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Before You Assign Another Group Project . . . . Six Keys to Creating Effective Group Assignments and Team Projects (2011)

Wendy Yost, Lecturer
Department of Recreation & Tourism Management
California State University, Northridge
wendy.yost@csun.edu
Note: documents on this page can be viewed online using free software: Adobe Acrobat Reader (for .pdf files) and Microsoft Word Viewer (for .doc files).
When I first started teaching Recreation & Tourism Management 302 - Dynamics of Leadership in Recreation & Human Services, I knew that in order to meet the Learning Outcomes for the course it would be important to include a group project among the class assignments.

Yet I also knew, that as a student, I hated group projects. I typically did more than my share of the work to achieve a desirable grade, it was difficult to find time outside of class to meet with my classmates and professors weren't always clear about their expectations for group assignments.

It turns out, two decades later, these concerns persist as a recent study conducted on campus confirmed.

Recently 136 students at California State University, Northridge completed a survey having to do with Navigating Conflict in Student Teams. The students identified five contributing factors to experiencing conflict in student teams: Schedule/Distance differences, Quality/Personal Standards differences, Style/Personality differences, Group Size/Roles and Accountability. More specifically, of the students who responded indicated the following:

14% of students felt group work was negative because of: Communication Problems

39% of students felt group work was negative because of: Timing, Scheduling Issues

47% of students felt group work was negative because of: Personality Clash, Conflicting Ideas, Disagreements

73% of students felt group work was negative because of: Lack of Participation, Slackers, Flakes, Unequal Work

[Scott, W., Taylor, A., Lemus, D., and Oh, J. (2008, April). Navigating Conflict in Student Teams. Symposium conducted at Faculty Development Series, California State University Northridge, California.]

So as I thought through how to build a more effective, engaging and enjoyable group project, I realized I needed to approach the assignment differently than I had seen it approached in the past.

Below you will find detailed information about a group project that I have administered for the last six semesters along with the various tools that I designed to support the students with the assignment.

To provide further context, I use this assignment in a 300 level required student leadership course that typically includes 35 - 40 (but has included as many as 50) students, all pursuing their degrees in Recreation & Tourism Management.

Each semester, this assignment has been well received by students as a critical learning experience as well as an unexpectedly fun opportunity to get to know themselves and their classmates as leaders.

I routinely receive feedback from students about this group project being the first group project that they ever enjoyed participating in. I don't think their feedback has much to do with the assignment itself, but rather the context created for the assignment and the tools and support offered throughout it.

There are six keys that come to mind when I think of this assignment and what has contributes to its success:

Create a Conducive Environment that Encourages Positive Participation

Group projects always make me nervous. My social skills are not all there, I guess. Although, since starting this semester, getting into groups and participating in activities has been fun and great for networking. I don't feel as uncomfortable as I have felt in the past with previous classes. -Thomas

This starts with the very first day of class when I review a section in the course syllabus entitled: Appropriate Classroom Etiquette. In it I explain...

Every person in the class deserves your respect. We are all here to learn. Including me. As we move through the semester, you may not always agree with what is being shared. In such cases, please make a point of disagreeing with what is being said without attacking the person who said it. Learning how to give and receive constructive feedback is a cornerstone of leadership. It is also a skill that takes practice. So as necessary, I will ask you to rephrase your opinion or observation in a more constructive way.

There are also several things that I have been told by students that I do that help them want to participate in class: I learn each student's name by the third week of class (including in the class of 50*), I welcome and encourage differing points of view as long as they are communicated respectfully, and I encourage students to share things about themselves with the class in low risk ways. For example, when I am returning papers, I ask that the students to share their favorite ice cream flavor, favorite movie, favorite place to eat and so on. I ask the class to pay attention to what is being shared as they might find someone in class that they have a lot in common with.

*A small side bar on learning names quickly: I tell the students that it is important that they be known by me and known by each other in this class. I ask about correct pronunciation of any names I have difficulty with again and again. I have the students state their name before talking for the first few weeks. I take notes on my role sheet to help remember key traits. I allow myself to make a lot of mistakes the first few weeks, and restate my commitment to learning their names. The students seem to cut me some slack when I mess up given they see that I am trying. I often use appropriate humor to smooth over my mistakes, especially when they occur half way through the semester.

There are several systems for remembering names that you can find online. If this is something you would like to work on, I recommend conducting a brief online search and then selecting a process that will work best for you.

A playful facet of creating a conducive environment emerged organically one semester and has stuck ever since. It is my invoking my Best Audience Ever clause. I explain to the students that they are all going to be speaking in front of the class over the course of the semester and therefore they will want to provide a comfortable atmosphere for public speaking.

