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Speechise: Free Text to Speech Online with Natural Voices

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Hassle-free online text to speech converter.

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Cooperative Learning Strategies for Building Relationship Skills in Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

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Cooperative Learning Strategies for Building Relationship Skills in Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

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Cooperative group activities in classrooms provide an opportunity for children to learn and demonstrate relationship skills, particularly when clear expectations and explicit instruction are provided. Relationship skills are one of the five competency areas of social and emotional learning. This article provides directions and illustrations for using cooperative group activities to improve the relationship skills of students with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders.

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The "Five Pillars of Reading" framework identifies the key components essential for proficient reading development. These five pillars work synergistically to support reading proficiency. Instruction and interventions targeting these areas help individuals develop strong foundational skills and become proficient readers. By comprehensively addressing the Five Pillars of Reading components, educators can effectively promote literacy development and support learners of all ages and abilities.

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Concourse Village Elementary School

In education, few things are as fundamental as the ability to read.

Educators have long debated the most effective way to teach young people how to read. For decades, a key part of this debate was between structured phonics instruction and a more "whole language" approach. The whole language approach encouraged learners to use context and visual clues to decipher unfamiliar words, providing a contrast to "sounding them out" with a structured dissection of words through phonics.

Now, schools and educators are embracing a long-standing body of research cumulatively referred to as the "science of reading," which highlights the importance of explicit and repeated phonics instruction.

Through the lens of the science of reading, we have a revolutionary opportunity to transform understanding into action, and potential into achievement. Read on to discover more about the science of reading and the five pillars of reading instruction-including examples of implementation from partners on the Innovative Models Exchange.

What Is the Science of Reading?

The science of reading is an evidence-based pedagogy rooted in learning science, a cross-disciplinary area of research that combines psychology, education, cognitive sciences, neo-science, and other disciplines to explain how a person learns.

Pedagogy and instruction based on the science of reading takes a structured approach to helping students become skilled, fluent readers based on the understanding that reading comprehension is the product of two components: word recognition and language comprehension. In other words, children need to be able to sound out a word and decipher the meaning of the word to understand what they've read.

A large recent cultural shift toward the science of reading has led to more educators introducing explicit and dedicated phonics instruction in early grades to build and solidify foundational literacy skills.

What Are the Five Pillars of Reading Instruction?

Research further identifies five pillars of reading schools can focus on to help children learn to read:

Phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency are skills that help readers learn word recognition skills, while vocabulary and text comprehension contribute to language comprehension development. These components build on each other to help readers establish foundational skills they need to comprehend the text they're engaging with.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the pillar of reading focusing on understanding that spoken words are made up of separate units of sound blended together when words are pronounced. Once's Early-Reading tutoring model builds phonemic awareness through daily one-on-one tutoring where students are introduced to a new phoneme in a visual and auditory manner. From there, learners practice blending and segmenting, rhyming, and word reading. All the while, students build meaningful relationships with staff.

"Having on-site staff who are already on the school payroll facilitate tutoring has a number of benefits. First, tutoring costs fall dramatically when you leverage people already in the building rather than outsourcing that work to people who do not work at the school," says Once CEO Matt Pasternack. "Second, the tutors can build meaningful, lasting relationships with students that can persist long after the year of Once instruction, since the tutors remain in the building with students and encounter them year after year. Third, by upskilling existing on-site staff through Once, we help districts enhance their para-to-teacher pipeline, which is often a key teacher recruitment source for districts."

Phonics

Phonics refers to the breakdown of written words into letters and sounds, which allows readers to decode words as they read. In Ignite! Reading's virtual tutoring model, students meet daily with an instructor who takes them through a lesson that focuses on word recognition. The lessons start with basic alphabet knowledge and work their way up to multisyllabic decoding.

"Online tutoring gives schools the capacity to deliver differentiated instruction to every student one-to-one so that all students receive the precise instruction and volume of practice they require," says Ignite! Reading Co-founder and CEO Jessica Sliwerski. "It strengthens MTSS because every student is receiving support matched to their skills and levels of need."

Fluency

Fluency refers to the ability to read text accurately, quickly, and with proper expression. This pillar of reading applies not only to individual words but also to connected text such as sentences, paragraphs, and full passages of a story or article. Research shows that as reading fluency improves, students spend less of their working memory on figuring out individual words-freeing up more space to focus on understanding the overall meaning of what they read.

To that end, Literacy Architects' Literacy Masterminds uses a variety of research-based techniques to improve fluency to help students work towards this goal including modeling reading, choral reading, echo reading, and more.

Vocabulary

The explicit integration of vocabulary instruction helps build students' recognition of words. In the Success For All Tutoring model, learners practice vocabulary words and demonstrate mastery by choosing the correct word in a sentence where the word has been removed. The Groves Literacy model uses a structured 30-minute daily lesson that blends visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic components to build vocabulary. Students might use magnetic boards and alphabet tiles to build words. Each lesson roughly follows the same format that touches on different aspects of the science of reading.

Text Comprehension

Comprehension happens when readers move beyond merely identifying letters and words to piecing them together to unlock meanings and grasp the knowledge contained in text. Comprehension is the last of the five pillars of reading and the final goal of literacy instruction-where black-and-white sentences are translated into colorful understanding.

AIM Institute for Learning & Research's Integrated Literacy Model teaches every component of the science of reading, and takes an interdisciplinary approach to reach comprehension. Interactive Humanities is a highly scholastic, arts-based approach that develops literacy skills across academic disciplines, including civics, geography, history, and literature. Students are immersed in a time period, wearing costumes as they discover historical events, learn key vocabulary, and participate in art projects. This helps students build background knowledge that can help inform key literacy practices.

Explore the Science Of Reading Models

The Innovative Models Exchange has several models that feature the five pillars of reading and the science of reading:

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The Five Pillars of Reading: Transforming Literacy with the Science of Reading - Transcend Education

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Explore the Five Pillars of Reading and learn how to successfully implement them into early literacy instruction.

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Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers

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Effective Instruction for Adolescent Struggling Readers

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Effective instruction for adolescent struggling readers is crucial for helping them overcome challenges and develop strong literacy skills.

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APA 7th Edition: Set up an APA Format Paper in 6 Minutes | Scribbr 🎓

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Guided reading is a powerful instructional approach that can be tailored to meet the diverse needs of young children with disabilities. This method provides targeted support and individualized instruction to help children develop their reading skills and build confidence as readers. By incorporating specific strategies and accommodations, educators can create a supportive learning environment where all children can thrive.

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Edmonton Regional Learning Consortium - ERLC

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With Canva's intuitive interface and extensive design elements library, you can create professional-looking infographics quickly. Experiment with different templates, layouts, and styles to find what works best for your needs.

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By engaging multiple senses simultaneously, the multisensory approach accommodates diverse learning preferences and strengthens neural pathways, making learning more accessible and effective for all students. This approach is particularly beneficial for students with learning differences or disabilities, as it provides multiple pathways for accessing and processing information, ultimately fostering greater understanding and academic success.

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 Intervention Research for Students With Emotional and Behavior Disorders

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 Intervention Research for Students With Emotional and Behavior Disorders

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Researchers have been working diligently to build the evidence base for what works for youth with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). As the evidence base grows, the field must investigate what works, for whom, and under what conditions. To begin to address for whom the mounting evidence is applicable, this study systematically reviewed demographic sampling in 22 intervention studies investigating six instructional practices that target academic outcomes (i.e., classroom-wide peer tutoring, increased opportunities to respond, peer-assisted learning strategies, self-monitoring, pre-correction, and direct/explicit instruction) for students receiving services for emotional disturbance and at-risk for EBD published from 2005 to 2015. represented.

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Vocabulary Interventions for Students Identified with Emotional Disturbance

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Vocabulary Interventions for Students Identified with Emotional Disturbance

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The purpose of this comprehensive literature review was to identify and review the available intervention research targeting the vocabulary knowledge of students with ED.

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Effects of Student Choice of Instructional Method on the Learning Outcomes of Students With Comorbid Learning and Emotional/Behavioral Disabilities

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Effects of Student Choice of Instructional Method on the Learning Outcomes of Students With Comorbid Learning and Emotional/Behavioral Disabilities

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The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine whether learning preferences of secondary students identified with concomitant learning disabilities (LD) and emotional disturbance (ED) align with the instructional method with which they best learned mathematics.

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Fostering a culture of motivation and enthusiasm for reading in middle school involves creating a supportive and engaging environment that celebrates diverse interests, promotes choice and autonomy, and provides opportunities for exploration, discussion, and reflection. By nurturing motivated readers, educators can cultivate a lifelong love of reading and empower students to become independent, critical thinkers and lifelong learners.

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How I Trick My Middle Schoolers Into Enjoying Reading

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Learning Disabilities: In the life of an LD Child

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Learning Disabilities: In the life of an LD Child

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The best source of understanding for students and individuals with Learning Disabilities (LD).

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How Difficult Can This Be- The F.A.T City Workshop

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Teaching critical reading skills involves equipping students with the tools and strategies to engage thoughtfully with written texts, enabling them to analyze, evaluate, and interpret information effectively. This process goes beyond surface-level comprehension and encourages students to question, synthesize, and draw meaningful conclusions from the material they encounter.

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Increasing your vocabulary through reading is a highly effective and enjoyable way to enhance your language skills and communication abilities. Reading extensively is a powerful method for increasing your vocabulary because it provides exposure to a wide range of words in diverse contexts, promotes naturalistic learning, reinforces word usage and spelling, and enhances overall language proficiency. By making reading a regular habit and exploring a variety of written materials, you can continually enrich your vocabulary and deepen your understanding of language.

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Teaching your kids to love reading is one of the most valuable gifts you can give them. Cultivating a love for reading not only enriches their lives but also lays the foundation for academic success and lifelong learning. You can inspire and empower your children to develop a lifelong love of reading that will enrich their lives and open up endless possibilities for learning and growth.

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Helping students stay motivated to read is essential for fostering a lifelong love of reading and maximizing academic success. Educators can create a motivating and supportive reading environment that encourages students to develop a lifelong habit of reading for pleasure, personal growth, and academic success.

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How to stay motivated to read every day in 2023

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Does multisensory instruction have particular value for children with dyslexia?

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Top 5 Multi-Sensory Activities and Why We Love Them

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Critical reading skills are essential abilities that enable individuals to analyze, evaluate, and interpret written texts effectively. These skills go beyond basic comprehension and involve actively engaging with the material to discern deeper meanings, identify arguments, assess evidence, and evaluate the author's perspective and credibility.

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How to be a creative thinker | Carnegie Mellon University Po-Shen Loh

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This tool will help improve your critical thinking - Erick Wilberding

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Reading strategies are techniques and approaches that readers use to comprehend, analyze, and engage with written texts effectively. These strategies help readers navigate complex material, extract key information, and enhance understanding. They can be applied across various genres and subject areas, making them essential tools for academic success and lifelong learning. By incorporating these strategies into their reading routines, readers can improve comprehension, critical thinking skills, and overall reading proficiency across a wide range of texts and purposes.

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Reading strategies (Critical reading #1)

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Developing critical reading skills empowers individuals to engage critically with information, think analytically, and make informed judgments. These skills are invaluable for academic success, professional growth, and active participation in civic life.

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Canva is a free-to-use online graphic design tool. Use it to create social media posts, presentations, posters, videos, logos and more.

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The NYSED's Culturally Responsive-Sustaining Education (CRSE) is designed to foster inclusive learning environments that honor diverse cultures, backgrounds, and identities.

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Understanding by Design (UbD) is an educational framework that emphasizes backward design, where educators start with the end goals in mind and then design curriculum and assessments to achieve those goals.

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Margaret Reaves, Rigo Chapparo, J. C. Bunch, and Carla B. Jagger

Introduction

Educators serve as designers for curriculum by creating learning experiences that meet specific learning objectives for learners. The effectiveness of curricular designs is determined by whether the learners have met the specified learning goals. While the standards of what is taught often depend on whether the instruction is through formal or non-formal education, there should be a clear guide for what the student should understand and be able to do as a result of the instruction. Rather than focusing on what learning activities to offer, instructors should first plan what the learning outcomes are for their students. Using Understanding by Design (UbD) as an approach to designing curriculum allows instructors to focus on the desired learning outcomes and provide structure for student learning (Wiggins &McTighe, 2005). Using this approach, as opposed to other forms of curriculum planning, makes instructors in teaching and Extension focus primarily on the learning outcomes rather than the learning process.

What is backwards design?

The Backwards Design model focuses on learning goals as a result of instruction before planning learning activities and teaching methods. While it is important to think about what content to teach and how you would like to teach it, the focus should first be on the desired outcomes of the curriculum. Using a backwards design offers a concrete way of communicating learning expectations. Creating a clear set of learning expectations using Understanding by Design often creates higher student achievement because the organized approach outlines what is to be learned at the end of a lesson or unit. Wiggins and McTighe (2005) described Understanding by Design through three stages: a) identify desired results, b) determine acceptable evidence, and c) plan learning experiences and instruction (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.
Credit: Wiggins & McTighe (2005)

Stage 1: Identify Desired Results

When identifying desired results, the instructor should examine the content standards to be taught and develop instructional objectives (for more information on how to create instructional objectives, see EDIS WC245/AEC583 Writing Instructional Objectives, https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/wc245). Additionally, the instructor should review the scope and sequence of what is to be taught. As a result of reviewing the scope and sequence, instructors might find a plethora of content about which they would like to teach. However, it is important to prioritize and condense the content for clarity in an order that flows logically. Finally, it is important to be specific as possible when identifying desired results (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). When determining desired results, some important questions to consider should be:

What should learners be able to do, know, and understand at the end of instruction?

What content should I be teaching?

In what order should I be teaching content?

What long-term understandings are desired at the end of instruction?

Stage 2: Determine Acceptable Evidence

The instructor should begin to think about how he or she will collect evidence of learning during Stage 2. This stage often involves the instructor thinking more about how they will provide evidence of student learning and proficiency before deciding how they will teach the knowledge and skills to be taught. Typically, evidence of student learning is collected in the form of assessments (i.e., quizzes, tests, projects, etc.). The assessments created should align with the desired learning results established. The Six Facets of Understanding, explained below, provides a framework on how to critically measure instructional objectives (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Some important questions to consider should be:

How will I know if learners have achieved the desired results?

What is acceptable evidence for student achievement?

Stage 3: Plan Learning Experiences & Instruction

Once desired results and evidence for understanding have been established, it is appropriate to begin planning instructional activities. Instructional activities should be purposeful in helping to establish clearly defined instructional goals while leading back to assessments created in Stage 2 (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). The instructor should consider the learners' prior knowledge and skills when creating instructional objectives in order to challenge learners while providing scaffolding opportunities. The WHERETO elements, described below, serve as a framework for best practices when creating learning experiences and instruction. Figure 1 shows that Stage 3 is the last step because it should take into consideration the desired results and the assessments that will be collected from the learners. Some questions to consider include:

What knowledge and skills will learners need to effectively perform and achieve the desired results?

How can my learning activities that I have selected help my learners gain the knowledge and skills?

How should the skills and knowledge being assessed be coached?

What materials and resources are needed to meet my instructional goals?

Six Facets of Understanding

The Six Facets of Understanding offers a comprehensive approach in determining acceptable evidence of key ideas, concepts, and knowledge. The term "understand" is simply too broad of a term to use when measuring student learning. Therefore, the Six Facets of Understanding offers a specific approach in how the instructor would assess student learning (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

Explanation

Explanation is the ability to describe illustrations, theories, events, ideas, or actions. In this facet of understanding, the learner must make an account of how things work, why they work, why certain events occurred, and what they imply. This facet of understanding was first coined by Dewey (1933), who described this facet through explanation of things by noting how things work or operate, how certain things relate to one another, what are the results of those things occurring, and why certain things happen the way they do.

An example of this in an Animal Science class may include having learners explain the cattle estrous system through multiple short-answer responses. The instructor may ask for the function of certain hormones, the length of each phase, or have learners explain the estrus (standing heat) phase.

Interpretation

Interpretation is the ability to make meaning of information through narratives, data, experiences, and translations. Interpretation can be demonstrated through a variety of assessment strategies, such as interpreting significance through events, data, experiences, storytelling, or perception of particular facts. Interpretation assists learners to make sense of why certain concepts matter or how certain learning objectives relate to them (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

An example of this in a horticulture class may be through a fertilizer lab. In lab, the instructor might ask learners to read a section of the lab report to determine the fertilizer needs of a certain plant. At the conclusion of the lab, the instructor might ask learners to interpret some of the data produced by the class. In the lab report, the instructor might ask learners what they have concluded and have learners reflection on how their observations and data led to their conclusions.

Application

Application involves using knowledge in diverse or new situations in a real context. Learners often show proficiency in application through using knowledge and adapting it in situations that require them to synthesize about the task. Application is a skills-based approach. Kolb (1984) was one of the first to describe this facet of understanding through the experiential learning cycle, which is described as four part cycles: a) concrete experience, b) reflective observation, c) abstract conceptualization, and d) active experimentation.

