family, an inability to concentrate, and irritability. ⁹⁵ Additionally, those who are depressed as youth have a higher probability of unemployment, higher rates of divorce, and lower rates of income in the future. ⁹⁶

Besides the effect on educational attainment, mental illness may affect the social abilities of adolescent refugees. Studies done on Yazidi refugees in Iraq found that some adolescents might have had increased stress due to the pressure to take care of younger siblings, making it hard to participate in social gatherings with other youth. ⁹⁷ Children who had been exposed to violence in refugee camps struggled with social situations, appearing very shy and avoiding contact with other children in the camp. ⁹⁸ It is also important to note that teenage girls are more than twice as likely to be diagnosed with a mood disorder as boys, about 14-20%. ⁹⁹ Due to the prevalence of mental illness in teens and the unique experiences of refugees, these combined circumstances may impact their ability to socially assimilate.

Practices

Intervention in Schools and Community

Due to the challenges adolescent refugees face assimilating to their new culture, many mental health practices for refugee youth focus on creating support in schools and communities. The underlying goal of these organizations is to create safe spaces for adolescent refugees where they can grow in their understanding of both educational pursuits and mental health concerns. Because schools can be a source of a considerable amount of stress for adolescent refugees, many programs focus on intervention in schools, while others incorporate community support into their strategies.

One example of school intervention is Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS). CBITS was first implemented in urban areas to alleviate the effect of violence on children. The program consists of 10 group sessions, 1-3 individual sessions, 2 parent psychoeducational sessions, and 1 teacher education session. ¹⁰⁰ Due to unfamiliarity with mental health services among refugees, engagement is critical. ¹⁰¹ Engagement strategies include offering practical assistance to the families and making sure they are linked to other services including general health care. Including families and important members of the cultural community in the process is also important in reducing stigmas surrounding mental health. ¹⁰² So far, it has been implemented in 13 states and the District of Columbia. Cognitive-behavioral therapy uses several techniques such as psychoeducation, relaxation, social problem-solving, and cognitive restructuring. ¹⁰³

Boston Children's Hospital's Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center created its own variation of community based therapy, Trauma Systems Therapy for Refugees (TST-R), with the intent to create a holistic approach supporting refugee youth. ¹⁰⁴ The goals of this program are: to build a support system for the adolescent; to intervene through direct interaction with the teen, their family, and their peer groups; to reduce distrust of authorities by connecting with the community; to reduce the stigma of mental health services by combining services with existing and familiar services; to reduce cultural barriers by creating partnerships between providers and cultural experts; and to reduce resettlement stressors by integrating services. ¹⁰⁵ Currently, TST-R practices are being utilized in several initiatives across the United States, including cities in Maine, Massachusetts, and Kentucky.

Another strategy that focuses on community support is the Trauma Sensitive Schools (TSS) approach. TSS attempts to address individual trauma holistically, focusing on school-wide engagement in promoting a safe environment for students to process traumatic events. ¹⁰⁶ TSS provides resources for educators to practice trauma-sensitive techniques while also providing a platform where ideas can be exchanged between educators.

Impact

Although there is limited to no research on intervention in schools for refugee populations, there is evidence that it is an effective solution for some similar populations. According to a study by the CDC, there were "significant improvements in symptoms of PTSD and depression" in school settings in the case of CBTIS, especially for urban minority groups living in poverty with limited access to health care. ¹⁰⁷ A 2003 study of CBTIS involved 200 Spanish-speaking immigrant students in Los Angeles who had been exposed to violence or had similar mental health diagnoses (PTSD or depression). Using those who were referred to mental health services as a baseline, a 17% decrease in depressive symptoms was found in the students while the control group did not see any significant decrease. Those with PTSD symptoms found a decrease of 29%. ¹⁰⁸

Additionally, a qualitative evaluation of TST-R from a 2012 study of the Somalian and Bhutanese refugee communities showed overall success (see Figure 3). ¹⁰⁹

Gaps

Despite the successes of CBITS with children in low-income areas, there has been no conclusive evidence of the work done with refugees. Furthermore, the model in schools is not specifically for refugees, which means there may be some disconnect between refugees and their peers. Studies done on CBITS focus on homogenous racial groups, such as majority Latino areas in Los Angeles and American Indian reservations in Montana and New Mexico. ¹¹⁰ Thus, the results may be different in areas where refugees are not the majority and school administration does not see the need for such programs. Additionally, this practice does not account for cultural differences that may exist between those of differing refugee backgrounds.

Although qualitative results of TST-R show promising results, the surveys observed did not include evaluation from a psychologist after the process, instead relying on self-reporting from the refugees themselves. Additionally, the phase-based intervention lasts a long time (often a year) and requires an interdisciplinary team assembled through various funding sources. The high level of community engagement required may present problems for individuals who live in communities without high levels of engagement. Additionally, some components are not reimbursable through insurance, which may prevent implementation. ¹¹¹

Individual Therapy

Therapy for adolescent refugees is important to the recovery process. A variety of therapy practices are currently utilized to address mental health concerns among refugees. Although the availability of therapeutic techniques varies from state to state, two main practices have been associated with treating mental illness among adolescent refugees. These methods are Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) and Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET). These therapeutic techniques have been implemented in refugee camps internationally as well as in private clinics within the United States.

EMDR has been suggested for survivors of trauma and torture since its initial creation in 1991 but has only recently found its way into the refugee community. ¹¹² The purpose of EMDR is to help individuals confront traumatizing experiences from their past. Like other forms of therapy, EMDR requires individuals to relive the experience through memory. Unlike other forms of therapy, EMDR focuses on the movement of the eyes, in which the purpose is to shift the "stuck memory" into a new experience. 113, 114 Refugee-specific modifications to EMDR include accommodation techniques such as sessions held in the native tongue of refugees and treatments administered by those familiar with the customs of the people. ¹¹⁵ Cultural awareness is key in the practice of EMDR, especially for those who have never been introduced to therapy previously.

In contrast to EMDR, NET focuses on the traumatic experiences of refugees in-depth, encouraging them to construct a narrative of their life up to the present and elaborate on specific experiences. ¹¹⁶ Whereas other forms of therapy focus on single traumatic events, NET addresses the traumatic event in the timeline of the individual's entire life, requiring patients to become accustomed to the emotional responses associated with traumatic events. ¹¹⁷ Adaptations have been made in which refugees are treated by other refugees trained as counselors in order to lessen the impact of cultural barriers. Variations of NET have been adapted to meet the needs of youth (ages 7-16) in the form of KIDNET. In this variation, therapists may use visual aids such as rope, string, rocks, and flowers in order to help children reconstruct traumatic events. 118, 119

Impact

In a study of 30 Syrian refugees in Turkey aged 16-34, a control group of individuals who were "waitlisted" was compared to a group that received EMDR treatment. The study found that those who received treatment had significantly lower rates of PTSD symptoms in comparison to the control group. ¹²⁰ Despite lower rates of PTSD symptoms, they did not find any difference in symptoms of depression in the control group and treatment group.