I then write on the board that a positive atmosphere includes students who are Attentive, Supportive and Smiling. I write the words on the board in such a way that the first letter stands out and then suggest that doing anything other than being Attentive, Supportive and Smiling would leave them being what the initials spell out. It usually gets a laugh and they usually get the point.

Acknowledge the Realities of Our Students

We know that most of the students in our classes work part time, full time or more not to mention other responsibilities they have on their plates. If you have any doubts about this, ask the students in your class. I was surprised to learn how many students were juggling multiple jobs in addition to school to be able to help their family with expenses. I also found that many students have significant responsibilities when it comes to helping to raise younger brothers or sisters or helping with aging parents or grandparents. All of which take time and energy.

By building in class time for the groups to meet, it reduces one of the biggest concerns students have about group assignments and it allows you to observe the groups in action to assess what additional support and/or direction might be needed.

There are a couple of things I would like to point out about the Sample Group Project Worksheet. I wait until after the last day to add/drop to assign groups. I found that this minimizes frustration of groups gaining or loosing members. Students can still add/drop after this date, but more signatures are required to do so and it is therefore less common. If a group looses a student after they have started their planning process, I meet with them to discuss how to best adjust their project plan. I also adjust my expectations for how long their presentation needs to be and consider the impact of having lost a member mid-project when calculating their grades.

On the days that they gather in their work groups, I take role and then ask them to get into their groups. I bring various resources that can assist them in the their planning process and I serve as a willing resource until the last group leaves the room. Students are able to use this time to work in our classroom, go to the library, go to a computer lab or go elsewhere on campus that might support their planning process.

Sample Group Project Worksheet (DOC, 35 KB) / Sample Group Project Worksheet (PDF, 18 KB)

Clearly Communicate Expectations

At the start of the semester, I let the students know that there will be a group project, and that I am committed to having it be unlike any group project they have experienced before. We talk about what they dislike about group projects and then I provide information about how this group project will be different and ask that they please set aside past experiences and be open to a more positive experience this semester.

More specifically, the students know upon reading the syllabus for class at the start of the semester that I am committed to their experience working on a group project being a positive one, that they will have time in class to meet, that they will have access to me if any questions or concerns arise during their planning process, and that they will have a supportive audience when they do their group presentations.

Group Project Assignment Excerpts from Course Syllabus (DOC, 45 KB) / Group Project Assignment Excerpts from Course Syllabus (PDF, 17 KB)

Consider Grading Individually for Group Projects

I reserve the right to grade individually. This lessens some of the concerns students have about mismatched standards of quality or having to do more than their fair share of the work. It does mean that mechanisms need to be created to assess individual grades (i.e. Peer Reviews, Journal Entries, or the like). Yet it provides freedom in being able to assign grades that are appropriate for the level of work contributed. This method also allows students to gain important skills related to giving and receiving feedback.

A few words on the samples provided in this section. Each student in class completes a Peer Review Form. I draw names for which students will conduct the peer reviews for which groups the day of each presentation. This process keeps the students engaged in the classes being taught by their peers.

If a student feels that there were group members who did not effectively contribute to the planning or execution of their group's project, then they are encouraged to speak up about it in their Student Report (a journal entry) and to submit a Collaborative Learning Form.

If I elect to provide different grades for members of a group, that decision is based on corroborating data from the following: Students expressing concern to me, what multiple group members communicated in their Student Reports, any Collaborative Learning Forms received and what was readily apparent to me and to the peer reviewers while watching the group's presentation.

In some cases, I think the sheer possibility of individual grades has encouraged students who might otherwise slack off, to instead step up, knowing that they will not be carried by their group mates.

Sample Peer Review Form (PDF, 19 KB)

Sample Student Report (PDF, 61 KB)

Sample Collaborative Learning Form (PDF, 17 KB)

Provide Appropriate Tools, Resources, and Support

The ice-breaker was a great way to get acquainted and find out how to best interact with group members - while having fun! -Katie

I found it critically important to hold lectures and discussions on typical issues related to group dynamics before putting students into groups. And provide avenues for the students to express concerns with how their group's progress is unfolding.

The activity that launches the group project is a simple one, and yet it is an activity that come the end of the semester, many students still reference. It is based on Bruce Tuckman's Forming - Storming - Norming - Performing model of group development.

After conducting a lottery to put students into groups, I have them do a small ice breaker (favorite movie or the like) as they add their names, phone numbers and email addresses to the Group Project Worksheets.