1. Concrete Experience: the learner encounters a new experience, or something similar to what they have experienced before.

2. Reflective Observation: the learner reflects on the experience and understanding of important concepts.

3. Abstract Conceptualization: the learner uses reflections to conceptualize new ideas.

4. Active Experimentation: the learner applies a new idea to the world around them to see results.

Application is often measured through performance-based learning (Kolb, 1984; Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

An example of this in a Food Science course may be through a class field trip to a local farm-to-table community garden facility. Many of the learners have never been to a facility like this in the past. At the conclusion of the field trip, the instructor asks the learners to reflect on some of the benefits provided to the community through the facility. Learners then use their reflections from their experience to create their own marketing plan for a farm-to-table community garden facility.

Perspective

Perspective is the ability to critically think through contexts using various points of view to help answer a complex question or issue. Using perspective often helps build critical- thinking skills in learners by examining conclusions, implications, traditions, or assumptions created.

An example of this in an Agricultural Foundations course may include hosting a debate in class on views regarding genetically modified food products. The instructor may ask learners to think about their viewpoint as to which they most agree with - pro-GMO or non-GMO. Once the instructor has collected learner viewpoints, the instructor would divide learners into groups based on viewpoints. Learners must use critical thinking skills to create a presentation respectfully conveying their point of view, how it differs from the opposing side, and suggest ways to determine which viewpoint is better for various societies to support.

Empathy

Empathy involves having learners go inside another person's feelings or worldview. Being able to feel for others offers an emotional perspective for learners. Empathy differs from perspective in that it does not allow us to detach the learner in an objective manner. Empathy allows the learner to go beyond his or her own opinion to making emotional meaning (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

In an Agricultural Foundations course, empathy may be used when discussing the common challenges that agriculturalists are currently facing. By respectfully enlightening students to some common struggles of farmers and ranchers, some of which may be occurring in their own community, the instructor is able to set emotional contexts for learners. The instructor may discuss some of the alternatives considered in the decision to close a farm/ranch, and ask learners to create an action plan for their community to solve some of the local issues.

Self-Knowledge

Self-knowledge is the ability to understand the limitations of one's knowledge in understanding an idea or concept. To reach self-knowledge, learners must be familiar with their limitation to understanding, as well as understand what each piece of information may mean to them. While it is impossible to remove bias, it is important to limit the amount of bias given in instruction. This involves not over-generalizing assumptions that are made in learning (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). An example of this could be in an Agricultural Mechanics course. The instructor may have learners troubleshoot four different small engines to solve common issues. By doing this activity, the learners become aware of their current self-knowledge.

The WHERETO Elements

WHERETO is an acronym used to highlight key considerations of instructional design. The WHERETO elements can serve as a recipe that assesses the planned learning experiences and instruction in Stage 3. WHERETO highlights include (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005):

W- Ensure that learners understand WHERE and the unit is headed and WHY. This can be done by posting essential questions on the board, beginning the unit of instruction with the learning objectives, or ending the lesson with something to think about for the next lesson or for an upcoming lesson.

H- You can HOOK learners in the beginning and HOLD their attention throughout. This can be done as an interest approach through questioning key ideas from the lesson before, asking learners to watch a short clip that ties into the lesson, or having something at the front of the classroom that is unusual or different. There are many other activities that may hook the learners into the lesson.

E- EQUIP learners with the necessary experiences, tools, knowledge, and expertise to meet performance goals. Learners should feel able to do specific tasks associated with the learning objective. This can be done through scaffolding from prior lessons to the current lesson.

R- Provide learners with numerous opportunities to RETHINK big ideas, REFLECT on progress, and REVISE their work. Instructors may be able to do so by allowing learners to reflect on assessments for partial credit, allowing for critiques on papers from instructor feedback, or allowing time for peer review on a project.

E- Build in opportunities for learners to EVALUATE progress and self-assess. Learners should be allowed to evaluate the work that they have given to the instructor through self-assessment given via a rubric.

T- Be TAILORED to reflect individual talents, interests, styles, and needs. This aspect requires knowing what your learners prefer. If the majority of your learners prefer creative tasks rather than writing tasks, the instructor should try to focus the instructional activities more around what interests them. Tailoring student learning can occur in other ways, such as providing learners the option to do pick an assignment of their choice.

O- Be ORGANIZED to optimize deep understanding as opposed to superficial coverage. The instructor should think of the key idea or concept as the main piece of instruction in a logical flow. Oftentimes, there needs to be a summative piece to a lesson that briefly identifies what you want the lesson to take away from the lesson of the day.

UbD Template

A backwards design outline often includes each of the three stages, as well as the WHERETO elements. Below is a common UbD template used for instructors that includes key design questions (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005).

Figure 2.
Credit: Wiggins & McTighe (2005), p. 22

Figure 3.
Credit: Wiggins & McTighe (2005)

Figure 4.
Credit: Wiggins & McTighe (2005)

Conclusion

Backward design is a purposeful way to design instruction, as it outlines specific results before planning instruction. Unlike other forms of lesson planning, it serves as a guide for identifying desired results, how learning will be assessed, and then adding in the instructional strategies to reach the desired results. It creates an organized system to designing instruction and provides a clear expectation of student learning. This structure promotes a well-thought out lesson from the instructor, thus promoting student achievement and mastery of understanding.

Acknowledgements

Tyler L. D'Angelo, Andrew C. Thoron

References

Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Henry Holt.

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall.

Wiggins, G. P., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

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University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension outreach is a partnership between state, federal, and county governments to provide scientific knowledge and expertise to the public. The University of Florida (UF), together with Florida A&M University (FAMU), administers the Florida Cooperative Extension Service.

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5 tips for helping students with special needs ( with videos for teaching strategies both for educators and help for parents)

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5 tips for helping students with special needs ( with videos for teaching strategies both for educators and help for parents)

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Special education teachers face a unique set of challenges, and so do the parents of special needs students. Keep reading to learn some practical tips for making your life as a special needs teacher or parent easier.

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Five Tips for Helping Students with Special Needs

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They say that teaching is a thankless job - not only are teachers underpaid, but many of them dedicate countless hours of their free time to do extra work for their students. Being a teacher, in general, can be very difficult, but being a special needs teacher comes with its own unique set of challenges.

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Comprehensive one-stop shop coverage of Classroom Management

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Comprehensive one-stop shop coverage of Classroom Management

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The fundamentals of classroom management. Teachers across various disciplines and educational levels can use this for quality instruction.

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Special Education Categories refer to the classifications used to identify students who have specific learning needs that require additional support and services.

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Students with Disabilities: Special Education Categories

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The Danielson Framework is often used for teacher evaluation, professional development, and guiding instructional improvement efforts in schools.

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Educational learning theories and theorists encompass various perspectives and approaches to understanding how individuals learn.

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The distinction between clarifying questions and probing questions is very difficult for most people working with protocols. So is the distinction between probing questions and recommendations for action.

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Implementing Instructional Adaptations for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms 

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Implementing Instructional Adaptations for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms 

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Helping students with disabilities become successful in integrated settings with the use of instructional adaptations that facilitate student learning.

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An overview of the recent research on grouping practices (whole class, small group, pairs, one-on-one) during reading instruction for students with disabilities.

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Classroom accommodations for sensory processing challenges

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Classroom accommodations for sensory processing challenges

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What classroom accommodations can help students with trouble processing sensory information?

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Classroom accommodations for sensory processing challenges

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These sensory strategies for the classroom can help kids with sensory processing challenges. From alternate seating to visual schedules, explore sensory tools for the classroom that help with learning.

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Universal Design for Learning Guidelines

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Universal Design for Learning Guidelines

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in implementing Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Reenvisioning the UDL Guidelines

Because the UDL Guidelines are meant to be informed by feedback from the field as well as new research, they have been updated several times in the past. We are in the process of updating the Guidelines once again in our UDL Rising to Equity initiative.

This update will focus specifically on addressing systemic barriers that result in inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. CAST aims to develop a transparent, inclusive, and community-driven process. If you are interested in collaborating and staying updated on our progress, we invite you to complete a brief survey.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

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Necessary Disruptions: ExaminingJustice, Engagement, and humanizing Approaches to Teaching and Teacher Education

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Necessary Disruptions: ExaminingJustice, Engagement, and humanizing Approaches to Teaching and Teacher Education

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Necessary disruptions in teaching and teacher education should encourage us to think about: how we teach, what we teach, why we teach, and who we teach, especially as we work alongside students in classrooms, honor student-led activism in communities, and attend to ongoing racial unrest throughout society.

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This article will help better understand ADHD and how to help your students.

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When a student shuts down in the classroom, it can be difficult for both the student and the teacher.
When a student shuts down, it is important to try to determine the reason for the shutdown. The most common reasons are that the student is feeling overwhelmed or is experiencing frustration with the work. If the student is feeling overwhelmed, it may be helpful to break the work down into smaller pieces or to provide more support. If the student is experiencing frustration, it may be helpful to talk about the assignment with the student and help him or her to develop a plan for completing it.
In this article, we will explore some techniques that can help both the student and the teacher. First, we will look at what causes a student to shut down, and then we will look at ways to help the student. Finally, we will look at ways to help the teacher.

What Causes Students Shutdown?

The experience of a student shutdown can be difficult to understand and explain. For students, the experience can be overwhelming and confusing. What are the causes of this phenomenon? This section provides an overview of the possible causes of student shutdown and offers ways to support students.

Lack of sleep:

Most students know that getting a good night's sleep is important, but many students don't get the recommended seven to eight hours of sleep per night. A lack of sleep can have negative consequences on students' academic performance, physical health, and mental health.

Research shows that a lack of sleep can lead to decreased focus, concentration, and attention span. It can also lead to forgetfulness and poor decision-making. In addition, a lack of sleep can cause students to feel overwhelmed and stressed out, which can lead to feelings of anxiety and depression.

Lack of sleep can also have physical consequences, such as weight gain, high blood pressure and heart disease. Students who are chronically tired are more likely to get sick and miss school.

Anxiety and stress:

Anxiety and stress are commonplace in students' lives. A recent study showed that 78% of students reported experiencing anxiety, and 73% reported experiencing stress. These numbers are alarming, and they should cause us to take a closer look at the role that anxiety and stress play in students' lives.

What is it about anxiety and stress that causes students to shut down? One possibility is that these emotions interfere with students' ability to focus and learn. Anxiety can make it difficult to concentrate on anything else other than the worry or fear that is consuming your mind. Stress can also lead to feeling overwhelmed, which can prevent you from being able to focus on the task at hand.

Another possibility is that anxiety and stress cause physical symptoms that make it difficult for students to stay in school. For example, anxiety can cause nausea, dizziness, or headaches.

Depression:

Students who feel sad or depressed may not be able to focus on schoolwork properly, leading to low grades and grade retention. Depression can also lead to suicidal thoughts, which can interfere with students' ability to focus on school and make friends.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):

Students with ADHD are more likely to have trouble paying attention, remaining focused and following instructions. These students may also be perceived as disruptive or unfocused in the classroom.

Bipolar disorder:

Students with bipolar disorder are more likely to have difficulties paying attention, focusing, and staying on task. This may interfere with their ability to learn.

Social media and technology:

There is no doubt that social media and technology have a profound impact on students. Some researchers suggest that technology can actually cause students to shut down. How do social media and technology cause students' shutdown? There are several ways in which this can happen.

First, too much screen time can be detrimental to students' health. When students spend too much time on their phones or laptops, they can experience eyestrain, neck pain, and hand fatigue. Additionally, too much screen time can lead to obesity, anxiety, and depression.

Second, social media can be addictive and distracting. Students may become so engrossed in their online lives that they lose focus in class. Additionally, social media can be used to bully classmates or share personal information publicly. This can lead to emotional distress for students.

Third, technology can be overwhelming for some students. Many students have a hard time organizing their schedules and applying resources efficiently. This can lead to stress and anxiety, which may negatively affect their learning process.

Bullying and peer pressure:

Bullying and peer pressure are often seen as a rite of passage for students, but what happens when these activities go too far? Some students find themselves in a position where they feel they have to shut down in order to avoid bullying and peer pressure. How do bullying and peer pressure cause students' shut down?

When bullying and peer pressure are unrelenting, it can be very difficult for a student to focus on school work. In some cases, the student may feel like they have no other choice than to stop attending school altogether. This can have a negative impact on their academic performance and future prospects.

Bullying and peer pressure can also lead to mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. These conditions can make it difficult for students to concentrate in class or socialize with their peers. As a result, these students may also choose to withdraw from school.

Perfectionism:

Perfectionism is a mindset that can have negative consequences for students. People who are perfectionists often set unrealistically high standards for themselves, which can lead to frustration and feelings of inadequacy. In some cases, perfectionism can even cause students to "shut down" and stop trying altogether.

There are several ways that perfectionism can lead to a student shutdown. For one, perfectionists are often very critical of themselves, which can result in a lot of self-doubt and anxiety. Additionally, perfectionism can make it difficult for students to accept failure or mistakes, which can lead to feelings of shame and worthlessness. Finally, the need for perfection can be very demanding and draining, leading to physical and emotional exhaustion.

Feeling misunderstood:

Students at all levels of education can feel misunderstood and unsupported by their peers, educators, and parents. This feeling can lead to a shutdown in which the student stops communicating, participating in class, or trying altogether. There are a few ways that feeling misunderstood and unsupported can cause students to shut down.

First, when students feel that they aren't being heard or that their concerns are falling on deaf ears, they may give up trying to communicate at all. Second, when students don't feel supported by their peers or educators, they may stop trying to participate in a class or do well in school. This can be especially harmful if the student is already struggling academically. Finally, when students feel like they don't have anyone who understands them or supports them, they may give up on school altogether.

Characteristics of Students Who Are Shutdown?

1. Students who are shut down are typically shy and withdrawn.

2. They may have a hard time making friends and tend to keep to themselves.

3. They often have low self-esteem and think negatively about themselves.

4. They are often perfectionists and have high standards for themselves.

5. They are usually very sensitive to criticism and tend to take things personally.

6. These students tend to do poorly in school and maybe at risk for behavioral problems.

7. They may also have problems with attention and impulse control.

8. They feel misunderstood and unsupported.

9. They engage in self-destructive behaviors.

What to do when a student shutdown in class.

As schools around the country continue to deal with students' shut down, and many administrators are left wondering how to manage the situation. While there is no one-size-fits-all answer, here are 13 ways to help you manage students' shut down in your classroom.

1. Listen to students' concerns and take them seriously.

In any profession, it's important to listen to your clients or customers. This is especially true for teachers. When students feel like they can't voice their concerns or frustrations, they may resort to shutting down in class. You should take notice when this happens and try to find out why the student is feeling this way.

Many times, there may be something going on at home or with friends that are causing the student to act out in class. Other times, there may be a more serious issue at hand that the student isn't comfortable discussing with anyone. In either case, it's important for you to listen to students' concerns and take them seriously.

Students need to know that someone is listening and that their concerns matter. When you show that you're interested in helping students work through their problems, it can make a huge difference in the classroom.

2. Acknowledge that there is a problem and work towards a solution.

There is no denying that there is a problem with students' shutdown these days. It happens in primary and high schools, and the reasons behind it are varied. Some students are protesting against teachers' unfairness, some are expressing their anger or dissatisfaction, while others simply don't know how to deal with the pressure. Whatever the reason may be, it's clear that you should acknowledge students' shutdown and work towards a solution.

The first step is to identify the cause of the problem. Once you know what's prompting students to shut down, you can start to find ways to address it. In some cases, it may be as simple as listening to their concerns and trying to be more understanding. In other cases, however, more drastic measures may be needed, such as changes in the curriculum or teaching methods.

3. Create an open dialogue with students and encourage them to express their opinions.

You need to be careful when it comes to the way you handle students' shutdowns. It is important that you encourage students to open up and express their opinions. There are a few reasons why this is important.

First, by encouraging students to share their thoughts and ideas, you can get a better understanding of what is going on in their minds. Second, when students feel like they can openly talk to their teachers, it can help build trust between the two parties. Lastly, it is often beneficial for students to share their thoughts and feelings, as doing so can help them process and understand them better.

4. Keep the lines of communication open and be responsive to questions and concerns.

When students feel like they can't get a response from their teachers, they may feel frustrated and unimportant. This can lead to them shutting down and not wanting to participate in class.

You should be responsive to their students' questions and concerns in order to create a classroom environment where students feel comfortable communicating. If students feel like their questions and concerns are being ignored, they may stop raising them, which can hinder their learning.

5. Address any issues that led to the protest or walkout in the first place.

You should always be aware of the potential issues that could lead to a student's shutdown in their classroom. By addressing these issues head-on, you can help ensure that these disruptions are kept to a minimum.