A 2010 study of the effectiveness of KIDNET assessed 26 refugee youth who participated in 6 sessions of the treatment. After 9 months, the KIDNET group had a clinically significant decrease in PTSD symptoms. At a 6-month follow-up, 70% of participants in the control group showed signs of PTSD, compared to 17% in the KIDNET group. ¹²¹

Gaps

Despite the positive results of the two studies, these study groups are relatively small samples that do not yield overall conclusive results. There would need to be more tests done in bigger areas, especially in the United States. Additionally, existing research focuses mainly on Syrian refugees due to the higher prevalence of PTSD in these communities, calling into question whether or not studies would yield similar results when done with refugees from different regions of the world. Also, the study using EMDR treatment proved to be ineffective in treating symptoms of depression, which is found more often among adolescents. EMDR has also been modified specifically for refugees currently residing in camps or recently brought from camps. ¹²² Thus, research focuses on the effects of EMDR in refugee camps and not resettlement in the United States. Additionally, because EMDR is mainly practiced in private clinics in the United States, data is not readily available. Similar caveats exist in studies done on NET treatments, focusing mainly on those in refugee camps and not treatments done in the United States.

Mental Health Education for Refugees and Providers

Instead of educating refugees directly about mental health, some programs seek to provide resources to those who already provide general mental health care in order to help them adapt to refugee needs. One of the concerns with treating mental illness in younger refugees is knowing how to bridge the gap between US culture and the culture of their homelands. An increase in understanding of cultural differences among refugees by health care providers can improve the quality and effect of the mental health care the refugees receive.

Several organizations and agencies provide information about the mental health of refugee youth, including the Refugee Health Technical Assistance Center (RHTAC), the Refugee Trauma and Resilience Center, and the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN). The RHTAC provides an overview of mental health in adolescent refugees, which includes several webinars meant to train professionals on implementation strategies. These webinars include topics such as risks and concerns of refugee youth adjustment and suicide among refugees. ¹²³ One of the services recommended by RHTAC is the Refugee Services Core Stressor Assessment Tool, ¹²⁴which is used in order to identify stressors related to relocation and past experiences. ¹²⁵

The National Child Traumatic Stress Network provides information about the mental health considerations of refugee adolescents. This information includes how providers can best with refugees in a medical setting, how trauma might prevent itself in a primary care setting and in families, and how providers can work within an existing service system to support refugee patients. Suggested provider considerations include using interpreters and understanding language barriers, respecting the roles of caregivers in adolescents' lives (for example, parents not using children as interpreters), and not assuming any information. Additionally, NCTSN mentions how mental illness may be manifested in terms of physical symptoms (such as stomachaches) and how it may be necessary to explain mental health to parents in terms of stress and readjustment. ¹²⁶

Impact

Research on the effectiveness of educating mental health care providers is minimal. There are currently no reported impact analyses of resources for mental health care providers. However, several studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of mental health education overall. A review of mental health education in 2012 examined over 26 studies regarding changing attitudes about mental health corresponding to theoretical education. ¹²⁷ The methods included showing videos to healthcare students and providing lectures and presentations by people with mental illness in order to educate students about the issue. Overall, the review showed that mental health-related education was effective in changing the attitudes of healthcare providers toward mental illness.

Gaps

Although there are studies concerning mental health education generally, there are no current studies regarding educating refugees about mental health concerns. In general, there is a lack of data on the dissemination of information to mental health care providers and how it impacts mental health. Thus, it is difficult to discern if the quality of health care provided to refugees has increased as a result of providers' access to resources.

Preferred Citation: Lloyd, Kate. "Mental Illness Among Adolescent Refugees in the United States." Ballard Brief. February 2019. www.ballardbrief.org.
Viewpoints published by Ballard Brief are not necessarily endorsed by BYU or The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Kate hails from Salt Lake City where she began interacting with refugees at a young age. Recently Kate and her family have been involved in Refugee Foster Care. This instilled in her a passion for seeking platforms of reform in the refugee resettlement process. She has channeled that passion into her studies at BYU where she is currently completing her Bachelors in Political Science with an emphasis on legal studies and a minor in Global Women's Studies. In the future Kate hopes to continue her education and find a way to combine her love of politics, social innovation and conflict resolution. Kate loves hiking, eating a good meal with friends or family and roaming the aisles during sample time at Costco.

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Mental Illness Among Adolescent Refugees in the United States - Ballard Brief

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In the United States, adolescent refugees face higher rates of mental illness in comparison to non-refugee adolescents.

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Supporting Racial Diversity Policy Guide 

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Supporting Racial Diversity Policy Guide 

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Agency: Department of Education.
Action: Notice of Policy Guidance.

Summary: The Department provides additional guidance about part B of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (section 504) as they relate to the provision of appropriate education service to students who are deaf. This guidance is issued in response to concerns regarding Departmental policy on the provision of a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to students who are deaf. Many of these concerns were expressed in the report of the Commission on Education of the Deaf. This guidance is intended to furnish State and local education agency personnel with background information and specific steps that will help to ensure that children and youth who are deaf are provided with a free appropriate public education. It also describes procedural safeguards that ensure parents are knowledgeable about their rights and about placement decisions made by public agencies.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
OFFICE FOR CIVIL RIGHTSREGIONAL CIVIL RIGHTS OFFICES

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
In the past twenty-five years, two national panels have concluded that the education of deaf students must be improved in order to meet their unique communication and related needs. The most recent of these panels, the Commission on Education of the Deaf (COED), recommended a number of changes in the way the Federal government supports the education of individuals who are deaf from birth through postsecondary schooling and training. With this notice, the Secretary implements several COED recommendations relating to the provision of appropriate education for elementary and secondary students who are deaf.

The COED's report and its primary finding¹ reflects a fundamental concern within much of the deaf community that students who are deaf have significant obstacles to overcome in order to have access to a free appropriate public education that meets their unique educational needs, particularly their communication and related needs².

The disability of deafness often results in significant and unique educational needs for the individual child. The major barriers to learning associated with deafness relate to language and communication, which, in turn, profoundly affect most aspects of the educational process. For example, acquiring basic English language skills is a tremendous challenge for most students who are deaf. While the Department and others are supporting research activites in the area of language acquisition for children who are deaf, effective methods of instruction that can be implemented in a variety of educational settings are still not available. The reading skills of deaf children reflect perhaps the most momentous and dismal effects of the disability and of the education system's struggle to effectively teach deaf children: hearing impaired students "level off" in their reading comprehension achievement at about the third grade level.³

Compounding the manifest educational considerations, the communication nature of the disability is inherently isolating, with considerable effect on the interaction with peers and teachers that make up the educational process. This interaction, for the purpose of transmitting knowledge and developing the child's self-esteem and identity, in dependent upon direct communication. Yet, communication is the area most hampered between a deaf child and his or her hearing peers and teachers. Even the availability of interpreter services in the educational setting may not address deaf children's needs for direct and meaningful communication with peers and teachers.

Because deafness is a low incidence disability, there is not widespread understanding of its educational implications, even among special educators. This lack of knowledge and skills in our education system contributes to the already substantial barriers to deaf students in receiving appropriate educational services.

ln light of all these factors, the Secretary believes it is important to provide additional guidance to State and local education agencies to ensure that the needs of students who are deaf are appropriately identified and met, and that placement decisions for students who are deaf meet the standards of the applicable statutes and their implementing regulations. It is the purpose of this document to (1) clarify the free appropriate public education provisions of IDEA for children who are deaf, including important factors in the determination of appropriate education for such children and the requirement that education be provided in the least restrictive environment, and (2) clarify the applicability of the procedural safeguards in placement decisions.