I then have them refer to the Tuckman's Forming Storming Norming Performing Overview in their class reader and assign each group one of the stages of group development: Forming, Storming, Norming or Performing. As a group they get to choose how to best teach their assigned stage of development to the class via three of the following possible methods: Singing a Song, Reenacting a TV Scene, Reenacting a Movie Scene, Reenacting a Historical Reference or via an Interpretive Dance. I remind them of the Best Audience Ever Clause: Attentive, Smiling and Supportive and I give them 15 minutes to prepare.

When it is time to perform, I have each group come to the front of the room one at a time, stand in front of their peers, take a breath and look to their peer audience. I have the group members announce which chapter they will be teaching the class for their group project, and have each group member share their name. I have the class clap for them before they actually present their way of teaching Forming, Storming, Norming or Performing.

After each group has presented their material, we discuss both the group development model and what the experience was like for them. I drive home that all groups storm and that it is a natural part of a group's development and therefore to acknowledge it when it happens. I also share that they have now all been in front of the class, spoke in front of their peers (some even sang or danced!) and they lived through it. So by the end of the semester, their group project should be a piece of cake!

The Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing activity was a blast! It brought our group closer together and allowed us to work together and amalgamate our ideas. Our topic was Performing. We took too much time discussing our ideas so when our time was up we didn't have much of a plan. I do believe that given the time we have to work on the group project we will work together really well. -Emily

Above is just one example with one ice-breaker, lists of ice-breakers can be easily located via a simple online search. You can also visit the Dick Scott Memorial Leadership Library located in the Matador Involvement Center on campus (1st Floor, University Student Union Sol Center) where you can check out books that list thousands of ice-breakers and team builders and how to facilitate them. Some favorites from the Leadership Library include:

Bianchi, S., Butler, J., Richey, D., (1990). Warm-ups for Meeting Leaders. San Diego: University Associates/Pfeiffer & Company. (BINDER)

Bendaly, L., (1996). Games Teams Play: Dynamic Activities for Tapping Work Team Potential. Whitby: McGraw-Hill Ryerson limited. (BINDER)

Forbess-Greene, S., (1983). The encyclopedia of icebreakers: structured activities that warm-up, motivate, challenge, acquaint and energize. San Francisco: Pfeiffer & Company An imprint of Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.

Newstrom, J.W., Scannel, E., The Complete Games Trainers Play. Volume I (BINDER)

Newstrom, J.W., Scannel, E., The Complete Games Trainers Play. Volume II (BINDER)

Pfeiffer, J.W. (1989). The encyclopedia of group activities: 150 practical designs for successful facilitating. San Francisco: Pfeiffer & Company: an imprint of Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.

Ukens, L.L. (1997). Getting together: icebreakers and group energizers. San Francisco: Pfeiffer, an imprint of Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers.

Sample Group Project Worksheet (PDF, 18 KB)

Tuckman's Forming Storming Norming Performing Overview (PDF, 45 KB)

Include Opportunities for Reflection Throughout the Experience

I have found that it is important to provide multiple avenues for students to share their experience functioning as part of a group. Some ideas:

Routinely ask how things are going with their groups

If the course includes a journaling experience, have the students submit a journal entry on how progress with their group is unfolding halfway through the planning process

Remind students of your office hours and encourage them to talk with you if they or their group is struggling

Have students write a reflective paper after they completed the assignment

If a student or students come to me before or after class or during office hours with concerns about their group, I take time during the next class session to ask how all of the groups are doing, what has been working and what has presented different challenges. Students can learn from other groups as to how to function more effectively and if most of the groups are struggling you might find aspects of the assignment that you might consider re-tooling in the future.

Create an evaluation or simply have a discussion that allows students to provide you with feedback on what they learned from the assignment, what could have made the assignment more relevant/applicable and what additional support from the professor might have be helpful.

Sample Collaborative Learning Form (PDF, 17 KB)

Sample Student Report (PDF, 61 KB)

In closing, at the end of each semester, we spend an entire class revisiting what we learned during our past 15 weeks together. Time and again students reference the group project. They speak to what they learned as a presenter, as a group member, as a peer reviewer and as a learner receiving chapter content from their peers. While there are a lot of steps involved in the process outlined, they have shown to make a positive difference in how students experience group projects. I think one particularly shy student summed it up well...