Some of the most common issues that can lead to a student's shutdown are bullying, feeling misunderstood or unsupported, and feeling as if they do not have a voice in the classroom. If you can create a safe and supportive environment in your classroom, students will be more likely to feel comfortable voicing any concerns they may have. This, in turn, will help to prevent any major disruptions from occurring.

6. Seek out experts who can help advise you on how to handle the situation.

There is no one answer to how to handle the situation when students shut down in the classroom. Each situation is unique and will require a different approach. However, there are some general things that you can do to seek help from experts in order to best handle the situation.

First, it is important to understand what is causing the students to shut down. Is it a specific student or group of students? Is there a particular topic or subject that is causing them stress? Or, could there be another underlying problem, such as bullying or family issues? Once you have a better understanding of what may be causing the problem, you can then seek out help from experts who can advise you on how best to address it.

Experts can include school counselors, psychologists, social workers, or any other professionals who have experience dealing with these types of situations.
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7. Work with parents, teachers, and community members to find a resolution.

When students shut down, it becomes a challenge for teachers to find a resolution. The first step is to work with parents, teachers, and community members. It's important to have an open dialogue and to find a solution that works for all stakeholders.

In some cases, the school may need to offer additional support services for students who are struggling. Sometimes, a change in the curriculum can help address the issue. If the problem persists, then the school may need to provide counseling or other services.

8. Allow for flexibility in deadlines and expectations where possible.

As the school year comes to a close, many students are feeling overwhelmed and stressed. With final exams, projects, and end-of-year commitments, it's no wonder that some students are finding themselves struggling to keep up.

In some cases, this can lead to a "shutdown" or refusal to do work altogether. For you, this can be frustrating and cause delays in getting assignments done on time. However, I believe that you should be flexible with deadlines where possible in order to help your students through this difficult time.

There are several reasons why you should be flexible with deadlines during the students' shutdown. First, it's important to remember that this is a very stressful time for many students. They may have a lot of responsibilities outside of school as well, which can make it hard for them to focus on their work.

9. Reduce stress by keeping class sizes small and assignments manageable.

There are many reasons why teachers should use manageable activities to handle students' shutdown. When students experience too much stress, they can have a physical and emotional response that can lead to them shutting down. This can be counterproductive in the classroom and may lead to lower grades or even dropping out of school.

There are several things teachers can do to help prevent this from happening, including breaking assignments into smaller parts, providing short breaks, and using more hands-on activities. Even if a student is having a difficult time in class, it is important not to give up on them. With some patience and creativity, most students can eventually overcome their challenges and be successful in school.

10. Rotate activities frequently so students don't get bored or restless.

There is a point during any school day when students become restless and bored. This is often when you see students start to shut down. There are many reasons why you should rotate activities frequently to handle students' shutdown. One reason is that it can help keep students engaged in learning. When you mix up the routine, it helps keep students on their toes and prevents them from getting bored.

Additionally, rotating activities can help prevent behavior problems. When students are constantly engaged in new tasks, they are less likely to misbehave. Finally, rotating activities can also help keep students alert and focused. When tasks are constantly changing, it's less likely for students to zone out or get distracted.

11. Don't panic:

Don't panic when your students suddenly shut down in the middle of class. It's normal for students to have emotional outbursts, especially during high-stress times like exams or during transitions between semesters and grades. As a teacher, it's important to stay calm and understand why your student is shutting down.

There are many reasons why students might shut down in class. Some might be feeling overwhelmed by schoolwork, some might be feeling homesick or lonely, and others might be struggling with personal problems or family issues. Whatever the reason, it's important to remember that your student is likely feeling very upset and vulnerable.

The best thing you can do as a teacher is to try to empathize with your student and help them feel heard. Let them know that it's okay to feel overwhelmed and that you're there to help them get through it.

12. Ask questions:

When students experience a shutdown, they are no longer able to think or learn in a typical manner. This can be extremely frustrating for the student and the teacher. In some cases, it is best to simply let the student take a break until they feel better. However, there are times when teachers should ask questions to help them handle students' shutdown.

One reason teachers should ask questions is to help them understand why the student is shutting down. Sometimes there is an obvious reason, such as a traumatic event that has recently occurred. However, there are other times when the cause is not as clear. By asking questions, teachers can get a better understanding of why the student is struggling and what they might need in order to start feeling better.

Another reason teachers should ask questions is to help them come up with strategies for helping the student.

13. Respect their space:

In any classroom, there is a delicate balance between teacher and student. A teacher has to be in control of the class but also needs to show respect for students' individual space. When a student shuts down, it can be difficult for a teacher to know how to handle the situation.

One thing that teachers should always remember is to respect students' space. This means giving them their personal space and allowing them to calm down in their own way. Yelling at or reprimanding a student who is shut down will only make the situation worse.

There are several reasons why teachers should respect students' space in this type of situation. First, it shows that the teacher understands what the student is going through and respects their feelings. Second, it gives the students time to calm down and regain control of themselves.

How To Prevent Students Shutdown in the Classroom

1. Know how to connect with students

The first thing effective teachers always do is to establish a connection with the students because without that they can't prevent shutdown syndrome. Engage in a healthy conversation about their lives and interests while getting to know them on a personal level. This way you will see if they have any learning challenges, so you can plan accordingly.

2. Create a positive learning environment

A classroom with an engaging and respectful atmosphere is the best way to prevent shutdown syndrome in students. A few techniques you can use for this are: start every class on a high note, follow up on your lectures with questions or encourage debate and discussion among them, and ask them to give feedback on a regular basis.

3. Foster a culture of trust and respect

Effective teachers ensure that students trust them by being caring, supportive, and respectful towards every individual in the class. This way you will be able to build connections with them as well as create a fun classroom environment where they can thrive and express themselves freely without any fear or shame.

4. Lead fun and dynamic lesson

Great teachers always present new mind-blowing material that will keep the students engaged while enjoying every minute of it. They also give them some kind of mental challenge while teaching while incorporating games and other types of entertainment to create a good learning environment.

5. Keep your lessons clear and concise

To be an effective teacher, it is important to teach your students strategies for studying, such as how to take notes during lectures and memorize information, so they can spend their time doing things that will help them understand the material.

6. Read body language

If a student is yawning or checking his phone at least three times in one class, then you know that they are bored or distracted. You can read their body language very easily, so don't ignore it and try to change the class activity to engage them better.

7. Follow up on each student

Keep track of your student's progress throughout the semester by following up on every individual in the classroom. If someone seems confused or is not understanding a concept, then try to help them out as soon as possible.

8. Ask for feedback from the students

In addition, ask your students for feedback on how you can improve as a teacher and what they expect from their classes, so you can become an effective teacher in their eyes. Just make sure that whatever they suggest doesn't interrupt your teaching style, because you are the experienced one in your classroom.

9. Take breaks during lessons

If you notice that the students are getting bored or distracted, then take a short break. You can use this time to make some necessary changes to improve their experience like letting them do something fun like play games in pairs; it will refresh their minds and get them ready to learn again. It is also a good time for you to take a break and get a drink of water.

10. Show interest in the students' lives

Finally, just taking an interest in your students' lives will help you know them better, so it makes it easier for you to teach them effectively without disrupting their experience. Plus, they will feel appreciated and respected by their teacher.

Conclusion

There are few things more frustrating for a teacher than when a student shuts down in the middle of class. It can be difficult to know how to react, and sometimes it feels like nothing you do will help. But there are things you can do to try and get your student back on track. In this article, we have discussed some of those techniques. We hope that this article has helped you better understand ADHD and how to help your student. If you have any questions or comments, please feel free to leave a comment below.

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What To Do When A Student Shutdown In The Classroom? - Classroom Management Expert

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When a student shuts down in the classroom, it can be difficult for both the student and the teacher. When a student shuts down, it is important to try to determine the reason for the shutdown. The most common reasons are that the student is feeling overwhelmed or is experiencing frustration with the work.

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APA Style 7th Edition: In-Text Citations, Quotations, and Plagiarism

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Research, Citation, & Class Guides: APA Style (7th ed.): Reference Examples

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Research, Citation, & Class Guides: APA Style (7th ed.): Reference Examples

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The science of reading is an interdisciplinary field that examines how humans learn to read, the cognitive processes involved in reading, and the neurological underpinnings of literacy. Understanding the science of reading informs teaching practices and interventions to improve literacy skills in individuals of all ages. By identifying effective instructional methods and interventions grounded in scientific evidence, educators can better support reading development and address difficulties such as dyslexia and other reading disorders. It draws upon research from psychology, linguistics, neuroscience, education, and other related disciplines to understand the complexities of reading acquisition and comprehension.

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Can we Afford to Ignore the Science of Reading? | Melissa Hostetter | TEDxUofISpringfield

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Teaching Strategies for Special Needs Students

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Teaching Strategies for Special Needs Students

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Teaching strategies for special needs students involve adapting instruction to meet individual needs and abilities. Watch the video to learn Special Education Teaching Strategies.

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NY State Next-Generation  Learning Standards

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NY State Next-Generation  Learning Standards

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In 2015, New York State (NYS) began a process of review and revision of its current English Language Arts (ELA) Learning Standards adopted in January 2011. The New York State Next Generation English Language Arts Learning Standards (Revised 2017) were developed through numerous phases of public comment as well as virtual and face-to-face meetings with committees consisting of NYS educators, teachers of English Language Learners/Multilingual Learners and Students with Disabilities, parents, curriculum specialists, school administrators, college professors, and experts in cognitive research. These revised standards reflect the collaborative efforts and expertise among all constituents involved.

The New York State Next Generation English Language Arts Learning Standards (Revised 2017) consist of revisions, additions, deletions, vertical movement, and clarifications of the current English Language Arts Standards. They are defined as the knowledge, skills, and understanding that individuals can and do habitually demonstrate over time when exposed to high-quality instructional environments and learning experiences.

To compare the changes between the 2011 New York State P-12 Common Core Learning Standards and the 2017 Next Generation Learning Standards view the ELA Learning Standards Crosswalks.

Preface and Introductory Documents:

Revised Learning Standards Documents:

The new revised learning standards for English Language Arts are available at the links below:

At a Glance Standards Documents:

The Next Generation ELA Standards at a Glance provide the progression of standards across grade levels (PK-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-12). The New York State Education Department created these documents to support curriculum development and instructional design, as well as to increase stakeholders' knowledge of the NYS Next Generation Learning Standards. Educators and families can efficiently view the standards that precede and follow a particular grade level. The grade-level introductions are easily accessible via the links at the top of the at a glance pages. Please note that each grade-level introduction includes the range of reading experiences and text complexity expectations for that particular grade. Users are strongly encouraged to familiarize themselves with these documents prior to reading the Next Generation ELA Standards at a Glance.

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English Language Arts Learning Standards

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In 2015, New York State (NYS) began a process of review and revision of its current English Language Arts (ELA) Learning Standards adopted in January 2011.

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Evidence-Based Strategies for Reading Instruction of Older Students with Learning Disabilities

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Evidence-Based Strategies for Reading Instruction of Older Students with Learning Disabilities

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By implementing evidence-based strategies tailored to the unique needs of older students with learning disabilities, educators can support their reading development and promote academic success.

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Best Practices: High School Reading Strategies

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Best Practices: High School Reading Strategies

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High school reading strategies encompass a range of techniques and approaches designed to help students comprehend and analyze complex texts effectively. These strategies aim to enhance students' critical thinking skills, vocabulary development, and overall reading proficiency across various subjects. Common high school reading strategies include active reading, annotation, summarization, questioning, and making connections between texts and personal experiences or prior knowledge. Additionally, strategies such as identifying main ideas, determining key details, recognizing text structures, and evaluating arguments or perspectives are emphasized to promote deeper understanding and engagement with the material.

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DIT Labs - Fairfax County Public Schools

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Best Practices: High School Reading Strategies

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Middle school reading interventions are crucial for preventing reading difficulties from persisting into high school and beyond. These interventions aim to address a range of difficulties, including decoding, fluency, comprehension, vocabulary development, and reading fluency. Typically, interventions are tailored to individual student needs based on assessments and ongoing progress monitoring.

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Middle School Reading Intervention.   Is it too late?

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Literacy Strategies for Middle and High School Learners

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Literacy Strategies for Middle and High School Learners

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Dr. Jaime True Daley will focus on an overview of the science of reading as it pertains to students in the middle and high school grades. This includes multisyllabic vocabulary word knowledge and understanding grammar structures in literary and discipline-specific texts.

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Literacy Strategies for Middle and High School Learners  | Session 1

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Reading Instructional Practices to Help Struggling Readers in Middle School

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Reading Instructional Practices to Help Struggling Readers in Middle School

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Reading Instructional Practices to Help Struggling Readers in Middle School

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Free Online Books Sorted By Guided Reading Level

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Wilbooks is committed to providing your kindergarten, first grade, and second grade students with the highest quality children's books at the best prices.

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Put away your flashcards and workbooks and log on to see the new way to master educational skills! Top educators worked exclusively with Turtle Diary to create game after game with superior content and maximum fun for every child.

The concepts reviewed parallel those taught in the everyday classroom for grades K4 through 5th grade. Students focus on mastering the concept on their own with consistent and repetitive review. They won't even realize they're reviewing thanks to incredibly fun graphics, sounds, and interactive games.

These games will keep your kids coming back for more day after day. You can rest easy knowing they're working towards their future.

With skills backed by top educators, parents know that Turtle Diary is giving their kids the best they have to offer. The games help to solidify the necessary skills needed for their specific grade levels.

Turtle Diary's games are not only educational, but incredibly fun. They can even be a bit competitive at times when you choose a multiplayer option.

Students can also link up with kids in their classes and play games specifically recommended by their teacher. This helps them master the exact concepts they are working on in their classroom. The possibilities are endless, and the fun is never-ending.

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Educational Games | Educational Games For Kids | Turtle Diary

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1000+ Free Educational Games for kids in Grade K to 5. Play Online and learn math, science, language arts, geography & much more only with our award winning educational website.

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Critical reading means that a reader applies certain processes, models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is more involved, both in effort and understanding, in a critical reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text. What is the difference? If a reader "skims" the text, superficial characteristics and information are as far as the reader goes. A critical reading gets at "deep structure" (if there is such a thing apart from the superficial text!), that is, logical consistency, tone, organization, and a number of other very important sounding terms.

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Critical reading means that a reader applies certain processes, models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is more involved, both in effort and understanding, in a critical reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text. What is the difference? If a reader "skims" the text, superficial characteristics and information are as far as the reader goes. A critical reading gets at "deep structure" (if there is such a thing apart from the superficial text!), that is, logical consistency, tone, organization, and a number of other very important sounding terms.

What does it take to be a critical reader? There are a variety of answers available to this question; here are some suggested steps:

1. Prepare to become part of the writer's audience.

After all, authors design texts for specific audiences, and becoming a member of the target audience makes it easier to get at the author's purpose. Learn about the author, the history of the author and the text, the author's anticipated audience; read introductions and notes.

2. Prepare to read with an open mind.

Critical readers seek knowledge; they do not "rewrite" a work to suit their own personalities. Your task as an enlightened critical reader is to read what is on the page, giving the writer a fair chance to develop ideas and allowing yourself to reflect thoughtfully, objectively, on the text.

3. Consider the title.

This may seem obvious, but the title may provide clues to the writer's attitude, goals, personal viewpoint, or approach.

4. Read slowly.

Again, this appears obvious, but it is a factor in a "close reading." By slowing down, you will make more connections within the text.

5. Use the dictionary and other appropriate reference works.

If there is a word in the text that is not clear or difficult to define in context: look it up. Every word is important, and if part of the text is thick with technical terms, it is doubly important to know how the author is using them.

6. Make notes.

Jot down marginal notes, underline and highlight, write down ideas in a notebook, do whatever works for your own personal taste. Note for yourself the main ideas, the thesis, the author's main points to support the theory. Writing while reading aids your memory in many ways, especially by making a link that is unclear in the text concrete in your own writing.

7. Keep a reading journal

In addition to note-taking, it is often helpful to regularly record your responses and thoughts in a more permanent place that is yours to consult. By developing a habit of reading and writing in conjunction, both skills will improve.

Critical reading involves using logical and rhetorical skills. Identifying the author's thesis is a good place to start, but to grasp how the author intends to support it is a difficult task. More often than not an author will make a claim (most commonly in the form of the thesis) and support it in the body of the text. The support for the author's claim is in the evidence provided to suggest that the author's intended argument is sound, or reasonably acceptable. What ties these two together is a series of logical links that convinces the reader of the coherence of the author's argument: this is the warrant. If the author's premise is not supportable, a critical reading will uncover the lapses in the text that show it to be unsound.

To learn more about writing, WALK this way
Want to talk to a tutor about it?

Questions, comments, and other sundry things may be sent to CSUwriting@csuohio.edu
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Critical Reading: What is Critical Reading, and why do I need to do it?

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Critical reading means that a reader applies certain processes, models, questions, and theories that result in enhanced clarity and comprehension. There is more involved, both in effort and understanding, in a critical reading than in a mere "skimming" of the text. What is the difference?

