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It was impossible to find an example of an animal welfare audits for llamas. I even tried similar topics such as alpacas and camelids to find an animal example of an animal welfare audit. Instead I've attached the Code of Welfare for llamas and alpacas. In this publishment from 2013, you can find common things such as housing and facilities, animal handling, food and water, and even stockmanship.

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The image attached is a visual aid of a llama's flight zone. The llama will move away if a person or even another animal enters their flight zone. If the llama is approached at a fast pace then this will increase the likelihood of pulling back and retreating. Vice versa if someone or something is slowly moving towards the llama, this will decrease the likelihood of the animal retreating. This is a major asset to handlers as they take advantage of the flight zone in regards of moving the animals with a sense of order and discipline that is fairly easy. This pressure is forced by using the point of balance.

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CITATION:
Adams, R., & Adams, M. (2015, October). Wild Oaks Llamas- Aggressive Behavior. Retrieved May 6, 2019, from http://www.wildoakllamas.com/whatarellamas/agressivebehavior.html

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fh12QM2YVJc

Llamas are ruminant animals and normally graze on plants common in their area such as grass and shrubs, which are commonly seen on open fields. Llamas have a really unique mouth which help them when eating. They have a cleft upper lip which aids in the pulling aspect of eating. The cleft lips allows them to maneuver their food into the mouth. Most importantly their lips allow them to reach around 2 inches which really allow them to reach and be able to pull plants from the ground.

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1. Standing - The young will begin standing minutes after birth, as they are born while the mother is standing up.
2. After the young passes the standing stage, they will walk within the first hour after birth.
3. Suckling - The young will soon seek their mother's teats for a source of milk which also occurs within the first hour after birth.

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1. Vocalizations - The mother will nuzzle and hum at their young (cria) which promotes the maternal bond between the two.
2. Protection - The mother, along with other mothers at times, will circle around the young to protect them from any threats that may surround them.
3. Lactation - The mother will position herself so that the offspring's head will be near her udder, which promotes teat seeking.

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Cushing is a commonly observed behavior in female llamas in regards to mating. A female will take position in sternal recumbency in front of a male soon after being introduced to him if she is receptive. Then the male will mount her and begin mating.

VIDEO LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ALwtA9Eer5k

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Orgling is a commonly observed male sexual behavior in llamas. This sound is made by the male when mating or attempting to mate. It is a very distinct sound as it sounds like forceful gargling that occurs before and during mating. This sound could occur up to from 20 minutes to even an hour.

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Llama dominance hierarchy is a rather common hierarchy. It can be seen as a heterosexual hierarchy as both male and females of different ages are kept together. There is not one alpha in the herd. The young are subordinate to the more mature llamas. Incomplete dominance can be seen among the young as they spit at each other. There is no exact hierarchy in a herd. A male or female can both stand u

CITATION:
The Curious Spitting Behavior of Llamas. (2018, September 13). Retrieved March 1, 2019, from https://www.tripsavvy.com/why-llamas-spit-4171666

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Spitting is a common agonistic behavior show by llamas. They spit as a display of dominance over other llamas. A few reasons why this is commonly shown is a way to establish one's status in the social hierarchy, when eating and attempting to keep others llamas and predators away, and also a way to show that one is not interested in mating.

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visual- As you can see llamas have very big eyes. They have really good vision that makes their eyes perfect for the conditions that they live in. To help with glare and to prevent snow-blindness, their eyes have certain sunshades built in that can actually close when needed. They can communicate by how their ears look.
auditory- A llamas groaning noise is a sign of fear or anger. Which is a form of communication that they have with one another. They will also cluck their tongues when meeting new pals or a male attempting to get lucky with a female.
tactile-A llama can communicate with touch as well. If a load is too heavy then the llama will not move until some of the weight is taken off. They also can refrain from engaging in an act if another llama (usually the female) spits at them to keep them in check in a sense.
chemical/smell- One way that llamas use chemicals and smell is with their spit. You can tell how mad a llama is by the materials in their spit which another llama can smell. The angrier a llama is the deeper in the three stomach compartments a llama may reach to spit up materials from. They also use their spit for defense which can be seen as a chemical used for communication.

CITATIONS:
Alongi, J. (2018). Llama Facts. Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://www.animalfactsencyclopedia.com/Llama-facts.html
“Llama - Key Facts, Information & Pictures.” Animal Corner, Animal Corner, 2019, animalcorner.co.uk/animals/llama/.