I just want to thank you for giving me and my classmates the opportunity and the encouragement to know one another so when that time comes to speak in front of the class, I will feel comfortable and ready to demonstrate leadership. -Deon

Related Recommended Readings (PDF, 36 KB)

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California State University, Northridge, Office of University Web Communications

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Six Keys to Creating Effective Group Assignments and Team Projects

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Wendy Yost, Lecturer Department of Recreation & Tourism Management California State University, Northridge wendy.yost@csun.edu Note: documents on this page can be viewed online using free software: Adobe Acrobat Reader (for .pdf files) and Microsoft Word Viewer (for .doc files).

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Faculty Focus | Higher Ed Teaching & Learning

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The idea for sharing this post came from a session I recently conducted at the annual teaching conference organized by my university. A pedagogical conundrum was raised by a colleague whose enthusiasm and question stayed with me and inspired me to write this post. The question posed by this colleague is relevant to all instructors who have ever used group work to assess their students: How should one deal with the issues that arise when members of a group are not picking up their share of the responsibilities during a group work project?

The benefits of group work are well recognized (e.g., http://goo.gl/N8kqhy), as are the reasons students don't like working in groups (Taylor, 2011). We have all had groups that operated magically, when group members brought out each other's strengths and helped each member shine; but we have also had groups that failed miserably when members did not get along or did not pull equal weight in completing a group project.

Although much has been written about group work and its benefits and challenges, as well as variables, features, or components that can contribute to positive learning outcomes (Tomcho, & Foels, 2012), issues of implementation seem to pop up every time instructors get together to talk about their teaching challenges. In this post I focus on the persistent challenge of imbalance when not all group members contribute equally. What follows are a few simple ideas you might wish to consider that have worked well for me during years of trial and error in my teaching, as well as insights from my research.

1. Design a group project in which the students work in phases.

For instance, starting with a project idea, then moving to project development, followed by preliminary project outcomes - and requiring students to "check-in" at each phase before delivering the final project. Not only does this help ensure that the groups won't wait until the final deadline is upon them to work on their project, but it also enables the instructor to touch base with every group and to offer guidance, support, or mediation, if needed, during the process.

2. Develop an element of the project that allows group members to make their own choices.

In my teaching, I usually give students the freedom to choose a topic area that interests them within the scope of the course or that is the most relevant or meaningful to the team members. This decision helps create a sense of ownership and enhances the students' level of engagement, both of which are crucial for working on large group projects, and especially for those requiring students to carry out the work in phases throughout the term (see, for example, Enghag & Niedder, 2007, on the theoretical basis for student ownership of learning).

3. Within a group project, include a component requiring individual students to submit non-onerous individual work.

For example, the project could include a personal reflection piece (e.g., e.g., Huang, 2011a), in which each member individually reflects on the process and product of his or her own portion of the group work. Apart from the pedagogical benefits of learners engaging in individual reflection (Pavlovich, Collins, & Jones, 2009), this task or component will inevitably provide insights about the division-of-labor issue commonly raised by instructors and students alike. Both learners and the instructor can glean a great many insights from those individual reflection pieces, which instructors can take into account when assigning either project or final grades, depending on their individual approach to assessment. This process also enables students to gain greater understanding about what worked well and what could be improved.

One important matter to keep in mind when implementing the reflection component is the need to ensure that we, as instructors, clarify what we mean by "reflection" in order to minimize a potential mismatch between our expectations about reflective learning and our students' understanding of what it entails. What we'd like our students to do is to engage in critical reflection - that is, thinking that involves different levels of reflection, rather than simply restating or describing what they did, or what I have called "non-transformative" reflection.

The goal is to encourage students to move beyond simply recalling what they did either individually or together within the group and instead to reflect on their personal discoveries about their own learning and the process of working collaboratively (i.e., understanding, analyzing, and evaluating the process and the product of their group efforts), and, importantly, to "verbalize" what they would do differently the next time around (i.e., pointing to the future).

This component is an example of what is called "writing/speaking to learn" (Manchón, 2011). For this task, it's important that students not be required to follow any formatting or style guidelines. The reflection should be an informal piece of writing, much like a diary entry, and can be in any modality (e.g., writing, audio recording, video clip) that suits the characteristics or preferences of individual students to allow for their individual expression. For some additional simple guidelines about implementing learner reflection, refer to Huang (2011b).

4. Devote a segment (30 minutes or so) during class before all group projects begin to implement two important steps.

Step 1: Get to know each other. The first 10 minutes can be a period for all students to find and meet with the group members they have either been assigned or have self-selected. They should then spend some time exploring each other's communication styles, which may arise from personal or culture-related differences (Lewis, 2006), to help them better anticipate different communication preferences and approaches to group work. This time can be spent sharing responses to guiding questions or statements, such as "I would describe my communication style/personality as ...," "I tend/prefer to deal with conflict by ...," and "I would appreciate my team members doing/not doing ...." (Huang, 2014). Guiding questions are especially helpful for groups that are culturally and linguistically diverse.