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Ensure success in your classroom and beyond with engaging, developmentally appropriate books at various levels of text complexity. Graduated levels of difficulty build students' confidence while increasing comprehension and fluency. Reading A-Z books support instruction in comprehension, vocabulary, close reading of text, and more.

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Ensure success in your classroom and beyond with engaging, developmentally appropriate books at various levels of text complexity. Graduated levels of difficulty build students' confidence while increasing comprehension and fluency. Reading A-Z books support instruction in comprehension, vocabulary, close reading of text, and more.

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Andrea Learns that Reading is Fun with Maddie and Ellie | Reading Month

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Teach Math to Students With Disabilities

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Teach Math to Students With Disabilities

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By embracing inclusive practices and adopting evidence-based instructional strategies, educators can create supportive and enriching math learning experiences that empower students with disabilities to achieve academic success and develop mathematical proficiency.

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How to Teach Math to Students With Disabilities, English-Language Learners

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Experts recommend emphasizing language skills, avoiding assumptions about ability based on broad student labels, and focusing on students’ strengths rather than their weaknesses.

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Mathematics Instruction for Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

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Mathematics Instruction for Secondary Students with Learning Disabilities

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By implementing these strategies and adopting a student-centered approach, educators can create inclusive mathematics learning environments that empower secondary students with learning disabilities to develop mathematical proficiency, problem-solving skills, and confidence in their mathematical abilities.

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This article will discuss techniques that have been demonstrated to be effective with secondary students who have learning disabilities in mathematics.

Secondary students with learning disabilities generally make inadequate progress in mathematics. Their achievement is often limited by a variety of factors, including prior low achievement, low expectations for success, and inadequate instruction. This article will discuss techniques that have been demonstrated to be effective with secondary students who have learning disabilities in mathematics.

The body of research on mathematics instruction for secondary students with learning disabilities (LD) is not developed well enough to describe a specific and comprehensive set of well researched practices, but it is sufficient for defining a set of procedures and issues as clearly associated with effective instruction and increased student achievement. In this article, data- based investigations of procedures that have evaluated the effectiveness of mathematics instruction with secondary students with LD will be discussed. Although this discussion will be based primarily on studies that were limited to secondary students with LD, some research on the instruction and achievement of younger students or higher achieving populations will be considered.

This discussion considers six factors that predictably confound efforts to increase the effectiveness of instruction. Each of the factors is particularly relevant in the case of instruction for secondary students with LD. These factors are (a) students' prior achievement, (b) students' perceptions of self efficacy, (c) the content of instruction, (d) management of instruction, (e) educators', efforts to evaluate and improve instruction, and (f) educators' beliefs about the nature of effective instruction.

Prior achievement

Although students with LD spend a substantial portion of their academic time working on mathematics (Carpenter, 1985), severe deficits in mathematics achievement are apparent and persistent. Although secondary students with LD continue to make progress in learning more complex mathematical concepts and skills, it appears that their progress is very gradual (Cawley, Fitzmaurice, Shaw, Kahn, & Bates, 1979; Cawley & Miller, 1989). McLeod and Armstrong (1982) surveyed junior high, middle school, and high school math teachers regarding mathematics achievement. The teachers reported that skill deficits in basic computation and numeration were common. Specifically, McLeod and Armstrong found that secondary students with LD had difficulty with basic operations, percentages, decimals, measurement, and the language of mathematics. Algozzine, O'Shea, Crews, and Stoddard (1987) examined the results of 10th graders who took Florida's minimum competency test of mathematics skills. Compared to their general class peers, the adolescents with LD demonstrated substantially lower levels of mastery across all subtests. Algozzine et al. reported that the students with LD consistently scored higher on items requiring the literal use of arithmetic skills than on items requiring applications of concepts. Similarly, the results of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (cited in Carpenter, Matthews, Linquist, & Silver, 1984) clearly indicated that too many students in the elementary grades failed to acquire sufficient skills in operations and applications of mathematics. These persistent skill deficits, combined with limited fluency of basic fact recall (i.e., lack of automaticity), will hinder the development of higher level mathematics skills and will compromise later achievement (Hasselbring, Coin, & Bransford, 1988).

For secondary students with disabilities, the adequacy of instruction in mathematics will be judged not merely on how quickly basic skills can be learned. Students must also acquire generalizable skills in the application of mathematical concepts and problem solving. The task of designing instructional programs that result in adequate levels of acquisition and generalization for students who have experienced seriously low levels of achievement for a large proportion of their academic careers is indeed a challenging one.

Perceptions of self-efficacy attributes for failure or success

Individual differences in cognitive development certainly affect the achievement of academic skills. In earlier years, many professionals readily accepted that individual psychological differences accounted for failure to learn in school. Currently, a more parsimonious explanation is that many students fail as a result of ineffective instruction (Engelmann & Carnine, 1982; Kameenui & Simmons, 1990). Students' expectations for failure frequently develop as a result of prolonged experiences with instruction that fails to result in successful performance.

By the time students with LD become adolescents, they have typically endured many years of failure and frustration. They are fully aware of their failure to achieve functional skills in the operations and applications of mathematics. Although research supports the argument that perceptions of self-efficacy are task specific and fairly accurate, it does not reveal that learning disabilities are consistently associated with lower general self-concepts (Chapman, 1988). Chapman concluded that students who come to doubt their abilities (a) tend to blame their academic failures on those deficits, (b) generally consider their low abilities to be unchangeable, (c) generally expect to fail in the future, and (d) give up readily when confronted with difficult tasks. Unless interrupted by successful experiences, continued failure tends to confirm low expectations of achievement, which in turn sets the occasion for additional failure.

Pajares and Miller's (1994) study of self-efficacy and mathematics has implications for teachers who attempt to remediate low math achievement. They found that students' judgments of their ability to solve specific types of mathematics problems were useful predictors of their actual ability to solve those problems. Specific student estimates of self-efficacy were more accurate predictors of performance than prior experience in mathematics. Extending the results suggests three important issues. First, judgments of self-efficacy are task specific and generally accurate. Second, student judgment of self-efficacy may provide insights that will be valuable supplements to teacher assessments of performance skills. Third, negative expectations and motivational problems may be reduced by interventions to eliminate deficits in specific mathematics skills. The fact that student ratings of self-efficacy are accurate (for both successful and unsuccessful students) suggests that this is not a chicken-or-the-egg-type issue. Instead, it suggests that initially there is a fairly direct path from instruction to performance and, subsequently, to perceptions of self-efficacy. When instruction is effective (i.e., when students master targeted competencies), performance is enhanced and an accurate and positive perception of self-efficacy results. Conversely, ineffective instruction leads to poor performance and an accurate but negative estimate of self-efficacy.

For secondary students with LD, expectations to fail to learn mathematics skills can be an important obstacle. Although students' perceptions of their self-efficacy originally develop from their experiences with success and failure in instruction, those expectations later can become factors that prevent low-achieving students from attempting to learn, or persevering in trying to apply, mathematical concepts and skills.

Content of instruction

With high-quality instruction, students will acquire skills in less time and make more adaptive generalizations than they would with lower quality instruction. Quality of instruction is dependent on two elements of curriculum design: organization of content and presentation of content. Secondary students are expected to master skills in numeration and mathematical operations and to be able to apply those skills across a broad range of problem solving contexts. Adolescents with LD are not likely to acquire adequate competence unless the content of their instruction is carefully selected and organized. Woodward (1991) identified three empirically supported principles related to curriculum content that contribute to the quality of instruction: the nature of examples, explicitness, and parsimony.

Nature of examples

Students learn from examples. An important part of the business of education is selecting and organizing examples to use in instruction such that students will be able to solve problems they encounter outside of instruction. Unfortunately, commercial math curricula frequently do not adequately manage the selection or organization of instructional examples. Two deficiencies that contribute to inefficient instruction and chronic error patterns in the management of instructional examples are common to commercial math curricula. First, the number of instructional examples and the organization of practice activities are frequently insufficient for students to achieve mastery (Silbert, Carnine, & Stein, 1990). As a result, although high-achieving students may quickly attain near-perfect performance, low-achieving students (including students with a variety of learning difficulties) fail to master the same math skills before teachers move on to new instructional tasks. Empirical studies of two types support the validity of this phenomenon. First, classroom observations of teacher behavior indicate that teachers tend to direct their instruction (in terms of the difficulty of the material) to students of high-average achievement (Brophy & Good, 1974). Second, classroom observation indicates that when students with LD are taught in mainstream settings with students without disabilities, they average only 60% correct (Chow, 1981), a figure considerably below the performance levels of 90% to 100% correct that most educational experts require for task mastery.

A second deficiency is an inadequate sampling of the range of examples that define a given concept. If some instances of a concept are under represented in instruction or simply not included in instruction, students with LD will predictably fail to learn that concept adequately. The direct connection between the range of examples and task mastery has been demonstrated in instructional areas including teaching fractions (Kelly, K Gersten, & Carnine, 1990) and test taking (McLoone, Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Zucker, 1986). The adequacy of a selection of examples depends on several factors, including (a) possible variations of the concept, (b) the likelihood that irrelevant or misleading variables will be erroneously associated with the concept, (c) the complexity of the concept being taught, and (d) the variety of potential applications of the concept.

If inadequate selections of instructional examples are provided, the range of a concept is not illustrated and students form limited or erroneous conceptualizations. Silbert et al. (1990) provided an example of instruction in the analysis of fractions that predict ably contributes to limited understanding of fractions: Generally, students are taught that fractions represent equal divisions of one whole, and during the elementary grades, considerable instruction focuses on teaching the concept of a fraction, with examples such as 1/2,1/4 , 1/8, and so forth. This representation of the concept of a fraction is inadequate, however, because not all fractions are less than one whole unit. Some fractions are equal to or greater than 1 (e.g., all improper fractions, such as, 6/5, where the numerator is larger than the denominator). Representing the concept of fraction as a quantity less than one whole limits student understanding of the wider range of possible fraction concepts. An inadequate conceptualization of fractions contributes to inadequate understanding of computation with fractions and, thus, severely limits problem solving skills. For example, students who learn that fractions represent quantities less than one unit may experience difficulty understanding that even the quantity represented by a proper fraction (i.e., one in which the numerator is smaller than the denominator) may not be less than 1. Consider an example involving the fact that 3/5 of the students in a class of 25 are female. In this case, the quantity represented by 5 equals the total number of students, while the numerator, 3, equals 15 individuals. To ensure that this example of the concept of a fraction is understood, teachers must include examples whereby fractions represent portions of groups as well as portions of single objects.

To learn correct conceptualizations, students must be taught which attributes are relevant and which are irrelevant. If sets of instructional examples consistently contain attributes that are irrelevant to a concept, then students will predictably learn misconceptualizations that may seriously hinder achievement. It is not uncommon to find that presentations of misleading variables have inhibited mathematics achievement. One important illustration is the frequent use of key words in story problems (e.g., Carpenter et al., 1984; Nesher, 1976; Wright, 1968). Although so called key words frequently appear in story problems and often indicate the solution, they are not relevant per se to the solution of the problems. Unfortunately, many low achieving students learn to depend on key words instead of attending to the more critical information presented in the problem. Consequently, they are apt to experience difficulty solving problems that do not have key words, or that use key words in ways that are irrelevant to any mathematical solution.

Such misconceptualizations will confuse students unless their exposure to potentially misleading cues is carefully managed. Initial sets of instructional examples should not contain key words. As students become proficient with those examples, problems that contain relevant key words can be included in instructional sets, juxtaposed with examples in which the key words are irrelevant to the solution (see Engelmann & Carnine, 1982; Kameenui & Simmons, 1990; Tennyson & Park, 1980)

Secondary students must learn to deal with complex notations, operations, and problem solving strategies. Complexity is sometimes related to the level of abstraction the student must deal with; it may also be related to understanding the relationships between associated concepts. Thus, instructional examples should provide for the systematic progression from concrete to more abstract representations (Mercer & Miller, 1992) and from simpler to more involved relationships among concepts and rules. Students with LD have difficulty with complex tasks because they do not receive sufficient opportunities to work with complex instructional examples. Although instruction on simple forms of concepts or strategies does not facilitate generalization to more complex forms without additional instruction, Rivera and Smith (1988) demonstrated that carefully managed instruction for solving more complicated forms of division problems facilitated students' independent solutions of simpler division problems.

Explicitness

Explicitness of curriculum design refers to the unambiguous presentation of important concepts and skills and the relationships among them (Woodward,1991). The explicitness of a curriculum is affected by the quality of teacher decisions made and actions taken at the following five stages of the instructional design process:

Determining the concepts and skills that must be learned

Identifying the important relationships among concepts and skills;

Organizing facts, concepts, and skills into logical hierarchies;

Developing sets of instructional examples that unambiguously illustrate the range of concepts and skills that must be mastered;

Presenting the instructional examples to the student.

Ambiguities that enter the design process will result in predictable misunderstandings. Although research in this area is limited, Jitendra, Kameenui, and Carnine (1994) demonstrated that a highly explicit math curriculum produced greater student achievement than a less explicit curriculum.

The premise that curriculum quality is related to the degree to which concepts and skills are explicitly taught is being debated in the current movement to reform mathematics education. Instead of the argument for unambiguous organization and presentation, an increasingly popular position is that students should participate in instructional activities that allow them to construct both knowledge of concepts and skills and understandings of interrelated hierarchies (e.g., Poplin, 1988a, 1988b). Others contend that although students construct their own knowledge, teachers can contribute to the efficiency of instruction by carefully planning and structuring the learning experience (e.g., Harris & Graham, 1994; Mercer, Jordan, & Miller, 1994; Pressley, Harris, & Marks,1992). Engelmann (1993) acknowledged that it is logically impossible to have universal hierarchies of instructional skills, but he also contended that curricula must be organized around explicit instructional priorities. According to Engelmann, if hierarchical sequences are not developed around explicit instructional priorities, it is unlikely that students with learning difficulties will progress efficiently.

We encourage practitioners to follow this debate in the professional literature, because there is likely to be a subsequent effect on classroom practice. However, for students with LD, we believe that this dictum summarizes the empirical literature: More explicit instruction results in more predictable, more generalizable, and more functional achievement. If we do not explicitly teach important knowledge and skills, these objectives will not be adequately learned.

The need for explicitly identifying and teaching important mathematical concepts, skills, and relationships is apparent in the persistent failure of students with LD to deal adequately with common fractions, decimal fractions, percentages, ratios, and proportions. A clear example of the link between explicit instruction and expected student performance can be seen in states that use proficiency tests as criteria for promotion or graduation. In the state of Ohio for example, students in the ninth grade take basic academic-proficiency examinations. They must pass these exams in order to graduate from high school. The Ohio Department of Education provides funds for school districts to deliver remedial programs to students who fail the proficiency examination. The remedial programs provide explicit instruction on the types of problems and relationships presented on the test. Although one might question the wisdom or utility of proficiency testing, the telling argument here is that when educators were forced to confront the practical problem of designing the most efficient and effective means for students to achieve criterion performance (i.e., pass a test), an explicit approach was selected.

Parsimony

Effective curricula provide for an economical, or parsimonious, use of time and resources. Woodward (1991) contended that emphasis should be given to mastery of concepts, relationships, and skills that are essential for the subsequent acquisition and functional generalization of math skills. Curricula should be organized so that instruction of specific skills and concepts is tightly interwoven around critical concepts. Woodward's test for the parsimony of an instructional program is whether or not what is learned at one time will be used later. In general, practitioners are well aware of the need for functional instruction, because they must frequently answer questions such as, "Which is more important to the students, a unit on metric conversion or one on checking account management?" or "How often in life will students with LD be required to divide fractions?" However, it is not enough to identify information and skills that take the highest priority. The curriculum must be organized so that the greatest amounts of high-priority information and skills can be mastered as efficiently as possible.

In summary, the content of instruction and its organization play critical roles in determining its quality and outcomes. Unfortunately, commercial math curricula frequently stop well short of providing adequate opportunities to learn to solve mathematics problems that involve the contexts of work and everyday situations. Successful student performance on algorithms and abstracted word problems does not always result in competent real, life mathematical problem solving. In response to that problem, Hasselbring and colleagues (Bottge & Hasselbring, 1993; Bransford, Sherwood, Hassel bring, Kinzer, & Williams, 1990; Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University,1991; Hasselbring et al., 1991) have been conducting innovative research on teaching adolescents with LD to solve contextualized mathematical problems. They use video disks and direct instruction techniques to present complex mathematical problems that are embedded in portrayals of real-life situations. The results of their studies are encouraging and clearly demonstrate that adolescents with LD can be taught to solve more complex problems than their teachers generally expect from them. On the other hand, those studies also demonstrate that unless students are guided in solving complex math problems and are also given sufficient opportunities to independently attempt to solve such problems, they usually will not learn adequate generalized problem solving skills.