Nothing in this notice alters a public agency's obligation to place a student with a disability in a regular classroom if FAPE can be provided in that setting.
Free Appropriate Public Education
The provision of a free appropriate public education based on the unique needs of the child is at the heart of the IDEA. Similarly, the section 504 regulation at 34 CFR 104.33-104.36 contains free appropriate public education requirements, which are also applicable to local educational agencies serving children who are deaf. A child is receiving an appropriate education when all of the requirements in the statute and the regulations are met. The Secretary believes that full consideration of the unique needs of a child who is deaf will help to ensure the provision of an appropriate education. For children who are eligible under Part B of the IDEA, this is accomplished through the IEP process. For children determined to be handicapped under section 504, implementation of an individualized education program developed in accordance with Part B of the IDEA is one means of meeting the free appropriate public education requirements of the section 504 regulations.

As part of the process of developing an individualized education program (IEP) for a child with disabilities under the IDEA, State and local education agencies must comply with the evaluation and placement regulations at 34 CFR 300.530-300.534. In meeting the individual education needs of children who are deaf under section 504, LEAs must comply with the evaluation and placement requirements of 34 CFR 104.35 of the Section 504 regulation, which contains requirements similar to those of the IDEA. However, the Secretary believes that the unique communication and related needs of many children who are deaf have not been adequately considered in the development of their IEPs. To assist public agencies in carrying out their responsibilities for children who are deaf, the Department provides the following guidance.

The Secretary believes it is important that State and local education agencies, in developing an IEP for a child who is deaf, take into consideration such factors as:

1. Communication needs and the child's and family's preferred mode of communication;

2. Linguistic needs;

3. Severity of hearing loss and potential for using residual hearing;

4. Academic level; and

5. Social, emotional, and cultural needs including opportunities for peer interactions and communication.

In addition, the particular needs of an individual child may require the consideration of additional factors. For example, the nature and severity of some children's needs will require the consideration of curriculum content and method of curriculum delivery in determining how those needs can be met. Including evaluators who are knowledgeable about these specific factors as part of the multidisciplinary team evaluating the student will help ensure that the deaf student's needs are correctly identified.

Under the least resrictive environment (LRE) provision of IDEA, public agencies must establish procedures to ensure that "to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities, including children in public or private institutions or other care facilities, are educated with children who are not disabled, and that special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily.⁴ The section 504 regulation at 34 CFR § 104.34 contains a similar provision.

The Secretary is concerned that the least restrictive environment provisions of the IDEA and Section 504 are interpreted, incorrectly to require the placement of some children who are deaf in programs that may not meet the individual student's educational nneds. Meeting the unique communication and related needs of a student who is deaf is a fundamental part of providing a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to the child. Any setting, including a regular classroom, that prevents a child who is deaf from receiving an appropriate education that meets his or her needs including communication needs is not the LRE for that individual child.

Placement decisions must be based on the child's IEP.⁵ Thus, the consideration of LRE as part of the placement decision must always be in the context of the LRE in which appropriate services can be provided. Any setting which does not meet the communication and related needs of a child who is deaf, and therefore does not allow for the provision of FAPE, cannot be considered the LRE for that child. The provision of FAPE is paramount, and the individual placement determination about LRE is to be considered within the context of FAPE.

The Secretary is concerned that some public agencies have misapplied the LRE provision by presuming that placements in or closer to the regular classroom are required for children who are deaf, without taking into consideration the range of communication and related needs that must be addressed in order to provide appropriate services. The Secretary recognizes that the regular classroom is an appropriate placement for some children who are deaf, but for others it is not. The decision as to what placement will provide FAPE for an individual deaf child — which includes a determination as to the LRE in which appropriate services can be made available to the child — must be made only after a full and complete IEP has been developed that addresses the full range of the child's needs.

The Secretary believes that consideration of the factors mentioned above will assist placement teams in identifying the needs of children who are deaf and will enable them to place children in the least restrictive environment appropriate to their needs.

The overriding rule regarding placement is that placement decisions must be made on an individual basis.⁶ As in previous policy guidance, the Secretary emphasizes that placement decisions may not be based on category of disability, the configuration of the delivery system, the availability of educational or related services, availability of space, or administrative convenience.

States and school districts also are advised that the potential harmful effect of the placement on the deaf child or the quality of services he or she needs must be considered in determining the LRE.

The Secretary recognizes that regular educational settings are appropriate and adaptable to meet the unique needs of particular children who are deaf. For others, a center or special school may be the least restrictive environment in which the child's unique needs can be met. A full range of alternative placements as described at 34 CFR 300.551(a) and (b)(1) of the IDEA regulations must be available to the extent necessary to implement each child's IEP. There are cases when the nature of the disability and the individual child's needs dictate a specialized setting that provides structured curriculum or special methods of teaching. Just as placement in the regular educational setting is required when it is appropriate for the unique needs of a child who is deaf, so is removal from the regular educational setting required when the child's needs cannot be met in that setting with the use of supplementary aids and services.
Procedural Safeguards
One important purpose of the procedural safeguards required under part B and the section S04 regulations is to ensure that parents are knowledgeable about their rights and about important decisions that public agencies make, such as placement decisions. Under the section 504 regulations at 34 CFR 104.36, a public agency must establish a system of procedural safeguards that includes, among other requirements, notice to parents with respect to placement decisions. Compliance with the part B procedural safeguards is one means of meeting the requirements of the section 504 regulations. Under part B, before a child is initially placed in special education the child's parents must be given written notice and must consent to the placement. The part B regulations at 34 CFR300.500(a) provide that consent means that parents have been fully informed of all information relevant to the placement decision. The obligation to fully inform parents includes informing the parents that the public agency is required to have a full continium of placement options available to meet the needs of children with disabilities, including instruction in regular classes, special classes, special schools, home instruction, and instruction in hospitals and institutions.

The part B regulations at 34 CFR 300.504 - 300.505 also require that parents must be given written notice a reasonable time before a public agency proposes to initiate or change the identification, evaluation, educational placement or provision of a free appropriate public education to the child. This notice to parents must include a description of the action proposed or refused by the agency, an explanation of why the agency proposes or refuses to take the action, and a description of any options the agency considered and the reasons why those options were rejected. The requirement to provide a description of any option considered includes a description of the types of placements that were actually considered , e.g., special school or regular class, as well as any specific schools that were actually considered and the reasons why these placement options were rejected. Providing this kind of information to parents will enable them to play a more knowledgeable and informed role in the education of their children.

1 The present status of education for persons who are deaf in the United States is unsatisfactory. Unacceptably so,. This is the primary and inescapable conclusion of the Commission on Education of the Deaf." Commission on Education of the Deaf: Toward Equality; Education of the Deaf. (February 1988).

2As stated in the IDEA, the purpose of the Act is * * * to assure that all children with disabilities have available to them * * * a free appropriate public education which emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs * * * (20 U.S.C. sec. 1408(c).

In addition, the section 504 regulations state:

A recipient (of federal financial assistance) that operates a public elementary or secondary education program shall provide a free appropriate public education to each qualified handicapped person * * * regardless of the nature or severity of the person's handicap. 34 CFR Section 104.33(a).