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Llama Chute:

+ reinforcement:

~ A llama is given a treat (carrot) for walking into the chute unassisted and for remaining calm throughout the process.

- reinforcement:
~ If the llama is calm while getting toe nails trimmed, then she's allowed out of the chute while she get's groomed.
~If the llama is calm while the vet is vaccinating her then she will have the halter straps removed but still must stay in the chute until examination is done.

+ punishment:
~ A llama attempts to escape from the chute but the halter straps around the face yanks the animal from going anywhere.
- punishment:
~If a llama spits at the handler, then the llama get's escorted to the chute and will not be allowed to roam around with other fellow llamas. Resulting in loss of freedom.

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Llamas experience a sensory bias called choanal atresia. It is a hereditary condition that results in the airway being blocked by bone and/or membraneous tissue. This effects llamas greatly as one might seem less active or be incompetent for work due to their constant shortness of breath. Another sensory bias that is commonly evident in llamas is wry face. Wry face in llamas results in having an abnormally turned face, more specifically the jaw. This makes it harder for llamas to eat as much of small food such as grain will fall out of the llamas mouth.

CITATION:
Ingram, G. (2019). Choanal atresia. Retrieved February 12, 2019, from http://lostcreekllamas.com/ca.htm
Johnson, L. W. (2014). Wry Face In Camelids. Retrieved February 12, 2019, from http://www.shagbarkridge.com/info/wryface.html

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The journal article describes the learning behavior of llamas through operant conditioning. One example of this is when handler is attempting to teach the llama to lead using the pull-and-release method. When the llama obeys the command the handler rewards him by stroking and patting the llama. In operant conditioning this is known as a positive reinforcement. The study goes on with many more examples of postive and negative reinforcements.

CITATION:
Harmon, David A., "Llama packing: A guide for the low impact use of llamas in the backcountry" (1989). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 7369.
https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/7369

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The sensitive period in llamas in regards to pack training is between 2 and 10 years old. A llama younger than 2 should not be packing since the heavyweight can drastically hurt the animal in the long run. A llama shouldn’t start its packing career if over 10 years old as it is considered middle aged at this time in it’s life. Can be trained later in life but wouldn't be at the llama's fullest potential.

CITATION:
Kazmaier, M. (2005). Working Llamas - Pack Training. Retrieved February 11, 2019, from http://workingllamas.com/?id=220

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This shows the heritable behavior llamas have towards dogs. As you can see they tend to be aggressive to dogs. Some background to this study is that some of the llamas have never seen dogs and some have. These were their reactions seeing the other species. When it comes to economics this can hurt the llamas overall. If you have a herd dog trying to bring all of the llamas to a different location. Unlike sheep the llamas will be aggressive towards the dog and not listen to the dog. This can hurt economically because this can hurt the owner in the end as they become hard to control.

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https://ac-els-cdn-com.libproxy.lib.ilstu.edu/0093691X9490169J/1-s2.0-0093691X9490169J-main.pdf?_tid=a9252ee2-82c7-42cb-908c-f304b263845f&acdnat=1548451423_bea530f4dd73acaf122b4c3468c59eae

This article talks about alpacas and other animals in this family but it is mostly about llamas. It talks about llamas from birth to adults in every aspect from birth to puberty to adulthood. Smith, Peter, and Pugh talk about the behavior of llamas. Behavior is linked in many ways to genetics. One way the authors show this is when they explain how around age 1 llamas begin to go into heat which is when they begin to look for a male to mate with. These hormones are due to genetics. These genetics then cause them to have certain behaviors as in mating when they are old enough. The female llama will only usually mate which she is ready, as is when she begins going through an estrus cycle. If she is cornered by a male she will spit, holler, or fight.

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The species I chose to research are Llamas. Llamas are native to South America which is mainly why I chose them as my species since my own roots come from South America. I know there were other animals on the list of choices that are native to South America as well but llamas really interest me. You see cattle and chickens on the daily. On my way down to ISU from Chicago I pass many horses, cows, chickens, and even a few pigs here and there. Not once have I ever seen a llama on my way to school. It’s a species some zoo’s have but still I don’t see them often which makes me more interested to them. I am fascinated by the unknown. I am also interested in them because of the way they look, llamas look so soft and cuddly.