Management of instruction

Archer and Isaacson (1989) listed three variables that can be measured to evaluate quality of instruction at any grade level: time on task, level of success, and content coverage. According to their perspective, good teachers manage instruction so that students (a) spend the major portion of instructional time actively engaged in learning, (b) work with high levels of success, and (c) proceed through the curriculum while acquiring increasingly more complex skills and important generalizations. Thus, good teaching is indicated by students' responses to instruction. Obtaining high levels of achievement requires effective management of instruction.

Zigmond (1990) reported data from observational studies indicating that too many teachers of secondary students with LD may not be managing instruction effectively. She reported that during their class periods, resource room teachers spent slightly less than 40% of class time in instructional interactions. Teachers spent 28% of their time "telling students what to do, but not teaching them how to do it, and another 23% of the time not interacting with students at all" (p. 6). Although students were observed to be on task for about three quarters of the class period, they were often completing worksheets. Worksheets may be appropriate for practice, but they are not useful for introducing new information and skills. The lecture format of instruction that often occurs in general secondary mathematics classes often is not effective, either. Zigmond observed that many large classes are not managed well-students who have difficulty understanding what the teacher is talking about tend to be off task, and misunderstandings often go undetected.

Alternatives to worksheet instruction and didactic lectures have been investigated in empirical studies. The approaches to managing instruction that we will discuss are direct instruction, interactive instruction, peer-mediated instruction, and strategy instruction. The effectiveness of the first three of these approaches has been documented across a variety of curriculum areas with secondary students in general, remedial, and special education programs.

Direct instruction

There are a variety of interpretations of the term direct instruction. In some discussions it refers to a model for both curriculum organization and presentation procedures (e.g., Becker & Carnine, 1981; Engelmann & Carnine, 1982; Gersten, 1985). Other descriptions of direct instruction refer to a set of procedures for actively involving students in academic learning (Christenson, Ysseldyke, & Thurlow, 1989; Rosenshine, 1976; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). In both discussions, instruction is teacher-led and characterized by (a) explicit performance expectations, (b) systematic prompting, (c) structured practice, (d) monitoring of achievement, and (e) reinforcement and corrective feedback.

Archer and Isaacson (1989) provided a structure for teacher led instruction that is divided into three phases: the lesson opening, the body of instruction, and the closing of the lesson (see Table 1). During each phase the teacher works to maintain high levels of active student involvement, successful acquisition, and progress through the curriculum.

The opening of the lesson

The teacher first gains the attention of the students. A brief statement, such as, "Look up here. We are going to begin," is generally adequate. The teacher reminds the students of what was accomplished in the previous lesson and sets the goal for the current session. For example, "Yesterday we learned how to calculate the area of squares and rectangles. Today we are going to learn how these calculations are used in the home to lay carpet, paint walls, and tile floors." Lengthy reviews or previews of upcoming lessons are unnecessary. If this part of the lesson is not brief, students are likely to start attending to other things.

Opening

Gain the students' attention
Review pertinent achievements from previous instruction.
State the goal of the lesson.

Body

Model performance of the skill.
Prompt the students to perform the skill along with you. Check the students' acquisition as they perform the skill independently.

Close

Review the accomplishments of the lesson.
Preview the goals for the next lessons.
Assign independent work.

The body of the lesson

It may be necessary to cue the students' attention again with a gesture or brief comment before beginning, but immediately after opening the lesson the teacher should begin instruction with the first example. With the first phase of instruction the teacher models the task. For example, if the students are learning a problem-solving strategy, the teacher first models the strategy by saying, "If I wanted to determine how many 1' by 1' self-stick floor tiles it would take to cover an 8' by 10' floor, I could apply the surface area formula we learned yesterday. I would multiply 8' times 10' and find that it would take 80 square feet. If I know that the room has 80 square feet, how many 1' by 1' floor tiles do I need?" The demonstration step is critical, especially if students are learning a new concept or skill. It should be brief and should explicitly indicate the critical aspects of applying the strategy. After the demonstration step, the students are led through a few examples. In this "lead step," the students and teacher actively respond together to solve the problem, introduced by stating, "Let's try a problem together." Students may respond orally, in writing, or by gesture. Archer and Isaacson (1989) recommended that teachers use various forms of student responses.

Several prompted trials are usually necessary before students can be expected to respond independently. The transition from prompted trials to independent trials can take place with few or no errors if teachers systematically delay the delivery of a prompt (Cybriwsky & Schuster, 1990; Koscinski & Gast, 1993; Koscinski & Hoy, 1993; Stevens & Schuster, 1988).

After students respond correctly on several independent test trials, the teacher should have them complete practice examples. If the students are practicing newly acquired skills, they should be supervised for at least the first few practice examples. If they do not need assistance completing their practice exercises, the teacher may close the lesson.

The literature on direct instruction of students with LD identifies five recommendations in the delivery of instruction that contribute to the effectiveness of that instruction: (a) Obtain frequent active responses from all students, (b) maintain a lively pace of instruction, (c) monitor individual students' attention and accuracy, (d) provide feedback and positive reinforcement for correct responding, and (e) correct errors as they occur (Archer & Isaacson, 1989; Becker & Carnine, 1981; Christenson et al., 1989; Mercer & Miller,1992; Reith & Evertson,1988). Each recommendation makes an important contribution, but achievement will be highest when all five are part of the delivery of instruction (Becker & Carnine, 1981).

The close of the lesson

Typically, the teacher closes a lesson with three brief steps. First, he or she reviews what was learned during the current lesson, where there may have been difficulty, and where performance may have been particularly good. The review may also include a brief statement of how learning in the current session extended what was already known. Second, the teacher provides a brief preview of the instructional objectives for the next session. Third, she or he assigns independent work. Independent seatwork and homework provide important opportunities for students to apply knowledge and practice skills that they have already learned, thus increasing fluency and retention. Independent practice should, therefore, be carefully selected so that students can actually complete it successfully without assistance from a teacher or parent.

Practice activities are essential components of mathematics instructional programs. Students with LD will generally need more practice and practice that is better designed than students without LD, if they are to achieve adequate levels of fluency and retention. Worksheets are commonly used to provide practice, but the ones that publishers supply are frequently inadequate. Table 2 provides a list of principles for designing and evaluating practice activities for students with LD. For a more detailed discussion of those guidelines, see Carnine (1989).

Model-lead-test presentation procedures have many positive qualities: They are quite easy to learn; they are, with slight variations, generalizable to teaching motor skills, concept discriminations, rule relationships, and strategy tasks (see Archer & Isaacson, 1989; Kameenui & Simmons, 1990; Silbert et al., 1990). By themselves, the presentation procedures have been demonstrated to provide for efficient instruction across age levels, ability levels, and curriculum domains. If students imitate the initial prompts, there is little chance that they will guess and make errors. Because prompts are faded, the chances that students will develop dependence on instructional prompts is reduced. Thus, the students learn to expect to be successful and are less apt to resist instruction than if they are confronted with loosely or ranged instructional procedures where the chances that they will fail are high. Finally, there is empirical evidence in the professional literature that direct instruction procedures have been effectively used to teach math skills to older students with LD (e.g., Perkins & Cullinan, 1985; Rivera & Smith, 1988).

1. Avoid memory overload by assigning manageable amounts of practice work as skills are learned.

2. Build retention by providing review within a day or two of the initial learning of difficult skills, and by providing supervised practice to prevent students from practicing misconceptions and "misrules."

3. Reduce interference between concepts or applications of rules and strategies by separating practice opportunities until the discriminations between them are learned.

4. Make new learning meaningful by relating practice of subskills to the performance of the whole task, and by relating what the student has learned about mathematical relationships to what the student will learn about mathematical relationships.

5. Reduce processing demands by preteaching component skills of algorithms and strategies, and by teaching easier knowledge and skills before teaching difficult knowledge and skills.

6. Require fluent responses.

7. Ensure that skills to be practiced can be completed independently with high levels of success.

Note. Adapted from Carnine (1989).

Presentation options

Response options

Interactive teacher presentations and student responses

Outside school, the demand to demonstrate mathematics knowledge and skills emerges in a potentially wide range of representations. Appropriate responses also vary. Cawley, Fitzmaurice, Shaw, Kahn, and Bates (1978)described a model for programming mathematics instruction for secondary students with LD that takes into account both the students' skills and the various possible representations of mathematics problems. Their instructional program is interactive. Instructional examples are selected according to (a) the individual student's mastery of specific skills, (b) the mode in which the math problem will be represented, and (c) the mode in which the student will respond to the problem. Problems can be presented in four modes: active constructions or manipulation of objects, fixed visual displays, oral statements, and written or symbolic representations. The student's response mode may also occur across four options: active constructions or manipulation of objects, identification of a visual display from a set of alternative displays, an oral statement, and a written or symbolic representation.

Table 3 illustrates Cawley et alas (1978) options for presenting and responding to problems. The modes for the teacher's presentation and the student's responses can be mixed; for example, the teacher may present a problem orally, and the student may respond by selecting an appropriate response from alternatives. The 16 different combinations of modes of presentation and response allow instructional programs to be tailored to both the individual needs of students and the realistic representations of mathematical problem-solving situations. Cawley et al. argued that students who have the opportunity to work with varied presentations and response options are more likely to learn generalizable skills than students who spend the greatest proportion of their time making written responses to problems presented in workbook pages.

Peer-mediated instruction

Over the past 20 years, educators have taken a growing interest in using students to help with each other's academic achievement. Current initiatives in both general and special education include two major forms of peer-mediated instruction-peer tutoring and cooperative learning. Both enjoy broad support in the empirical literature. Peer tutoring can take various forms. Two classmates may take turns helping each other in one on one practice of skills that have been presented earlier. It could also be an arrangement whereby a higher achieving student helps, or monitors the performance of, a lower achieving student (e.g., Maheady, Sacca, & Harper, 1987). Cooperative learning also involves peers assisting each other, but, instead of pairs of students, cooperative learning groups usually comprise three or more students of differing ability levels. Slavin (1983) defined cooperative learning as instructional arrangements in which students spend much of their class time working in small, heterogeneous groups on tasks they are expected to learn and help each other learn. The aspects that contribute to the effectiveness of both approaches will be discussed in this section.

Slavin's (1983) analysis of 46 studies of cooperative learning resulted in three important conclusions regarding which variables contribute to the success of cooperative learning. First, there was no evidence that group work itself facilitated individual students' achievement. Second, cooperative incentive structures (where two or more individuals depend on each other for a reward that they will share if they are successful) themselves did not have significant effects on the achievement of individual students; group rewards for group products did not improve student achievement. Third, group incentive structures were associated with higher achievement if the performance of individual students was accounted for and was reflected in the group rewards. The simplest method for managing individual accountability is to average individual scores to determine the reward for group members. A second method is to determine group rewards based on whether, or by how much, individual members exceeded their individual criterion. A third method is to assign each student in a group a unique task. Slavin warned, however, that although task specialization provides for individual accountability, it must be accompanied by group rewards. Furthermore, task specialization is not appropriate in situations where the instructional goal is for all members of the group to acquire the same knowledge and skills.

In summary, individual accountability with group rewards contributes to higher levels of achievement than individualized incentive structures, but group work without individual accountability or group rewards does not contribute to higher achievement than might be obtained with individualized task and incentive structures. Slavin (1983) cautioned that peer norms and sanctions probably apply only to individual behaviors that are seen by group members as being important to the success of the group. For example, he suggested that when rewards are group oriented and there is no individual accountability, group norms may apply to the behaviors of only those group members who are considered by the group as most apt to contribute to the quality of the group product.

Several studies of cooperative learning have demonstrated its effectiveness for teaching mathematics skills (e.g., Madden & Slavin, 1983; Slavin, 1984; Slavin & Karweit, 1981; Slavin, Leavey, & Madden, 1984; Slavin, Madden, & Leavey, 1984). Several of those studies (Madden & Slavin, 1983; Slavin, 1984; Slavin & Karweit, 1981) also consistently revealed that low-achieving students in cooperative learning programs enjoyed greater social acceptance by their higher achieving peers and reported higher levels of selfesteem than did low-achieving students in traditional instructional programs. In one particularly relevant study, Slavin and Karweit (1984) compared the effectiveness of cooperative learning and direct instruction for teaching mathematical operations from real-life problems to low-achieving students in ninth grade. They observed higher levels of achievement with cooperative learning than with direct instruction alone. Combining direct instruction with cooperative learning procedures did not produce higher levels of achievement than cooperative learning alone. A caveat, however, is warranted, because a reasonable explanation for the relative superiority of cooperative incentives is that the difficulties the ninth graders in the study experienced were the result of their having forgotten or incompletely learned basic math skills from earlier instruction. In such cases, incentive structures probably play a more important role than the model-lead-test prompting technique. When teaching new concepts or skills, teachers would be well advised to combine direct instruction and cooperative learning.

Strategy instruction

Students with LD must take an active role in managing their instruction. They must be able to solve problems independently, because teachers and peers are not always available or able to help them. Not only must students master the information and skills taught in their classes, but they must also successfully apply that knowledge and those skills to solve varied and often complex mathematical problems that they encounter outside instruction. Competent students independently select, apply, and monitor strategic procedures to solve complex and novel problems. A common attribute of students with LD, however, is that they do not employ effective learning strategies, unless they are explicitly instructed, and, thus, they are less effective at generalizing skills and knowledge outside the instructional setting (Deshler & Schumaker, 1986; Lenz & Deshler, 1990). If, however, students with learning difficulties are taught to use appropriate learning strategies and are reinforced for using them, they can perform effectively (Deshler & Schumaker, 1986; Ellis, Lenz, & Sabornie, 1987a, 1987b; Lenz & Deshler, 1990; Montague, Bos, & Doucette, 1991; Pressley, Symons, Snyder, & CarigliaBull, 1989).

Dreshler and associates (e.g., Deshler & Schumaker, 1986; Lenz & Deshler, 1990; Ellis et al., 1987a, 1987b) have articulated a model for strategy instruction specifically for secondary students with LD. According to their model, effective strategy instruction follows a process that is consistent with the development of curriculum and instruction that we described in the previous sections of this article. Strategies are selected with reference to the curriculum demands. Teachers manage the instruction of strategies by overtly modeling strategies and then leading students through their applications. Students verbalize their applications of strategies and monitor their own progress. The teacher also provides the students with many opportunities to determine which strategies are appropriate, to use the strategies, and to be rewarded for successful applications.

In the case of mathematics, students confront many quantitative and conceptual relationships, algorithms, and opportunities to apply mathematical knowledge to solve problems. Thus, training for generalization and strategic problem solving can become a ubiquitous part of mathematics curricula. By learning to be active and successful participants in their achievement, students learn to perceive themselves as competent problem solvers. They are more apt to attempt to apply knowledge in novel ways and to persevere to solve difficult problems than if they see themselves as ineffective, likely to fail, and dependent on others to solve novel and difficult problems.

Empirical research on strategy instruction has not been comprehensive in all areas of instruction, but educators should be optimistic and make reasonable attempts to implement strategy instruction. Many studies of strategy instruction have been conducted with secondary students across a variety of academic domains. Evaluations of strategy instruction in mathematics have demonstrated its effectiveness (Carnine, 1980; Case, Harris, & Graham, 1992; Darch, Carnine, & Gersten, 1984; Hutchinson,1993; Montague, 1992; Montague & Bos, 1986). Because those evaluations have involved only a few areas of math skills, researchers should continue to study the conditions that influence the efficacy of strategy instruction.

Evaluation of instruction

It is essential that instructional interventions be evaluated frequently. The academic difficulties of secondary students with LD are diverse and complex. Current research on mathematics instruction for students with learning difficulties is not sufficiently developed to provide teachers with precise prescriptions for improving instruction. Therefore, the best educators' best efforts will frequently be based on reasonable extrapolations. Unless instructional assessments are conducted frequently and with reference to the students' performance on specific tasks, it will not be possible to use the information to make rational decisions for improving instruction. To an increasing extent, educators have come to the conclusion that traditional standardized achievement testing does not provide adequate information for solving instructional problems, and that a greater emphasis should be placed on data from functional or curriculum-based measurements (Reschly, 1992).

Assessments of instruction should provide data on individual students' progress in acquiring, generalizing, and maintaining knowledge and skills set forth in the curriculum. Curriculum-based assessment (CBA) is an approach to evaluating the effectiveness of instruction that has gained substantial attention for its value in the development of effective instructional programs. CBA can be characterized as the practice of taking frequent measure of a student's observable performance as he or she proceeds through the curriculum. As data are gathered, the measures of student performance are organized, usually graphed, and examined to make judgments of whether the student's level and rate of achievement are adequate. The teacher's reflections on the curriculum-based measures of performance and qualitative aspects of the student's performance may suggest a variety of rational explanations and potentially useful instructional interventions. If the student is making adequate progress, then it is not necessary to modify the program. On the other hand, if progress is inadequate, appropriate interventions might include devoting more time to instruction or practice, engaging the student in higher rates of active responding, slicing back to an easier level of a task, shifting instruction to tasks that are more explicitly or more parsimoniously related to the instructional objective, or changing the incentives for achievement. If curriculum-based measures appear to indicate that the student is having little or no difficulty meeting instructional criteria, the teacher should consider skipping ahead to more difficult tasks.