3Thomas E. Allen, "Patterns of Academic Achievement Among Hearing Impaired Students: 1974 and l983," in Deaf Children in America. 182-184. (Arthur N. Schildroth and Michael A. Karchman, eds. San Diego: College-Hill Press (1984)

4 20 U.S.C. sec. 1412(5)(B).

5 20 U.S.C. sec. 1401(18): see also 34 CFR 300.552(a)(2); and 34 CFR 104.33(b)(2).

6 34 CFR 300.552 Comment. See also Appendix A to 34 CFR 1O4.24.

Authority: 20 U.S.C. 1411 - 1420; 29 U.S.C. 794.
Dated: October 26, 1992.
Lamar Alexander.
Secretary.
(FR Doc. 92026319 Filed 10-29-92; 8:45 am)
BILLING CODE 4000-01-M

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disabilities; deafness; laws; policy; civil rights; education;

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Deaf Students Education Services; Policy Guidance, U.S. Department of Education

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This resource provides additional guidance for the appropriate educational service to students who are deaf.

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Introduction | Interrelationship of IDEA and Section 504 | Protected Students | Evaluation | Placement |
Procedural Safeguards | Terminology

This document is a revised version of a document originally developed by the Chicago Office of the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) in the U.S. Department of Education (ED) to clarify the requirements of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended (Section 504) in the area of public elementary and secondary education. The primary purpose of these revisions is to incorporate information about the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 (Amendments Act), effective January 1, 2009, which amended the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and included a conforming amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 that affects the meaning of disability in Section 504. The Amendments Act broadens the interpretation of disability. The Amendments Act does not require ED to amend its Section 504 regulations. ED's Section 504 regulations as currently written are valid and OCR is enforcing them consistent with the Amendments Act. In addition, OCR is currently evaluating the impact of the Amendments Act on OCR's enforcement responsibilities under Section 504 and Title II of the ADA, including whether any changes in regulations, guidance, or other publications are appropriate. The revisions to this Frequently Asked Questions document do not address the effects, if any, on Section 504 and Title II of the amendments to the regulations implementing the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that were published in the Federal Register at 73 Fed. Reg. 73006 (December 1, 2008).
INTRODUCTION
An important responsibility of the Office for Civil Rights (OCR) is to eliminate discrimination on the basis of disability against students with disabilities. OCR receives numerous complaints and inquiries in the area of elementary and secondary education involving Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, 29 U.S.C. § 794 (Section 504). Most of these concern identification of students who are protected by Section 504 and the means to obtain an appropriate education for such students.

Section 504 is a federal law designed to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive Federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education (ED). Section 504 provides: "No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States . . . shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance . . . ."

OCR enforces Section 504 in programs and activities that receive Federal financial assistance from ED. Recipients of this Federal financial assistance include public school districts, institutions of higher education, and other state and local education agencies. The regulations implementing Section 504 in the context of educational institutions appear at 34 C.F.R. Part 104.

The Section 504 regulations require a school district to provide a "free appropriate public education" (FAPE) to each qualified student with a disability who is in the school district's jurisdiction, regardless of the nature or severity of the disability. Under Section 504, FAPE consists of the provision of regular or special education and related aids and services designed to meet the student's individual educational needs as adequately as the needs of nondisabled students are met.

This resource document clarifies pertinent requirements of Section 504.

For additional information, please contact the Office for Civil Rights.
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF IDEA AND SECTION 504 1. What is the jurisdiction of the Office for Civil Rights (OCR), the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) and state departments of education/instruction regarding educational services to students with disabilities?
OCR, a component of the U.S. Department of Education, enforces Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, (Section 504) a civil rights statute which prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities. OCR also enforces Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (Title II), which extends this prohibition against discrimination to the full range of state and local government services, programs, and activities (including public schools) regardless of whether they receive any Federal financial assistance. The Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 (Amendments Act), effective January 1, 2009, amended the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and included a conforming amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Rehabilitation Act) that affects the meaning of disability in Section 504. The standards adopted by the ADA were designed not to restrict the rights or remedies available under Section 504. The Title II regulations applicable to free appropriate public education issues do not provide greater protection than applicable Section 504 regulations. This guidance focuses primarily on Section 504.

Section 504 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs or activities that receive Federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education. Title II prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by state and local governments. The Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS), also a component of the U.S. Department of Education, administers the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a statute which funds special education programs. Each state educational agency is responsible for administering IDEA within the state and distributing the funds for special education programs. IDEA is a grant statute and attaches many specific conditions to the receipt of Federal IDEA funds. Section 504 and the ADA are antidiscrimination laws and do not provide any type of funding.

2. How does OCR get involved in disability issues within a school district?

OCR receives complaints from parents, students or advocates, conducts agency initiated compliance reviews, and provides technical assistance to school districts, parents or advocates.

3. Where can a school district, parent, or student get information on Section 504 or find out information about OCR's interpretation of Section 504 and Title II?

OCR provides technical assistance to school districts, parents, and students upon request. Additionally, regulations and publicly issued policy guidance is available on OCR's website, at http://www.ed.gov/policy/rights/guid/ocr/disability.html.
4. What services are available for students with disabilities under Section 504?
Section 504 requires recipients to provide to students with disabilities appropriate educational services designed to meet the individual needs of such students to the same extent as the needs of students without disabilities are met. An appropriate education for a student with a disability under the Section 504 regulations could consist of education in regular classrooms, education in regular classes with supplementary services, and/or special education and related services.

5. Does OCR examine individual placement or other educational decisions for students with disabilities?

Except in extraordinary circumstances, OCR does not review the result of individual placement or other educational decisions so long as the school district complies with the procedural requirements of Section 504 relating to identification and location of students with disabilities, evaluation of such students, and due process. Accordingly, OCR generally will not evaluate the content of a Section 504 plan or of an individualized education program (IEP); rather, any disagreement can be resolved through a due process hearing. The hearing would be conducted under Section 504 or the IDEA, whichever is applicable.

OCR will examine procedures by which school districts identify and evaluate students with disabilities and the procedural safeguards which those school districts provide students. OCR will also examine incidents in which students with disabilities are allegedly subjected to treatment which is different from the treatment to which similarly situated students without disabilities are subjected. Such incidents may involve the unwarranted exclusion of disabled students from educational programs and services.

6. What protections does OCR provide against retaliation?

Retaliatory acts are prohibited. A recipient is prohibited from intimidating, threatening, coercing, or discriminating against any individual for the purpose of interfering with any right or privilege secured by Section 504.

7. Does OCR mediate complaints?

OCR does not engage in formal mediation. However, OCR may offer to facilitate mediation, referred to as "Early Complaint Resolution," to resolve a complaint filed under Section 504. This approach brings the parties together so that they may discuss possible resolution of the complaint immediately. If both parties are willing to utilize this approach, OCR will work with the parties to facilitate resolution by providing each an understanding of pertinent legal standards and possible remedies. An agreement reached between the parties is not monitored by OCR.

8. What does noncompliance with Section 504 mean?

A school district is out of compliance when it is violating any provision of the Section 504 statute or regulations.