The value of CBA as a technique for improving quality of instruction can be attributed to the effects it appears to have on teachers' instructional behavior. First, the collection of valid curriculum-based measures requires that teachers specify their instructional objectives. Efforts to identify critical instructional objectives may also lead teachers to consider how those objectives should be sequenced for instruction. Such considerations can contribute to improvement in the quality of instruction; however, Fuchs and Deno (1991) argued that measurement of subskill mastery is not necessary and that measures of more general curriculum-based measures can provide educators with reliable, valid, and efficient procedures. Second, preparations for implementing CBA are frequently accompanied by specifications of expectations for instruction, such as how many or at what rate objectives will be learned. Fuchs, Fuchs, and Deno (1985) observed that teachers who set clear but ambitious goals for their students tended to obtain higher levels of achievement from their students than teachers who set more modest goals. Third, well-planned efforts to systematically reflect on frequent observations of academic performance are likely to result in more rational assessments of skill achievement than approaches to instruction that do not rely on frequent assessments of skill performance (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Steckler, 1990).

In summary, CBA provides for frequent assessments of student achievement that are directly related to instructional programs. Its use appears to have the effect of more rationally relating instructional decisions to instructional objectives and student difficulties, thus contributing to increased student achievement.

Educators' beliefs about effective instruction

There is no disagreement that all students, including those with LD, should be offered the most effective instruction possible. There are, however, diverse opinions among educators about the nature of effective instruction. It would be gratifying if empirical research played a bigger role in directing educational practice, but, frequently, beliefs and convictions play more influential roles. Sometimes educators' beliefs have positive influences on the development of instruction. For example, if a teacher believes that the source of a student's failure lies in his or her instructional experience, then the teacher may revise the curriculum, allocate more time for instruction, slice back to a less complex level of the task, or systematically and frequently collect achievement data so that the effects of instructional interventions can be monitored.

Proponents of current efforts to reform mathematics education believe that if the quality of instruction is to be improved, then many educators will have to dramatically change their perspectives on how mathematics should be taught (e.g., National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989). The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics set forth the following goals for all students: (a) to learn to value mathematics, (b) to become confident in their abilities to do mathematics, (c) to become mathematical problem solvers, (d) to learn to communicate mathematically, and (e) to learn to reason mathematically. We believe that these are worthy goals and that in order to reach them, educators must examine their beliefs; however, beliefs that form the basis of the constructivist approach to mathematics education will be insufficient for guiding the development of mathematics curricula, and may be interpreted by educators as legitimizing inadequate instructional practices.

Constructivism is an ideology that is becoming increasingly popular in the current mathematics education reform movement. Its core belief is that knowledge is not transmitted directly from the teacher to the student. Instead, the learner constructs knowledge through active engagement in the process of assimilating information and adjusting existing understandings to accommodate new ways of knowing (e.g., Cobb, 1994a, 1994b; Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994; Gadanidis, 1994; Harris & Graham,1994; Poplin,1988a; Pressley et al., 1992). Accordingly, the world that students come to know does not exist as an independent entity outside their minds. Their knowledge of the world is actively changing according to what they already have learned and what they are currently learning.

Descriptions of the constructivist approach depict situations in which (a) teachers possess a considerable knowledge of their subject matter; (b) teachers are able to draw on that knowledge to facilitate student learning under conditions that require a great deal of extemporaneous decision making; (c) students are highly motivated to tackle difficult and challenging tasks in order to develop greater understanding; and (d) it becomes apparent over the course of the lesson that students are acquiring, developing, or constructing more sophisticated understandings than they had before the lesson began. Bereiter (1994) commented that it would be truly exceptional if all or most of these conditions could be met. He identified three substantial obstacles to meeting the conditions: (1) inadequate teacher education, (2) trial-and-error learning, and (3) difficulty with observing progress.

Teacher education is a major obstacle, but, compared to the others, it may be the easiest to overcome. Under relatively unstructured conditions in which students play very active roles in the direction of instruction, it is difficult for even the most knowledgeable teacher to facilitate learning adequately and consistently. The second obstacle is that in constructivist approaches, students often persevere through trial-and-error learning. Under such learning conditions, students with LD are apt to make many more errors than their more capable peers. If they expect to fail, they are prone to give up or to withdraw from instruction.

The last condition (i.e., effecting and acknowledging progress) will be difficult to meet, unless very simple concepts and skills are being taught. Over the course of an instructional session, it must be apparent to both the student and the teacher that progress is being made. Two factors limit the probability that progress will be consistently detected and rewarded: difficulty specifying objectives, and complexity of instructional conditions. The two basic tenets of constructivism-that knowledge cannot be directly transmitted from the teacher to the student, and that students actively construct their own knowledge-suggest that precise, meaningful, and measurable learning objectives may not be established. The CBA approach cited earlier suggests that as precision in measurement of student performance increases, so does student achievement.

In summary, the constructivist perspective, though intuitively appealing, is currently unsupported by empirical research and is logically inadequate for the task of teaching adolescents with LD. It is a set of beliefs that may not be able to be implemented to the satisfaction of those who promote it (see Reid, Kurkjian, & Carruthers, 1994). Unfortunately, it is also a set of beliefs that may fail to encourage the hard work of improving the quality of instruction for students with LD, and may actually be interpreted as justification for haphazard instruction. The premise that secondary students with LD will construct their own knowledge about important mathematical concepts, skills, and relationships, or that in the absence of specific instruction or prompting they will learn how or when to apply what they have learned, is indefensible, illogical, and unsupported by empirical investigations. If instructional objectives are ambiguously organized, the objectives will not be adequately addressed, and students with LD will not achieve them.

Conclusions

Secondary students with LD spend the bulk of their instructional time on very simple math skills. As a result of frequent failure, and of prolonged instruction on such simple skills, it is generally difficult to motivate them to attempt complex tasks or to persist in independent work. By the time that students graduate or drop out of school, they will have made only the most rudimentary achievements. Few will have acquired the levels of application and problem-solving skills necessary to function independently. To a great extent, improvement in mathematics education for secondary students with LD will depend on their receiving better mathematics education while they are in the elementary grades.

We strongly believe that efforts to improve mathematics education must be based on empirical research. There is already a sufficient body of research to serve as the basis for making substantial improvements in educational practice, but much more is needed. Empirical documentation of effective practice will not be sufficient to effect improvements. Compelling research on effective instructional practices is frequently ignored (Carnine, 1992). Instead, appealing but unvalidated trends, such as constructivism and discovery learning, have caught educators' attention. Those ideologies tend to be vague and allow support for haphazard and poorly designed instruction. They are logically antithetical to the existing empirical evidence on best practices for students with LD. Educational practices that are derived from ideologies must be critically evaluated-and not merely for their fit with the political sensibilities of any particular ideology, but for their effect on the achievement of children and youth.

We are also convinced that teachers must have at hand effective instructional procedures, materials, and other resources. At the present time they must do much of the work of improving mathematics education themselves. Unfortunately, few teachers have sufficient time or training to design and comprehensively evaluate math curricula (Cobb, 1988; Swing, Stoiber, & Peterson, 1988). It is the business of commercial publishers to design instructional procedures and curricula. Instead of attempting to keep up with shifts in ideologies, publishers should attempt to produce empirically defensible tools for teachers.

About the authors

Eric D. Jones, EdD, is a professor in the Department of Special Education at Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio. His research interests include applications of behavior analysis to the design and delivery of instruction for students with learning difficulties. Rich Wilson, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Special Education at Bowling Green State University. His research interests include mathematics instruction and behavior management for students with learning difficulties and behavior disorders. Shalini Bhojwani is a master's degree student in the Department of Special Education at Bowling Green State University and a teacher of students with severe behavior disorders at the Alternate Learning Center in Toledo, Ohio.

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Scholarship suggests that writing teachers and instructors looking to integrate multimodal composition into their secondary or post-secondary classrooms should consider graphic novels as a mentor text for multimodal literacy.

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Shaping is the use of reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior. Specifically, when using a shaping technique, each approximate desired behavior that is demonstrated is reinforced, while behaviors that are not approximations of the desired behavior are not reinforced.

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Example(s)

Jason

Ms. Brown, 10-year-old Jason's general education teacher, and Ms. Henderson, Jason's resource room teacher, targeted sitting in his seat during lectures as a desired behavior for Jason during social studies and reading in general and special education settings, respectively. Ms. Henderson suggested a shaping technique to teach seated behavior after she had determined that Jason was remaining in his seat a mean of 2 minutes during social studies.

They analyzed approximations of the target behavior and planned to reinforce those behaviors as follows:

Reinforcing when Jason sits in his seat for a 3 minutes

Reinforcing when Jason sits in his seat for 5 minutes

Reinforcing when Jason sits in his seat for 10 minutes

Reinforcing when Jason sits in his seat for 15 minutes

Reinforcing when Jason sits in his seat for 20 minutes (the targeted time)

Both Ms. Brown and Ms. Henderson differentially reinforced Jason's sitting behavior in their classrooms based on their criterion of approximations for each phase. After six weeks, Jason acquired sitting behavior in class.

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Jason Ms. Brown, 10-year-old Jason's general education teacher, and Ms. Henderson, Jason's resource room teacher, targeted sitting in his seat during lectures as a desired behavior for Jason during social studies and reading in general and special education settings, respectively.

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Strategies	and	Interventions	to	Support	Students with Mathematics Disabilities

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Strategies	and	Interventions	to	Support	Students with Mathematics Disabilities

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By implementing these strategies and interventions, educators can effectively support students with mathematics disabilities in developing essential mathematical skills, building confidence, and achieving success in mathematics. Through targeted support and individualized instruction, students can overcome challenges and reach their full potential in mathematics learning.

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Co-teaching is a collaborative teaching approach where two or more educators work together to plan, instruct, and assess a diverse group of students.

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Literacy Instruction for Diverse Learners

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Literacy Instruction for Diverse Learners

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Literacy instruction plays a critical role in empowering all learners to develop essential reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills necessary for academic success and lifelong learning.

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Constance Beecher; Sohyun Meacham; and Nandita Gurjar

"We have become not a melting pot but a beautiful mosaic. Different people, different beliefs, different yearnings, different hopes, different dreams." - Jimmy Carter

"We should all know that diversity makes for a rich tapestry, and we must understand that all the threads of the tapestry are equal in value no matter what their color." - Maya Angelou

Keywords: cultural literacy, dual-language learners, universal design for learning, trauma-informed instruction

Imagine a class with diverse kids - some with invisible or visible disabilities, different ethnicities, and nationalities - who feel a sense of belonging and whose cultural capital, customs, traditions, and languages are valued in the classroom space. The teacher focuses on building relationships with each child to scaffold and enrich their learning as s/he has an undaunted belief in their capabilities and strengths. In this nurturing environment, every child could blossom and reach for the stars. This is the class every child deserves, no matter where they come from or where they are going!

Culturally responsive instruction begins with getting to know our students - their home lives and cultures. Having an appreciation and respect for each child and their cultural and linguistic backgrounds and leveraging them in classroom instruction in reading and writing lets the children know that they belong in the classroom community. A positive self-concept and self-esteem are crucial for learning and engagement to occur. Therefore, it is the teacher's job to embrace and welcome each child's cultural and linguistic identities to foster a culturally inclusive learning environment.

Teachers should build relationships with parents and students and welcome parents as volunteers and guest speakers into the classroom space. Invite parents to read a folktale, fable, myth, or legend from their culture to the class. Have "Show and Tell" days where children can bring cultural artifacts to show their peers and take pride in who they are. During reciprocal teaching, they can teach a peer some expressions from their native language or a song from their culture. Also, ensuring that the child sees themselves in the literature they read is vital for their self-concept. Therefore, having books that are mirrors, windows, and sliding doors (Sims Bishop, 1990) will ensure that all children see themselves in literature and media.

To get to know your students and their families, learn about their family literacy practices. Some children come from an oral storytelling tradition where they grow up listening to stories from grandparents, uncles, and aunts or learning family arts and crafts such as quilt making and basket weaving; these are all valid family cultural practices that contribute to building the children's native language and cultural literacies, upon which school literacies are built.

Begin with family cultural literacy practices

Alma Flor Ada (2003) reminds us: "Students live in two worlds: home and school. If these two worlds do not recognize, understand, and respect each other, students are put in a difficult predicament (p.11)"; and very little learning can occur. The Global Family Research Project emphasizes that literacy begins at home.

Culturally and linguistically diverse parents value literacy and see it as the single, most powerful hope for their children's future (Ordonez-Jasis & Oritz, 2006)

Researchers who study diverse learners say that teachers must talk with families to understand their lives outside of school. Teachers will see a complete picture of the families' socio-cultural contexts, and they will also recognize the wealth of stories, history, motivations, and cultural information, or "funds of knowledge" (Moll & Gonzalez 2004), that the parents contribute to their children's literacy learning. These funds of knowledge become the building blocks for a comprehensive literacy program. Positive early literacy experiences in families - reading with a parent, grandparent, or aunt, visiting the library, or enjoying books with other children at their childcare prepares them to learn to read at school. Here are seven research-based ways families contribute to the child's literacy development:

1. Creating a literacy-friendly home environment.

1. The number of books in the home is a predictor of the children's success in reading.

2. Reading to children and asking questions about the story builds vocabulary, letter knowledge, and comprehension.

2. Having lots of conversations.

1. Children need to hear a lot of language from birth in order to grow the neural networks that are the basis of their language development.

2. The number of words children hear by age 3 strongly predicts kindergarten readiness.

3. Having high expectations for the children's learning.
When parents believe their children will succeed in school, their children have greater success than the children of parents who do not believe it.

4. Making reading enjoyable.

1. When families nurture encouraging interactions, the children are interested in reading, which helps their literacy skills grow.

2. Adults benefit too - these enjoyable experiences help reduce stress!

5. Families use their home language.

1. Around 25% of young children in the U.S. are learning two languages at the same time.

2. Using the home language helps the children build vocabulary and have a healthy self-identity.

6. Families and teachers communicate.

1. Research clearly shows that when parents are involved with a child's schooling, the children's learning is enhanced.

2. Schools/childcare centers can invite the parents into the classroom and share information so they can support their children.

7. Visiting the library.
Kindergartners who visit libraries with their families score higher on assessments of reading, mathematics, and science in third grade than those who rarely visit.

It is important for teachers to connect with families and validate their roles in their children's learning. After all, children only spend around 25% of their waking time in school! (Wherry, 2004).

Diversity and children's Books

Diversity and social justice are two key themes in literacy-education research today. This research focuses on teaching children to understand the diversity within human beings in this world and injustice issues associated with the diversity. In this context, scholars use "multicultural children's literature" as the term for the children's literature that deals with diversity and social justice (Cai, 2002). In many early childhood classrooms, multicultural picturebooks from different countries are considered to be the main resources for diversity education. However, the use of international picturebooks may not be sufficient to reduce our children's cultural biases and develop their ability to make social changes. Helping our children become aware of injustices perpetrated because of cultural differences and to actually act on the issues should be an ultimate goal when exposing them to multicultural picturebooks. Botelho and Rudman's (2009) critical multicultural analysis of children's literature gives us some ideas about how to use multicultural picturebooks in attaining this goal. Introducing the topics of race, gender, and social class, they emphasize that understanding who exercises the power in our society, where these three aspects of humanity are intertwined, is a key consideration when deciding which picturebooks to read with our children and what conversations we will have with them.

Facilitating critical reading

In addition, critical reading is something we should promote during read-alouds with our children, after selecting culturally sensitive, high-quality multicultural picturebooks for our classroom library. High-quality texts do not overly explain the story, to invite readers to "draw their own conclusions without being told precisely what to think " (Young et al., 2020, p. 32). Quality multicultural picturebooks do not necessarily tell the systemic factors regarding social inequity but show the issues. In addressing them, the adults' role in facilitating critical conversations around the readings with the children is significant (Quast & Bazemore-Bertrand, 2019).

Last Stop on Market Street, written by Matt de la Peña and illustrated by Christian Robinson, is a multicultural picturebook that stands out in my mind. This book is frequently discussed in the recent literacy-education literature that focuses on diversity and social justice. It deals with economic inequality portrayed in an urban U.S. context. The main storyline follows CJ's bus rides with his grandmother. He usually takes the bus with his grandma after church, even on rainy days. Although in the early part of the story he questions why he needs to take the bus but his friend rides in the family's car, he and his grandma find real beauty around them during their bus rides.

CJ needs to ride the bus because they don't own a car. CJ asks his grandma, "Nana, how come we don't got a car?" Grandma responds, "Boy, what do we need a car for? We got a bus that breathes fire, and old Mr. Dennis, who always has a trick for you" (De la Peña, 2015). In the United States, the use of public transportation is often associated with poverty. Cities and towns there have been built primarily for people with personal vehicles. Therefore, except for metropolitan areas such as New York and Chicago, the use of public transportation is an inconvenience that mostly people on low incomes end up needing to bear. Rather than complaining about the situation, however, CJ's grandma and he talk about enjoyable things. They focus on people that they enjoy seeing and being with - from the bus driver to a guitar player.

While deficit views and devaluing the cultures of people in poverty are prevalent in society (e.g., they are lazy; something's wrong with them), Last Stop on Market Street supports the counter-narrative. The last stop, which CJ and his grandma get off at, is a soup kitchen where they volunteer weekly. They are not lazy. They are helping others.

Race is not explicitly spoken of in this book, although readers can see CJ's skin color is dark. This is where we can have a critical conversation about how people with certain racial backgrounds tend to experience poverty more often than others, and about "how people from all different racial, ability, and cultural backgrounds might share similar poverty experiences" (Quast & Bazemore-Bertrand, 2019, p. 221). As the book does not speak about the reasons for CJ and his grandma's current economic condition either, more critical conversations between the teacher and the children will be needed for the children to become aware of systemic factors contributing to inequity.

Last Stop on Market Street speaks about the Blind culture (capitalized to indicate that this person belongs to the Blind culture, not just that they do not see) a little more explicitly than racial issues. Another rider on the bus is Blind. When CJ sees the man, he asks his grandma, "How come that man can't see?" A conversation among this man, CJ, and his grandma ensues in which it is revealed how the Blind culture has a rich appreciation of their world because of their enhanced olfactory and auditory senses. The man tells CJ's grandma that he even closes his eyes to feel music.

Last Stop on Market Street is a rare picturebook, earning a Newbery Medal, an award that is not for the illustrations but for the quality of the writing. Considering that most of the books receiving the Newbery Medal are chapter books, the accomplishment of this picturebook is remarkable. It is also notable that Matt de la Peña is one of only three Latin-background authors to have won the Newbery. This talented author also won Pura Belpré Honor Book Awards for both this book and his young-adult novel The Living, in 2014. The Pura Belpré Award was founded in 1996 to celebrate the work of Latinx writers and illustrators. Christian Robinson, the African-American illustrator of Last Stop, won the Coretta Scott King Illustrator Honor Award; Coretta Scott King Book Awards have gone to one African-American author and one African-American illustrator annually since 1974. Last but not least, this book won the Caldecott Honor in 2016.

The urban atmosphere as depicted in Robinson's paintings and collages can make us feel some human warmth, rather than seeming merely cold, sterile, and industrial. His illustrations effectively delineate a remarkable level of diversity among the characters through the many different shades of people's skin color, hair texture, clothing, gestures, props that the characters hold or use, and whatnot. This quality is also evident in Robinson's more recent wordless picturebook titled Another, which was published in March 2019. In both of the books illustrated by Robinson, he only uses dots for people's eyes, although the colors of the dots vary. By doing so, the illustrations avoid potentially stereotypical eye shapes (e.g., thin slanted eyes).

In conclusion, we should reiterate that there are many things that are not explicitly articulated in Last Stop on Market Street, while it delineates an unexpected beauty in the experiences of people who live in poverty. Children's literature scholars suggest that quality multicultural children's literature should "avoid the single story or allowing one story to speak for an entire group of individuals" (Young et al., 2020, p. 81). This book does not attempt to speak for an entire group of people in poverty, people of color, or people with (dis)abilities. Still, it vividly depicts cultural specificity, which makes it a high-quality multicultural picturebook (Sims Bishop, 1992). Picturebooks like this can foster our children's intercultural understanding and the development of empathy.

DLL strategies in reading and writing

Dual-language learners' and emergent bilinguals'/multilinguals' needs should be addressed based on the policies and standards of the Iowa Department of Education. The number of English-language learners continues to increase in Iowa, which it has by almost 60% since 2010 (per the Iowa Department of Human Rights). One hundred seventy-seven languages were spoken by 31, 236 students in Iowa in the year 2020-2021 (Iowa Department of Human Rights). Here is a poster with the number of languages spoken in Iowa [PDF]. There are 18 languages spoken in Black Hawk County, where the University of Northern Iowa is located. Crawford County has the highest number of ELL students (32.7%) followed by Buena Vista with 26% and Marshall with 24.7%. There is an 83% increase in Iowa in the number of foreign-born residents. Embarc, in Waterloo, Iowa, is a non-profit community-based organization that addresses the needs of refugee children who migrated to Iowa due to socio-political upheavals.

We have a moral responsibility to reduce barriers and enhance educational, healthcare, and supportive services for ELLs, especially those who are new to the country and culture, and students with disabilities. The following inclusive strategies should be incorporated while reducing barriers for diverse learners in Iowa.

Incorporate Universal Design for Learning

ELL strategies

It is important to reduce anxiety in newcomers and second-language learners. We should aim at lowering the affective filter of our students so they can function at their best. It is important for us to understand the silent phase of language acquisition: second-language learners go through a period in which they are quiet but very receptive to comprehensible input. During this phase, the teacher's job is to continue to provide comprehensible input with visuals, gestures, and simplified language, without slang or idioms. If you choose to include idioms, explain them in a simple form through writing and drawing. Idioms are very hard to understand, as they are culturally specific.

Comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981) is the linguistic input that can be easily understood. It usually has more than one mode of expression. Along with simplified verbal expressions, other means of communicating used to make material clear and easily understood by second-language learners include visuals, videos, gestures, simulations, and hands-on experiences such as movement.

Motivate ELLs by engaging them in authentic reading and writing activities. Motivation plays a huge role in engagement. Relevance, interest, confidence (expectation of success), and satisfaction (enjoyment, extrinsic reward) play important roles in motivating learners (Keller, 1987). Having choices based on their interests and a supportive community that fosters collaboration provide linguistic support for emergent ELLs and DLLs. Social learning can be fun and playful. Students learn while discovering and playing. Leverage nature, creative opportunities, and teamwork in learning. Incorporate art, music, movement, theater, dance, play, discovery, and building. Children are naturally inquisitive. Tap into that! Engage in dialogic reading outdoors in nature! Let children express themselves through painting, drawing, pretend-play, and makerspace experiences to form hypotheses, test them, and develop their own interpretations of the world. As an ILA Literacy Brief suggests, children are active constructors of meaning. Let them play, discover, and learn!

Translanguaging

For DLLs, welcome translanguaging in their two languages. The use of both languages is an expression of their bicultural and bilingual identity. Translanguaging is very common and natural for non-native speakers of English who speak more than one language.

Here is a brief synopsis of some effective strategies (Hayes et al., 1998) that you can implement in your classroom:

1. Rebus is a very useful strategy that ensures that students have more than one way of expression by using a combination of pictures and writing to communicate meaning.

2. Idioms are culturally specific expressions, so much so that even after years of living in the U.S., some idioms can still be hard to understand, especially if they are connected to a culturally specific local context or sports which newcomers or immigrants might be unfamiliar with, for example, "knee-high by the Fourth of July" - an Iowa-specific idiom referring to the hoped-for corn growth. Idioms are important to understanding dialogue, so teaching them to ELLs through illustrations and the relevant background information is essential. Have the children follow this pattern:

1. State the idiom.

2. Illustrate the idiom.

3. Provide the literal meaning of the words.

4. State the cultural context and significance. Provide the actual meaning.

3. Illustrate the vocabulary - "Sketch to stretch." Drawing the vocabulary words communicates meaning. In addition, ELLs can act them out; they can write synonyms, antonyms, and put the words in sentences.

4. Dialogue journaling is a conversation that happens between the teacher and the student. This has been shown to build relationships, and it is helpful to students for them to have access to the teacher when they are going through the transition to a new culture.

5. Create a story using wordless picturebooks. Use picturebooks to leverage ELLs' background knowledge and cultural capital to make meaning while reading and writing stories. This activity also develops oral language.

6. Writing Weird Recipes with bugs and insects is a lot of fun for kids! Make a dish using the class recipe.

7. Do collaborative writing where one child describes an alien and another one draws it.

8. Have the children collect some interesting items on a nature walk and describe them to a peer. What can you do with the object?

9. Write a play or reader's theater with a peer with dialogues and enact it in class.

10. Have the children write a poem or a song from their culture and teach it to others.

11. Implement guided reading groups to differentiate instruction for ELLs with varying levels of English and first-language proficiency.

12. Engage in a Global Goals project. Choose one of the sustainable Global Goals and engage in researching it as a small group. Collaborate with another classroom from another part of the world!

Lastly, ensure that you create an inclusive space where other countries, cultures, and people are not stereotyped. The video below shows us the importance of not judging any child or their family based on a single story. It is key for the teacher to provide multicultural, diverse literature that provides mirrors where children can see themselves and windows and sliding doors that widen children's perspective of other cultures (Sims Bishop, 1990).

Dyslexia

According to the Iowa Code:

" Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge."

As you learned in the chapter on phonics, the National Reading Panel found that many difficulties encountered in learning to read were caused by poor phonemic awareness, and that systematic and explicit instruction in phonemic awareness contributed directly to improvements in children's reading and spelling skills.

The following list shows common ways young children may show that they have difficulty "breaking the code":

Difficulty hearing or producing rhymes.

Difficulty remembering or naming letter names and sounds.

Inability to sound out known words.

Slow, effortful oral reading.

Misreading or omitting common short words.

Inconsistent sight-word recognition.

Difficulty remembering simple sequences such as reciting the alphabet, counting to 20, or naming the months of the year.

Dyslexia is NOT a visual problem with confusing letters; rather, it is a difficulty in processing the sounds of language. In other words, children don't confuse b and d because they look alike; they confuse them because they sound alike.

However, young children often confuse letters, so letter reversal alone is insufficient to signal an underlying problem. If you notice a child who struggles with any of these tasks, it is essential to document the areas of difficulty.

Keep in mind that people have only been reading for a few hundred years. Our brains were not developed to read - rather they are designed to recognize language and objects. So having difficulty reading is not an indication that someone is not intelligent - in fact, many people with reading difficulties are very talented! It is a problem with the way the brain processes the sounds of language. Brain research [YouTube video] demonstrates that people with dyslexia rely too much on their memory, neglecting to use the faster system of sounding words out. However, research has also demonstrated that with training, the patterns can be changed. In other words, we can retrain the brain to use the sound system.

Early intervention is key! The earlier we can recognize the signs of a possible reading difficulty, the earlier systematic instruction can begin.

How to provide support

First, if you have documented that a student has trouble in the areas listed above, talk with your schools' Special Education staff about a referral.

However, you can support the student in your classroom. The first thing you can do is to develop a positive, supportive relationship with the student. A review of close to 150 studies on motivation found that to help children succeed, you must help them feel 3 things:

Competent: A feeling of competence doesn't mean that students already know how to do something, but that they have the confidence that they're capable of learning it. Starting off a reading lesson with something the students already know can build the feeling of competence. Then go to something that might be harder and encourage them to try it.

Belonging: This is feeling accepted and connected to others. Listen to a student's thoughts and feelings and respond with empathy: "Yes, learning new things can be hard. I know what that feels like." Help the student build the identities of a learner and a reader.

Autonomy: This is about choices and deciding for yourself what you want to do. Even little choices make a difference. Let the student pick their own books and personalize their assignments. Explain the rules and requirements of lessons so that the students can understand why they're being asked to do them.

These suggestions by the International Dyslexia Association (see Resources, pp.7-8) can help any student who might be struggling. These work for students who are learning English as a second or third language as well.

Clarify and simplify written directions. Some directions are written in paragraph form and contain unnecessary information. These can be overwhelming to some students. The teacher can help by underlining or highlighting the significant parts of the directions. Rewriting the directions is also often helpful.

When confronting unacceptable behavior, do not inadvertently discourage the child with dyslexia. Words such as "lazy" or "incorrigible" can seriously damage the child's self-image.

Present a small amount of work. The teacher can tear pages from workbooks and other materials to present small assignments to students who are anxious about the amount of work to be done. This technique prevents students from examining an entire workbook or other large amount of text and becoming discouraged.

Block out extraneous stimuli. If a student is easily distracted by visual stimuli on a full worksheet or page, a blank sheet of paper can be used to cover sections of the page not being worked on at the time. Also, line markers can be used to aid reading, and windows can be used to display individual math problems. Additionally, using larger font sizes and increasing spacing can help separate sections.

Provide additional practice activities. Some materials do not provide enough practice activities for students with learning problems to acquire mastery of selected skills. Teachers then must supplement the material with practice activities. Recommended practice exercises include instructional games, peer-teaching activities, self-correcting materials, computer software programs, and additional worksheets.

Use assistive technology. Products such as tablets, electronic readers/dictionaries/spellers, text-to-speech programs, audio books, and more can be very useful tools.

Employ peer-mediated learning. The teacher can pair peers of different ability levels to review their notes, study for a test, read aloud to each other, write stories, or conduct laboratory experiments. Also, a partner can read math problems for students with reading problems to solve.

Make work times flexible. Students who work slowly may be given additional time to complete written assignments.

Provide additional practice. Students require different amounts of practice to master skills or content, and students with learning problems need ample practice.

Adverse childhood experiences and trauma-informed instruction

ACEs, or adverse childhood experiences, are traumatic events that can dramatically upset a child's sense of safety and well-being. These experiences can include substance abuse in the home, the death of a parent, divorce, abuse, or witnessing violence. We know in our state that 64% of Iowans have experienced at least 1 ACE ( Iowa ACES 360). Data from the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH) showed that 46% of America's children had experienced at least one adverse childhood experience, with the number rising to 55 percent for children aged 12 to 17. One in five U.S. children had had two or more ACEs.

When we are threatened by stressful events, our body's stress system kicks in to prepare us to respond by increasing our heart rate, blood pressure, and stress hormones such as cortisol. But not all stress is created equal. Some, as in the top circle, gets our heart pumping a little faster and slightly elevates our stress hormones, but it's considered positive stress because it gets us moving to do something we need to or want to do. For example, maybe you are chatting with your spouse or friend when you realize how late it is getting. The stress of realizing that time before class is short gets you motivated to meet your goal of being on time to class.​

The next level of stress is tolerable stress, shown in the yellow circle. This is a serious, but temporary stress that's buffered by supportive relationships. Think about goodbyes between a parent and their child in your classroom in the morning. These can be highly stressful for both the child and their parent, but with support from you - a warm welcoming smile to the parent, a hug and engaging activities for the child - the stress is tolerable.​

Toxic stress, the red circle, is prolonged stress. The biological stress response - what naturally happens in the body in stress situations - stays engaged, and in this case there are few, if any, protective relationships to buffer that stress. With toxic stress, the body just doesn't get a break. Adverse Childhood Experiences from abuse, neglect, dysfunctional households, and violent situations can cause children to experience toxic stress.​

How can a teacher recognize when a student might have experienced trauma? The signs can include:

not following or understanding directions;

overreacting to statements or events in the classroom;

interpreting comments as negative;

lack of understanding of cause and effect;

poor communication skills; and

difficulty in regulating emotions.

The following recommendations for supporting students' social emotional learning are drawn from the Trauma Toolkit: Tools to support the Learning and Development of Students Experiencing Childhood & Adolescent Trauma, by First Book:

1. Create a safe classroom environment. Incorporating consistent routines and rituals in the classroom helps students experience predictability and security. Take a zero-tolerance stance on bullying, teasing, and other behaviors that make children feel unsafe or threatened.

2. Help students identify an area of competence. Whether it is an academic subject, extracurricular activity, or other creative outlet, helping students identify an area where they feel successful is important to their healing and development.

3. Develop rapport and positive relationships with students. Students experiencing trauma greatly benefit from having strong, positive relationships with adults and peers.

The Responsive Classroom

An evidence-based program that helps to build positive relationships in the classroom is "The Responsive Classroom." Here are the basic components of the Responsive Classroom approach:

Shared practices (K-8)

Interactive modeling: an explicit practice for teaching procedures and routines (such as those for entering and exiting the room), as well as academic and social skills (such as engaging with the text or giving and accepting feedback).

Teacher language: the intentional use of language to enable students to engage in their learning and develop the academic, social, and emotional skills they need to be successful in and out of school.

Logical consequences: a non-punitive response to misbehavior that allows teachers to set clear limits and students to fix and learn from their mistakes while maintaining their dignity.

Interactive learning structures: purposeful activities that give students opportunities to engage with content in active (hands-on) and interactive (social) ways.

Elementary practices (K-6)

Morning meeting: Everyone in the classroom gathers in a circle for twenty to thirty minutes at the beginning of each school day and proceeds through four sequential components: greeting, sharing, group activity, and morning message.

Establishing rules: The teacher and students work together to name individual goals for the year and establish rules that will help everyone reach those goals.

Energizers: short, playful, whole-group activities that are used as breaks in lessons.