9. What sanctions can OCR impose on a school district that is out of compliance?

OCR initially attempts to bring the school district into voluntary compliance through negotiation of a corrective action agreement. If OCR is unable to achieve voluntary compliance, OCR will initiate enforcement action. OCR may: (1) initiate administrative proceedings to terminate Department of Education financial assistance to the recipient; or (2) refer the case to the Department of Justice for judicial proceedings.

10. Who has ultimate authority to enforce Section 504?

In the educational context, OCR has been given administrative authority to enforce Section 504. Section 504 is a Federal statute that may be enforced through the Department's administrative process or through the Federal court system. In addition, a person may at any time file a private lawsuit against a school district. The Section 504 regulations do not contain a requirement that a person file a complaint with OCR and exhaust his or her administrative remedies before filing a private lawsuit.
STUDENTS PROTECTED UNDER SECTION 504
Section 504 covers qualified students with disabilities who attend schools receiving Federal financial assistance. To be protected under Section 504, a student must be determined to: (1) have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; or (2) have a record of such an impairment; or (3) be regarded as having such an impairment. Section 504 requires that school districts provide a free appropriate public education (FAPE) to qualified students in their jurisdictions who have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities.

11. What is a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity?

The determination of whether a student has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity must be made on the basis of an individual inquiry. The Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.3(j)(2)(i) defines a physical or mental impairment as any physiological disorder or condition, cosmetic disfigurement, or anatomical loss affecting one or more of the following body systems: neurological; musculoskeletal; special sense organs; respiratory, including speech organs; cardiovascular; reproductive; digestive; genito-urinary; hemic and lymphatic; skin; and endocrine; or any mental or psychological disorder, such as intellectual disabilities, organic brain syndrome, emotional or mental illness, and specific learning disabilities. The regulatory provision does not set forth an exhaustive list of specific diseases and conditions that may constitute physical or mental impairments because of the difficulty of ensuring the comprehensiveness of such a list.

Major life activities, as defined in the Section 504 regulations at 34 C.F.R. 104.3(j)(2)(ii), include functions such as caring for one's self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning, and working. This list is not exhaustive. Other functions can be major life activities for purposes of Section 504. In the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), Congress provided additional examples of general activities that are major life activities, including eating, sleeping, standing, lifting, bending, reading, concentrating, thinking, and communicating. Congress also provided a non-exhaustive list of examples of "major bodily functions" that are major life activities, such as the functions of the immune system, normal cell growth, digestive, bowel, bladder, neurological, brain, respiratory, circulatory, endocrine, and reproductive functions. The Section 504 regulatory provision, though not as comprehensive as the Amendments Act, is still valid - the Section 504 regulatory provision's list of examples of major life activities is not exclusive, and an activity or function not specifically listed in the Section 504 regulatory provision can nonetheless be a major life activity.

12. Does the meaning of the phrase "qualified student with a disability" differ on the basis of a student's educational level, i.e., elementary and secondary versus postsecondary?

Yes. At the elementary and secondary educational level, a "qualified student with a disability" is a student with a disability who is: of an age at which students without disabilities are provided elementary and secondary educational services; of an age at which it is mandatory under state law to provide elementary and secondary educational services to students with disabilities; or a student to whom a state is required to provide a free appropriate public education under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

At the postsecondary educational level, a qualified student with a disability is a student with a disability who meets the academic and technical standards requisite for admission or participation in the institution's educational program or activity.

13. Does the nature of services to which a student is entitled under Section 504 differ by educational level?

Yes. Public elementary and secondary recipients are required to provide a free appropriate public education to qualified students with disabilities. Such an education consists of regular or special education and related aids and services designed to meet the individual educational needs of students with disabilities as adequately as the needs of students without disabilities are met.

At the postsecondary level, the recipient is required to provide students with appropriate academic adjustments and auxiliary aids and services that are necessary to afford an individual with a disability an equal opportunity to participate in a school's program. Recipients are not required to make adjustments or provide aids or services that would result in a fundamental alteration of a recipient's program or impose an undue burden.

14. Once a student is identified as eligible for services under Section 504, is that student always entitled to such services?

Yes, as long as the student remains eligible. The protections of Section 504 extend only to individuals who meet the regulatory definition of a person with a disability. If a recipient school district re-evaluates a student in accordance with the Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35 and determines that the student's mental or physical impairment no longer substantially limits his/her ability to learn or any other major life activity, the student is no longer eligible for services under Section 504.

15. Are current illegal users of drugs excluded from protection under Section 504?

Generally, yes. Section 504 excludes from the definition of a student with a disability, and from Section 504 protection, any student who is currently engaging in the illegal use of drugs when a covered entity acts on the basis of such use. (There are exceptions for persons in rehabilitation programs who are no longer engaging in the illegal use of drugs).

16. Are current users of alcohol excluded from protection under Section 504?

No. Section 504's definition of a student with a disability does not exclude users of alcohol. However, Section 504 allows schools to take disciplinary action against students with disabilities using drugs or alcohol to the same extent as students without disabilities.
EVALUATION
At the elementary and secondary school level, determining whether a child is a qualified disabled student under Section 504 begins with the evaluation process. Section 504 requires the use of evaluation procedures that ensure that children are not misclassified, unnecessarily labeled as having a disability, or incorrectly placed, based on inappropriate selection, administration, or interpretation of evaluation materials.

17. What is an appropriate evaluation under Section 504?

Recipient school districts must establish standards and procedures for initial evaluations and periodic re-evaluations of students who need or are believed to need special education and/or related services because of disability. The Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35(b) requires school districts to individually evaluate a student before classifying the student as having a disability or providing the student with special education. Tests used for this purpose must be selected and administered so as best to ensure that the test results accurately reflect the student's aptitude or achievement or other factor being measured rather than reflect the student's disability, except where those are the factors being measured. Section 504 also requires that tests and other evaluation materials include those tailored to evaluate the specific areas of educational need and not merely those designed to provide a single intelligence quotient. The tests and other evaluation materials must be validated for the specific purpose for which they are used and appropriately administered by trained personnel.

18. How much is enough information to document that a student has a disability?

At the elementary and secondary education level, the amount of information required is determined by the multi-disciplinary committee gathered to evaluate the student. The committee should include persons knowledgeable about the student, the meaning of the evaluation data, and the placement options. The committee members must determine if they have enough information to make a knowledgeable decision as to whether or not the student has a disability. The Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35(c) requires that school districts draw from a variety of sources in the evaluation process so that the possibility of error is minimized. The information obtained from all such sources must be documented and all significant factors related to the student's learning process must be considered. These sources and factors may include aptitude and achievement tests, teacher recommendations, physical condition, social and cultural background, and adaptive behavior. In evaluating a student suspected of having a disability, it is unacceptable to rely on presumptions and stereotypes regarding persons with disabilities or classes of such persons. Compliance with the IDEA regarding the group of persons present when an evaluation or placement decision is made is satisfactory under Section 504.

19. What process should a school district use to identify students eligible for services under Section 504? Is it the same process as that employed in identifying students eligible for services under the IDEA?

School districts may use the same process to evaluate the needs of students under Section 504 as they use to evaluate the needs of students under the IDEA. If school districts choose to adopt a separate process for evaluating the needs of students under Section 504, they must follow the requirements for evaluation specified in the Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35.