Quiet time: a brief, purposeful, and relaxed time of transition that takes place after lunch and recess, before the rest of the school day continues.

Closing circle: five to ten minutes at the end of the day in which everyone participates in a brief activity that promotes reflection and celebration.

You can read more about the principles and practices on the Responsive Classroom website.

While the teacher can support students with practices like these, remember that if you suspect trauma or abuse, you should follow your school's policies on reporting and seeking help for children.

References

Barshay, J (2021). Proof points: What almost 150 studies say about how to motivate students. PROOF POINTS: What almost 150 studies say about how to motivate students - The Hechinger Report

Bartlett, J. D., Smith, S., & Bringewatt, E. (2017). Helping young children who have experienced trauma: Policies and strategies for early care and education. https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/d8-f1gn-7n98

Botelho, M. J., & Rudman, M. K. (2009). Critical multicultural analysis of children's literature: Mirrors, windows, and doors. New York, NY: Routledge.

Cai, M. (2002). Multicultural literature for children and young adults. Greenwood Press.

CDC. (2019). Fast Facts: Preventing adverse childhood experiences. Retrieved https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/aces/fastfact.html

De La Peña, M. (2015). Last stop on Market street (C. Robinson, Illus.).The Penguin Group.

Hayes, C., Bahruth, R., & Kessler, C. (1998). Literacy con carino. Heinmann.

Iowa Area Education Agencies (n.d.) Iowa Dyslexia Resources. https://sites.google.com/a/heartlandaea.org/dyslexia-resources/additional-resources?authuser=0#h.p_f4d16xk6z91m

Keller, J.M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development 10 (3), 2-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02905780

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Prentice-Hall.

Sims Bishop, R. (1992). Multicultural literature for children: Making informed choices. In V. J. Harris (Ed.), Teaching multicultural literature in grades K-8 (pp.37-54). Christopher-Gordon.

Sims Bishop, R. (1990). Mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors. Perspectives: Choosing and Using Books for the Classroom, 6(3), ix-xi.

Quast, E., & Bazemore-Bertrand, S. (2019). Exploring economic diversity and inequity through picturebooks. The Reading Teacher, 73(2), 219-222.

Wherry, J. H. (2004). The influence of home on school success. PRINCIPAL-ARLINGTON-, 84(1), 6-7.

Williams, J.M. & Scherrer, K. (2017). Trauma toolkit: Tools to support the learning and development of students experiencing childhood & adolescent trauma. First Book.

Young, T. A., Bryan, G., Jacobs, J. S., & Tunnel, M. O. (2020). Children's literature, briefly (7th ed.). Pearson.

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Chapter 9. Literacy Instruction for Diverse Learners

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Constance Beecher; Sohyun Meacham; and Nandita Gurjar "We have become not a melting pot but a beautiful mosaic. Different people, different beliefs, different yearnings, different hopes, different dreams." - Jimmy Carter "We should all know that diversity makes for a rich tapestry, and we must understand that all the threads of the tapestry are equal in value no matter what their color."

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Applying different interventions to Teach Writing to students with disabilities

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Applying different interventions to Teach Writing to students with disabilities

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Teaching writing to students with disabilities presents unique challenges and opportunities for educators. Effective writing instruction requires careful consideration of students' individual needs, strengths, and challenges, as well as the use of evidence-based interventions tailored to support their learning. By applying a range of interventions and strategies, educators can create inclusive and supportive learning environments where all students can develop their writing skills and express themselves effectively.

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Explore strategies for differentiating instruction to support learners with ASD. From visual supports and structured routines to sensory accommodations and social stories, these differentiation strategies aim to provide students with the necessary tools and supports to access the curriculum, build essential skills, and thrive in the classroom

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Fluent Persuasive Writing With Counterarguments for Students With Emotional Disturbance

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Fluent Persuasive Writing With Counterarguments for Students With Emotional Disturbance

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Twelve seventh- and eighth-grade students with emotional disturbance participated in a multiple probe, multiple baseline design two-phase intervention study to improve persuasive writing skills. Findings revealed that all students mastered the components of effective persuasive essay writing, included counterarguments, and improved from baseline to post instruction and post fluency phases in length and essay quality. Strategy reports revealed all students enjoyed using and seeing the benefits of instruction.

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Crafting a persuasive essay demands meticulous attention to both structure and substance. By adhering to these principles of persuasive writing, you can construct an essay that not only articulates a convincing argument but also captivates and persuades readers through cogent reasoning and compelling rhetoric.

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How to Write a Great Persuasive Essay [ BONUS TIPS & TRICKS 2020 ]

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In academic writing, transitions serve as pivotal connectors, seamlessly guiding readers through the logical progression of ideas. Among these connectors, "therefore," "thus," and "hence" play a fundamental role in signaling consequences or logical conclusions. These transition words denote a cause-and-effect relationship, indicating that the preceding information leads inexorably to a particular outcome or inference.

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Writing: Transitions – THEREFORE, THUS, CONSEQUENTLY

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Youths With Learning Disorders and Emotional Disturbance

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Youths With Learning Disorders and Emotional Disturbance

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The purpose of this study was to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature from 1994-2014 to understand the physical health status and health literacy of youth with Learning Disabilities (LD) and Emotional Disturbance (ED) as well as identify approaches to address these topics in school environments.

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Crafting a critical analysis essay requires more than mere summarization; it demands a meticulous examination and evaluation of a text, concept, or phenomenon. By following these tips, you can craft a compelling and insightful critical analysis essay that showcases your analytical prowess and intellectual engagement with the subject matter.

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Proven Tips for Writing a Critical Analysis Essay [Structure, Writing Steps, Example] | English

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Structured Literacy is an evidence-based approach to teaching reading and writing that systematically builds foundational skills essential for literacy development. It is tailored to meet the individual needs of learners, including those with dyslexia or other reading difficulties. Structured Literacy empowers students to become proficient readers and writers by systematically teaching foundational literacy skills.

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Educators commonly use guided reading text levels to match students with appropriate reading materials based on their current reading abilities. Each level corresponds to specific text characteristics and reader capabilities.

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Multi-sensory instruction is using visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic (movement) instructional strategies to stimulate learning by accessing multiple brain pathways. We learn through our senses. By using all senses when teaching, students with various learning styles or disabilities can benefit due to variety and choice. These strategies can be used individually or for the entire class.

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How to Work Literacy Instruction Into All Content Areas

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How to Work Literacy Instruction Into All Content Areas

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Incorporating literacy instruction into all content areas involves embedding reading and writing activities within the context of subjects like science, social studies, math, and even physical education. This approach reinforces literacy skills and enhances students' understanding of the subject. Educators empower students to become proficient readers, writers, and critical thinkers across disciplines.

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How to Work Literacy Instruction Into All Content Areas

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Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach to literacy practices across content areas, there are small, but effective shifts teachers can make to get students practicing the domain-specific skills they need.

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Reading and writing are integral components of science education, enabling students to develop scientific literacy—understanding, interpreting, and communicating scientific information effectively. By incorporating reading and writing into science instruction, educators empower students to become informed citizens who can engage with scientific issues, make evidence-based decisions, and contribute to the advancement of scientific knowledge.

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DISTINGUISHING DISCIPLINARY LITERACY FROM CONTENT AREA LITERACY

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DISTINGUISHING DISCIPLINARY LITERACY FROM CONTENT AREA LITERACY

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Disciplinary literacy emphasizes the specialized reading and writing practices within specific academic disciplines. In contrast, content area literacy focuses on the broader set of reading and writing skills applicable across different subject areas. Both types of literacy are essential for students to effectively engage with disciplinary texts, comprehend complex content, and become proficient learners across the curriculum.

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Academic Literacy: Literacy in content area instruction

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Academic Literacy: Literacy in content area instruction

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Students must be able to read and understand written material associated with different content areas, learn from various types of texts, and apply the information they read to new learning. This type of literacy is referred to as academic literacy. Academic literacy involves the kinds of reading, knowledge, and understanding that are related to academic tasks in content areas.

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Page 1: Literacy in Content-Area Instruction

Adolescent literacy is critical to the classroom success of middle- and high-school students. Reading in the content areas (e.g., social studies, science) is different from reading for enjoyment. It is a necessary step to the achievement of expected outcomes, such as:

Building conceptual knowledge

Solving problems

Completing an academic task

Understanding a context or perspective

Students must be able to read and understand written material associated with different content areas, learn from various types of texts, and apply the information they read to new learning. This type of literacy is referred to as academic literacy. Academic literacy involves the kinds of reading, learning, and understanding that are related to academic tasks in content areas.

Successful performance in subject areas depends on strong reading skills. A surprising number of middle- and high school students lack academic literacy skills and would benefit from explicit content-area reading instruction. This is true not only for students with reading difficulties but also for those who are competent readers (i.e., those who score well on reading assessments) but still have difficulty comprehending content material. In spite of this need, students generally do not receive this type of instruction in the content areas.

Research Shows

Only one in four high-school students taking college entrance exams met college readiness benchmarks in all subject areas, and only about half demonstrated college-level reading proficiency.
(ACT, 2011)

Many content-area teachers believe that reading instruction is not their responsibility. They did not receive the relevant training and generally feel it is someone else's role to teach reading skills. Although reading specialists and special educators might in fact provide instruction for students who struggle with basic reading skills such as decoding words and reading fluently, it is nevertheless important for content-area teachers to integrate literacy instruction into their classes. Deborah Reed and Sharon Vaughn discuss these issues.

Deborah K. Reed, PhD
College of Education
University of Iowa
Director, Iowa Reading Research Center

(time: 1:37)

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Sharon Vaughn, PhD
Professor of Special Education
Director of the Vaughn Gross Center
for Reading and Language Arts
University of Texas, Austin

(time: 2:00)

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Transcript: Deborah K. Reed, PhD

There are a lot of pressures put on the teachers to satisfy certain standards or to cover a certain amount of material. I think they feel the pressure of coverage of content, and because they are less comfortable with addressing literacy issues that's the first thing that they want to have fall off their very full plates. They want to be able to focus on what they see are the main issues associated with learning that subject area. I think that we don't do a very good job of showing how those are actually integrated, the literacy and the content learning being integrated into what students have to learn. I think we make it seem as though these literacy skills are ubiquitous, that everybody can do the same thing, and it will work for everyone, and it'll be so easy. I don't think that it's that easy, and I don't think it's exactly the same in every content area. So if we put all the high school teachers together in a room and say everybody should just do this, they walk away with very different impressions of what we have said and think that it applies to them in different ways. What they really want is for somebody to show them exactly how it's going to work in their class with their materials and their students, and that it will still support satisfying all of those standards and other expectations related to the content that they need to master and meet.

Transcript: Sharon Vaughn, PhD

It's important for content-area teachers to integrate literacy practices into their instructional routines-getting the kind of momentum and success we need with this age group can only occur when it is done throughout the day. So expanding the number of vocabulary words that students have from 8,000 to 12,000 can't occur by one teacher teaching two or three words a week. It can only occur with multiplicative outcome that occurs when every teacher participates. Also many of the academic words that we want students to learn have unique definitions and meanings within the content area. So if you take a word like equal in the area of social studies, equal has a very important meaning in terms of how we establish rights and responsibilities across various cultures, but the word equal has a very different meaning in the mathematics area. The way in which you get a lot better at reading is by reading. So if every teacher includes opportunities for students to read and understand what they read within their class, the amount of time students are exposed to print and read print increases substantively. Running throughout the common core is reading and understanding complex text, and that isn't just in English language arts. That's in social studies and science, as well, and we can certainly expand that to math. It's important for content-area teachers to see the valuable role they play not just in assuring that students understand and know the content but know how to continue to learn the content by being able to better understand what they read.

For Your Information

Many states have replaced their existing standards with the Common Core State Standards for English language arts. Common Core State Standards are designed to provide a national framework for instruction. These grade-specific standards:

Are aligned with college and work expectations

Are clear, understandable, and consistent

Include rigorous content and the application of knowledge through high-order skills

Build upon the strengths and lessons of current state standards

Are informed by other top-performing countries, so that all students are prepared to succeed in the global economy and society

Are evidence-based

The development of these standards was informed by teachers, administrators, and experts and reflect the best instructional models used in the United States and internationally.

Content-area teachers familiar with the written material and the reading demands of their disciplines are best suited to provide effective adolescent literacy instruction. Teachers who integrate academic literacy instruction with content instruction will find that their students are more likely to:

Construct meaning from content-area texts and literature

Make inferences from text

Learn new vocabulary using context clues

Link ideas across texts

Identify and summarize the main ideas or content within a text

Perform well on classroom and state-mandated tests

Although the idea of teaching academic literacy skills might seem overwhelming at first, teachers can implement some manageable vocabulary and comprehension strategies that complement their existing instructional practices.

Listen as Deborah Reed talks about implementing vocabulary and comprehension supports in the classroom and how teachers can get started (time:1:44).

Transcript: Deborah K. Reed, PhD

I usually tell content-area teachers to start small. We're gonna eat this elephant one bite at a time. It seems very overwhelming to think of learning how to address vocabulary and comprehension and simultaneously addressing all of the content that they have to get across to students. We need to look for the serendipitous moments where the vocabulary and comprehension nicely converge with learning the content and focus on those at first, focus on something that you feel that you can do. I'm going to spend a lot of time working on it this time, and then next time that I teach it, or next semester, I'm gonna add a few more. So if we look for these moments to build our own skills as teachers while we're helping students build their skills with the content, I think that it becomes more manageable. Not to think that I have to be the expert at it instantly and do it perfectly all the time in every lesson. We need to cut ourselves a little bit of slack as teachers and say I'm gonna try it, and I'm gonna work on it, and then the next lesson I'm going to try it again, and I'm going to get a little bit better, and maybe I'll add a little bit more to it, or I'll incorporate this other element now, but think of it just as we do for our students of gradually building skill and expertise. There's no question that there's a lot to cover, and this is a difficult job, and there's planning time involved. Just thinking of it as I'm gonna do this much now and build on it is comforting to content-area teachers.

Did You Know?

The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) recommends that content- area teachers support student learning by incorporating vocabulary and comprehension practices into their lessons.
Institute of Education Sciences (IES)
The mission of this research division of the U.S. Department of Education is to share rigorous and relevant evidence which can then be used to guide educational practice and policy. IES develops education practice guides to outline evidence-based recommendations for educators.

The remainder of this module will present vocabulary and comprehension practices that teachers can implement across content areas.

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IRIS | Page 1: Literacy in Content-Area Instruction

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Adolescent literacy is critical to the classroom success of middle- and high-school students. Reading in the content areas (e.g., social studies, science) is different from reading for enjoyment.

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I CAN statements as classroom objectives

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I CAN statements as classroom objectives

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I CAN statements as classroom objectives

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Assessing and Supporting Social-Skill Needs for Students With High-Incidence Disabilities

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Assessing and Supporting Social-Skill Needs for Students With High-Incidence Disabilities

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High-incidence disabilities refer to a set of high-prevalence disabilities, which include emotional and behavioral disorders, specific learning disabilities, and mild-to-moderate intellectual disability.

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Assessing and Supporting Social-Skill Needs for Students With High-Incidence Disabilities

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Assessing and Supporting Social-Skill Needs for Students With High-Incidence Disabilities

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The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) is an assessment tool used with individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and other language delays.

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Summary of the Four Domains

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Literacy-based activities are designed to enhance reading and writing skills while fostering critical thinking, creativity, and communication. These activities can be tailored to various age groups and learning levels, making them versatile tools for educators across disciplines.

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Trade and technical education programs prepare students to meet graduation requirements set forth in Part 100.5 of the Commissioners Regulations. Trade programs expose students to technical knowledge and skills and related occupational information. Students develop employability skills, work ethics, and leadership abilities. Students are prepared for employment in a variety of semi-professional or technical occupations and for post-secondary education.

Contemporary trade and technical programs provide students with:

a goal-oriented planning through trade specific knowledge and skills

strategies for improvement in academic and technical subjects

opportunities to continue their education at post-secondary institutions

opportunities to develop strong work ethics and build strong relationships with business and industry partners

a graduation pathway that meets New York State Regents standards

trade-specific knowledge and skills and lifelong employability skills

exposure to real world employment experience through work-based learning activities and career exploration

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Trade and technical education programs prepare students to meet graduation requirements set forth in Part 100.5 of the Commissioners Regulations. Trade programs expose students to technical knowledge and skills and related occupational information. Students develop employability skills, work ethics, and leadership abilities.

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" i-Ready provides a lot of good resources for teachers to graph student growth. It's a very visual way to show their data, and it's easy for their families to understand. When the students can see where they're starting and where they've grown, I think that it brings up their expectations because they see that they can do it, and they can see where they want to be."

-Chris Guerra, Teacher

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Diagnostic Assessment for K-12 Math and Reading | i-Ready

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Use the i-Ready Diagnostic assessment to see where students are, set expectations for growth. Learn how it works.