20. May school districts consider "mitigating measures" used by a student in determining whether the student has a disability under Section 504?

No. As of January 1, 2009, school districts, in determining whether a student has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits that student in a major life activity, must not consider the ameliorating effects of any mitigating measures that student is using. This is a change from prior law. Before January 1, 2009, school districts had to consider a student's use of mitigating measures in determining whether that student had a physical or mental impairment that substantially limited that student in a major life activity. In the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), however, Congress specified that the ameliorative effects of mitigating measures must not be considered in determining if a person is an individual with a disability.

Congress did not define the term "mitigating measures" but rather provided a non-exhaustive list of "mitigating measures." The mitigating measures are as follows: medication; medical supplies, equipment or appliances; low-vision devices (which do not include ordinary eyeglasses or contact lenses); prosthetics (including limbs and devices); hearing aids and cochlear implants or other implantable hearing devices; mobility devices; oxygen therapy equipment and supplies; use of assistive technology; reasonable accommodations or auxiliary aids or services; and learned behavioral or adaptive neurological modifications.

Congress created one exception to the mitigating measures analysis. The ameliorative effects of the mitigating measures of ordinary eyeglasses or contact lenses shall be considered in determining if an impairment substantially limits a major life activity. "Ordinary eyeglasses or contact lenses" are lenses that are intended to fully correct visual acuity or eliminate refractive error, whereas "low-vision devices" (listed above) are devices that magnify, enhance, or otherwise augment a visual image.

21. Does OCR endorse a single formula or scale that measures substantial limitation?

No. The determination of substantial limitation must be made on a case-by-case basis with respect to each individual student. The Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R. 104.35 (c) requires that a group of knowledgeable persons draw upon information from a variety of sources in making this determination.

22. Are there any impairments which automatically mean that a student has a disability under Section 504?

No. An impairment in and of itself is not a disability. The impairment must substantially limit one or more major life activities in order to be considered a disability under Section 504.

23. Can a medical diagnosis suffice as an evaluation for the purpose of providing FAPE?

No. A physician's medical diagnosis may be considered among other sources in evaluating a student with an impairment or believed to have an impairment which substantially limits a major life activity. Other sources to be considered, along with the medical diagnosis, include aptitude and achievement tests, teacher recommendations, physical condition, social and cultural background, and adaptive behavior. As noted in FAQ 22, the Section 504 regulations require school districts to draw upon a variety of sources in interpreting evaluation data and making placement decisions.

24. Does a medical diagnosis of an illness automatically mean a student can receive services under Section 504?

No. A medical diagnosis of an illness does not automatically mean a student can receive servicesunder Section 504. The illness must cause a substantial limitation on the student's ability to learn or another major life activity. For example, a student who has a physical or mental impairment would not be considered a student in need of services under Section 504 if the impairment does not in any way limit the student's ability to learn or other major life activity, or only results in some minor limitation in that regard.

25. How should a recipient school district handle an outside independent evaluation? Do all data brought to a multi-disciplinary committee need to be considered and given equal weight?

The results of an outside independent evaluation may be one of many sources to consider. Multi-disciplinary committees must draw from a variety of sources in the evaluation process so that the possibility of error is minimized. All significant factors related to the subject student's learning process must be considered. These sources and factors include aptitude and achievement tests, teacher recommendations, physical condition, social and cultural background, and adaptive behavior, among others. Information from all sources must be documented and considered by knowledgeable committee members. The weight of the information is determined by the committee given the student's individual circumstances.

26. What should a recipient school district do if a parent refuses to consent to an initial evaluation under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), but demands a Section 504 plan for a student without further evaluation?

A school district must evaluate a student prior to providing services under Section 504. Section 504 requires informed parental permission for initial evaluations. If a parent refuses consent for an initial evaluation and a recipient school district suspects a student has a disability, the IDEA and Section 504 provide that school districts may use due process hearing procedures to seek to override the parents' denial of consent.

27. Who in the evaluation process makes the ultimate decision regarding a student's eligibility for services under Section 504?

The Section 504 regulatory provision at 34 C.F.R.104.35 (c) (3) requires that school districts ensure that the determination that a student is eligible for special education and/or related aids and services be made by a group of persons, including persons knowledgeable about the meaning of the evaluation data and knowledgeable about the placement options. If a parent disagrees with the determination, he or she may request a due process hearing.

28. Once a student is identified as eligible for services under Section 504, is there an annual or triennial review requirement? If so, what is the appropriate process to be used? Or is it appropriate to keep the same Section 504 plan in place indefinitely after a student has been identified?

Periodic re-evaluation is required. This may be conducted in accordance with the IDEA regulations, which require re-evaluation at three-year intervals (unless the parent and public agency agree that re-evaluation is unnecessary) or more frequently if conditions warrant, or if the child's parent or teacher requests a re-evaluation, but not more than once a year (unless the parent and public agency agree otherwise).

29. Is a Section 504 re-evaluation similar to an IDEA re-evaluation? How often should it be done?

Yes. Section 504 specifies that re-evaluations in accordance with the IDEA is one means of compliance with Section 504. The Section 504 regulations require that re-evaluations be conducted periodically. Section 504 also requires a school district to conduct a re-evaluation prior to a significant change of placement. OCR considers an exclusion from the educational program of more than 10 school days a significant change of placement. OCR would also consider transferring a student from one type of program to another or terminating or significantly reducing a related service a significant change in placement.

30. What is reasonable justification for referring a student for evaluation for services under Section 504?

School districts may always use regular education intervention strategies to assist students with difficulties in school. Section 504 requires recipient school districts to refer a student for an evaluation for possible special education or related aids and services or modification to regular education if the student, because of disability, needs or is believed to need such services.

31. A student is receiving services that the school district maintains are necessary under Section 504 in order to provide the student with an appropriate education. The student's parent no longer wants the student to receive those services. If the parent wishes to withdraw the student from a Section 504 plan, what can the school district do to ensure continuation of services?

The school district may initiate a Section 504 due process hearing to resolve the dispute if the district believes the student needs the services in order to receive an appropriate education.

32. A student has a disability referenced in the IDEA, but does not require special education services. Is such a student eligible for services under Section 504?

The student may be eligible for services under Section 504. The school district must determine whether the student has an impairment which substantially limits his or her ability to learn or another major life activity and, if so, make an individualized determination of the child's educational needs for regular or special education or related aids or services. For example, such a student may receive adjustments in the regular classroom.

33. How should a recipient school district view a temporary impairment?

A temporary impairment does not constitute a disability for purposes of Section 504 unless its severity is such that it results in a substantial limitation of one or more major life activities for an extended period of time. The issue of whether a temporary impairment is substantial enough to be a disability must be resolved on a case-by-case basis, taking into consideration both the duration (or expected duration) of the impairment and the extent to which it actually limits a major life activity of the affected individual.

In the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), Congress clarified that an individual is not "regarded as" an individual with a disability if the impairment is transitory and minor. A transitory impairment is an impairment with an actual or expected duration of 6 months or less.
34. Is an impairment that is episodic or in remission a disability under Section 504?
Yes, under certain circumstances. In the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), Congress clarified that an impairment that is episodic or in remission is a disability if it would substantially limit a major life activity when active. A student with such an impairment is entitled to a free appropriate public education under Section 504.
PLACEMENT
Once a student is identified as being eligible for regular or special education and related aids or services, a decision must be made regarding the type of services the student needs.

35. If a student is eligible for services under both the IDEA and Section 504, must a school district develop both an individualized education program (IEP) under the IDEA and a Section 504 plan under Section 504?

No. If a student is eligible under IDEA, he or she must have an IEP. Under the Section 504 regulations, one way to meet Section 504 requirements for a free appropriate public education is to implement an IEP.

36. Must a school district develop a Section 504 plan for a student who either "has a record of disability" or is "regarded as disabled"?

No. In public elementary and secondary schools, unless a student actually has an impairment that substantially limits a major life activity, the mere fact that a student has a "record of" or is "regarded as" disabled is insufficient, in itself, to trigger those Section 504 protections that require the provision of a free appropriate public education (FAPE). This is consistent with the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), in which Congress clarified that an individual who meets the definition of disability solely by virtue of being "regarded as" disabled is not entitled to reasonable accommodations or the reasonable modification of policies, practices or procedures. The phrases "has a record of disability" and "is regarded as disabled" are meant to reach the situation in which a student either does not currently have or never had a disability, but is treated by others as such.

As noted in FAQ 34, in the Amendments Act (see FAQ 1), Congress clarified that an individual is not "regarded as" an individual with a disability if the impairment is transitory and minor. A transitory impairment is an impairment with an actual or expected duration of 6 months or less.

37. What is the receiving school district's responsibility under Section 504 toward a student with a Section 504 plan who transfers from another district?

If a student with a disability transfers to a district from another school district with a Section 504 plan, the receiving district should review the plan and supporting documentation. If a group of persons at the receiving school district, including persons knowledgeable about the meaning of the evaluation data and knowledgeable about the placement options determines that the plan is appropriate, the district is required to implement the plan. If the district determines that the plan is inappropriate, the district is to evaluate the student consistent with the Section 504 procedures at 34 C.F.R. 104.35 and determine which educational program is appropriate for the student. There is no Section 504 bar to the receiving school district honoring the previous IEP during the interim period. Information about IDEA requirements when a student transfers is available from the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services at http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CQaCorner%2C3%2C

40. What are the responsibilities of regular education teachers with respect to implementation of Section 504 plans? What are the consequences if the district fails to implement the plans?

Regular education teachers must implement the provisions of Section 504 plans when those plans govern the teachers' treatment of students for whom they are responsible. If the teachers fail to implement the plans, such failure can cause the school district to be in noncompliance with Section 504.

41. What is the difference between a regular education intervention plan and a Section 504 plan?

A regular education intervention plan is appropriate for a student who does not have a disability or is not suspected of having a disability but may be facing challenges in school. School districts vary in how they address performance problems of regular education students. Some districts employ teams at individual schools, commonly referred to as "building teams." These teams are designed to provide regular education classroom teachers with instructional support and strategies for helping students in need of assistance. These teams are typically composed of regular and special education teachers who provide ideas to classroom teachers on methods for helping students experiencing academic or behavioral problems. The team usually records its ideas in a written regular education intervention plan. The team meets with an affected student's classroom teacher(s) and recommends strategies to address the student's problems within the regular education environment. The team then follows the responsible teacher(s) to determine whether the student's performance or behavior has improved. In addition to building teams, districts may utilize other regular education intervention methods, including before-school and after-school programs, tutoring programs, and mentoring programs.
PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS
Public elementary and secondary schools must employ procedural safeguards regarding the identification, evaluation, or educational placement of persons who, because of disability, need or are believed to need special instruction or related services.

42. Must a recipient school district obtain parental consent prior to conducting an initial evaluation?

Yes. OCR has interpreted Section 504 to require districts to obtain parental permission for initial evaluations. If a district suspects a student needs or is believed to need special instruction or related services and parental consent is withheld, the IDEA and Section 504 provide that districts may use due process hearing procedures to seek to override the parents' denial of consent for an initial evaluation.

43. If so, in what form is consent required?

Section 504 is silent on the form of parental consent required. OCR has accepted written consent as compliance. IDEA as well as many state laws also require written consent prior to initiating an evaluation.

44. What can a recipient school district do if a parent withholds consent for a student to secure services under Section 504 after a student is determined eligible for services?

Section 504 neither prohibits nor requires a school district to initiate a due process hearing to override a parental refusal to consent with respect to the initial provision of special education and related services. Nonetheless, school districts should consider that IDEA no longer permits school districts to initiate a due process hearing to override a parental refusal to consent to the initial provision of services.

45. What procedural safeguards are required under Section 504?

Recipient school districts are required to establish and implement procedural safeguards that include notice, an opportunity for parents to review relevant records, an impartial hearing with opportunity for participation by the student's parents or guardian, representation by counsel and a review procedure.
46. What is a recipient school district's responsibility under Section 504 to provide information to parents and students about its evaluation and placement process?
Section 504 requires districts to provide notice to parents explaining any evaluation and placement decisions affecting their children and explaining the parents' right to review educational records and appeal any decision regarding evaluation and placement through an impartial hearing.

47. Is there a mediation requirement under Section 504?

No.
TERMINOLOGY
The following terms may be confusing and/or are frequently used incorrectly in the elementary and secondary school context.

Equal access: equal opportunity of a qualified person with a disability to participate in or benefit from educational aid, benefits, or services

Free appropriate public education (FAPE): a term used in the elementary and secondary school context; for purposes of Section 504, refers to the provision of regular or special education and related aids and services that are designed to meet individual educational needs of students with disabilities as adequately as the needs of students without disabilities are met and is based upon adherence to procedures that satisfy the Section 504 requirements pertaining to educational setting, evaluation and placement, and procedural safeguards

Placement: a term used in the elementary and secondary school context; refers to regular and/or special educational program in which a student receives educational and/or related services

Reasonable accommodation: a term used in the employment context to refer to modifications or adjustments employers make to a job application process, the work environment, the manner or circumstances under which the position held or desired is customarily performed, or that enable a covered entity's employee with a disability to enjoy equal benefits and privileges of employment; this term is sometimes used incorrectly to refer to related aids and services in the elementary and secondary school context or to refer to academic adjustments, reasonable modifications, and auxiliary aids and services in the postsecondary school context

Reasonable modifications: under a regulatory provision implementing Title II of the ADA, public entities are required to make reasonable modifications in policies, practices, or procedures when the modifications are necessary to avoid discrimination on the basis of disability, unless the public entity can demonstrate that making the modifications would fundamentally alter the nature of the service, program, or activity

Related services: a term used in the elementary and secondary school context to refer to developmental, corrective, and other supportive services, including psychological, counseling and medical diagnostic services and transportation

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special education; disabilities; disability discrimination; fape; free appropriate public education

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Frequently Asked Questions about Section 504 requirements for the education by school districts of students with disabilities

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Placement of School Children With Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

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Placement of School Children With Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

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diseases; discrimination; civil rights; student rights; laws; schools;

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Placement of School Children With Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

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This pamphlet describes the requirements of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, with respect to elementary and secondary school policies involving the placement of children with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS.

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Fact Sheet: Harassment based on Race, Color, or National Origin on School Campuses

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Fact Sheet: Harassment based on Race, Color, or National Origin on School Campuses

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Fact Sheet- Harassment based on Race, Color, or National Origin on School Campuses

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How to Facilitate Greater Success Among Minority Students

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How to Facilitate Greater Success Among Minority Students

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How to Facilitate Greater Success Among Minority Students - Graduate Programs for Educators

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Minority students unfortunately face more hurdles than their non-minority peers. Learn how to facilitate great success among minority students

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How to support students of color: Advice for teachers

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How to support students of color: Advice for teachers

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Today's classrooms are becoming increasingly diverse - and this trend shows no signs of stopping. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) predicts the portion of public elementary and secondary school students who are white will decrease to 44 percent by 2029 as the share of minority students continues to grow. This scenario presents a unique opportunity for teachers.

While educators like you are committed to ensuring every student receives the same caliber of instruction, it's impossible to deny the barriers that students of color face. For years, research has shown that these hurdles result in minority students being more likely to struggle academically, drop out of school and experience disciplinary action.

The solution isn't as simple as educating every learner in exactly the same way. Dr. Hawani Negussie, assistant professor of early childhood education at University of Massachusetts Global, says teachers need to go the extra step of gaining a deeper sense of who each student is.

"Treating all kids the same means understanding where those children are coming from," she offers. "Once you understand how marginalized communities live, then you can really bring who they are to the forefront in the classroom."

To properly support students of color, you need to make a concerted effort. Dr. Negussie recommends teachers leverage culturally relevant pedagogy, which can help all students achieve success. Keep reading to deepen your understanding of this approach and how to apply it in your classroom.

Exploring culturally relevant pedagogy and how it supports students of color

According to a recent University of Massachusetts Global webinar, the first step toward adequately supporting students of color is to understand that the system itself is fundamentally inequitable. Unfortunately, society has reinforced this divide again and again. Dr. Negussie provides an illustration of how this can happen in the classroom.

"When we make one group more dominant in the books we use, we're telling the other groups they don't belong," She explains. "And the children who are represented in those books are unknowingly growing with the idea that they matter more."

Only after acknowledging the systemically inherent obstacles minority students are up against is it possible to start working toward a learning environment that's effective for every student. This is exactly what pioneering teacher and researcher Dr. Gloria Ladson-Billings did beginning in the 1990s. Dr. Ladson-Billings began looking for ways to close the achievement gap by studying teachers whose students of color were actually quite successful. Some commonalities emerged, which informed the framework for what she termed "culturally relevant pedagogy." According to Dr. Ladson-Billings, there are three main pillars that support this approach to education:

1. Academic success - Facilitating intellectual growth among students as a result of their classroom learning experiences.

2. Cultural competence - Helping students recognize and celebrate their own culture while gaining knowledge and appreciation for those of others.

3. Sociopolitical consciousness - Demonstrating how classroom knowledge and skills can be applied to identify and solve real-life problems.

There's plenty of evidence to suggest this approach to education is effective. Research has shown that culturally relevant education can improve academic outcomes and helps students develop a sense of racial identity. One study even shows that culturally responsive teaching is associated with positive student behavior. From a logical perspective, this all makes sense.

"When we connect lessons to who students are, then they're able to integrate or assimilate whatever it is they're being taught in a more profound way," Dr. Negussie says. "By profound, I mean they can connect it to their learned experiences, which they can now translate into knowledge."

It's also important to remember that, when leveraged properly, culturally relevant teaching creates a more inclusive classroom that benefits all students. It helps students learn not only from you, but also from one another.

How to implement culturally relevant pedagogy in your classroom

You're not alone if you feel intimidated about moving toward a more equitable classroom. But keep in mind that even small improvements can help. Dr. Negussie recommends teachers get started by reading material from experts like Dr. Gloria Ladson-Billings, Dr. Tara Yosso, Dr. Luis Moll and Dr. James Banks.

It can be particularly helpful to think about the four levels of culturally relevant pedagogy incorporation as outlined by Dr. Banks:

1. The Contributions Approach - This entails incorporating some opportunities for students to see themselves represented in the material.

2. The Ethnic Additive Approach - With this approach, the curriculum isn't fully restructured, but it includes more culturally diverse content.

3. The Transformative Approach - Classrooms that have reached this stage infuse various perspectives into the curriculum and enable students to view concepts and problems from other points of view.

4. The Decision-Making and Social Action Approach - This final level builds off the previous one by adding elements that allow students to make decisions and act on an issue they've studied.

Even with an understanding of where you fall on the above spectrum, it can be difficult to determine some concrete next steps. What are some specific ways you can make progress? Try focusing on the primary strategies outlined below.

Learn about students and form relationships

Relationships are really the foundation of culturally relevant education that adequately supports students of color. Teachers should gather as much information from individual students as they can. What are their interests? How do they like to learn? It's also important to gather information about students' families.

"I would start by connecting with parents," Dr. Negussie recommends. "I think we tend to underestimate parents who come from underserved communities. We judge them from what we see or what the media has told us, which causes us to minimize their contributions." She also recommends getting more involved with the larger community.

Alter the curriculum as needed

Gaining a better sense of who students are can provide teachers with countless ideas on how they might alter the curriculum. Consider which topics might resonate best with students, including music, cultural customs, history, politics and current events. Then, find ways to include those elements into the teaching materials and instruction. This can work for any subject - even math.

"When you're thinking about how to teach children about multiplication, challenge yourself to find numbers or concepts that are drawn from different countries," Dr. Negussie recommends.

Adjust how you teach to engage students

Having a sound curriculum is important, but it's the delivery that really makes culturally relevant teaching take root. While it might seem impossible to determine whether you're successfully meeting students' needs until a test or assignment, it's often a matter of continuing the conversation with families.

"Gather formal or informal assessments from parents," Dr. Negussie suggests. "Ask, 'How am I doing? Do you feel that I'm reflecting who you are in my classroom?'"

Meeting each student where they are is one of the hallmark qualities of a good teacher, so focus on engaging every student. Some learners will inevitably be more inclined to speak up, but it's important to encourage others to join the conversation. Doing so can help ensure that students of color receive the best possible education experience.

"Children know when we're invested in them," Dr. Negussie explains. "When they can use who they are to absorb the material and we invest in who they are, they will excel in their learning."

Establish an equitable classroom

There's clearly a lot that teachers can do to support students of color. It just takes the right approach. By implementing culturally relevant pedagogy, you can ensure that every student is given the opportunity to excel in school.

While it's encouraging to know that you could enact meaningful change in your own classroom, you might be itching to make an even greater impact. Believe it or not, it's possible to have a say in teaching practices and policies across your school and even your district. Find out how you can step into a more influential role by reading "Teacher leadership: Ways to make an impact in education."

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supporting students of color in higher education

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How to support students of color: Advice for teachers - UMass Global

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Creating a learning environment that's effective for all learners requires that you adequately support students of color. Find out how.

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Play therapy is what I use when working with younger kiddos! I personally use more of a non-directive, Child Centered approach, but there are times I sprinkle in more structured activities like Adlerian. If you are interested in learning more about play therapy, or these skills are great for your own kiddos!, take a look.

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I do not own or have copyrights for majority of these posts and information. The posts that include something that I have created, it will specifically say within the description.

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