Step 2: Establish group norms. During the next 20 minutes, encourage each group to negotiate its own group norms (derived from Step 1) and ground rules. During this time, members of each team should elucidate, negotiate, and establish roles, responsibilities, and expectations. This process makes explicit the specific contributions and ownership of responsibilities that each team member negotiates and agrees to.

Below is a sample checklist that instructors can modify and use to facilitate this process and help prepare each group project to succeed (Huang, 2014). You can revise the items to suit a project or provide the list as an example for each group to use in creating its own list. The list can also be revisited during each check-point mentioned earlier and adjustments made as needed. Upon completion of the project, instructors can request the checklist(s) to be submitted (but not graded), along with other deliverables that are due.

5. Prepare students to expect the unexpected.

Rather than directing their every concern to you, students should be encouraged to become problem solvers not only by identifying problems, but also by developing solutions and choosing and evaluating the best ones so as to balance personal learning with the group's project goals. At the same time, you'll want to create and maintain a culture of openness that lets your students know you are readily available to provide guidance when groups reach an impasse.

In any group work situation, it is always possible that compatibility issues will arise between or among team members, as well as conflicts or problems with unequal distribution of work. The pre-group-project considerations described above, however, can easily be implemented to help minimize the likelihood that conflicts will develop that could negatively affect learning and outcomes. They may also help instructors and students in dealing with the specific common challenge of students who are not pulling their own weight in group collaborations, while maximizing the benefits of a group project not only in terms of content, but more, if not most, importantly, in learning how to work with others - a valuable life lesson that's best learned through experience.

References:
Enghag, M., & Niedderer, H. (2008). Two dimensions of student ownership of learning during small-group work in physics. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 6(4), 629-653.

Huang, L.-S. (2011a). Language learners as language researchers: The acquisition of English grammar through a corpus-aided discovery learning approach mediated by intra and interpersonal dialogues. In J. Newman, S. Rice, & H. Baayen (Eds.), Corpus-based studies in language documentation, use, and learning (pp. 91-122). Amsterdam: Rodopi Press.

Huang, L.-S. (2011b, Fall). Key concepts and theories in TESL: Learner reflection. TEAL News: The Association of B.C. Teachers of English as an Additional Language, pp. 9-13.

Huang, L.-S. (2014). Lessons learned from team-facilitation in ELT: Strategies for navigating the challenges and making it work. IATEFL ES(O)L Newsletter, pp. 13-17.

Lewis, R. D. (2006). When cultures collide: Leading across cultures (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

Manchón, R. M. (Ed.). (2011). Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Pavlovich, K., Collins, E., Jones, G. (2009). Developing students' skills in reflective practice: Design and assessment. Journal of Management Education, 33(1), 37-58.

Taylor, A. (2011). Top 10 reasons students dislike working in groups...and why I do it anyway. Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Education, 39(2), 219-220.

Tomcho, T. J., & Foels, R. (2012). Meta-analysis of group learning activities: Empirically based teaching recommendations. Teaching of Psychology, 39(3), 159-169.
Dr. Li-Shih Huang, Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics, Department of Linguistics, Learning and Teaching Scholar-in-Residence, Learning and Teaching Centre, University of Victoria, BC, Canada.

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Students Riding on Coattails during Group Work? Five Simple Ideas to Try

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How should faculty deal with the issues that arise when some students ride on the coattails of others during a group work project?

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From online teaching resources to in-room consultations, the Center for Teaching and Learning supports instructors by helping them take their teaching to the next level.

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Team-based learning (TBL) is a form of small-group learning that assumes stable teams promote accountability. Teamwork promotes communication among members; application exercises promote active learning. Students must prepare for each class; failure to do so harms their team's performance. Therefore, TBL promotes accountability. As part of the course grade, students assess the performance of their teammates. The evaluation forces students to rank their teammates and to provide rationale for the highest and lowest rankings. These evaluations provide rich data on small-group dynamics. In this paper, we analyze 211 student teammate assessments. We find evidence that teams consistently give the lowest evaluations to their least involved members, suggesting that the team component increases accountability, which can promote learning. From these findings we draw implications about small-group dynamics in general and the pedagogy of TBL in particular.

Cestone, Christine M., Levine, Ruth E., Lane, Derek R. 2008. "Peer Assessment and Evaluation in Team-based Learning." Pp. 69-78 in Team-based Learning: Small-group Learning's Next Big Step, edited by Michaelsen, L. K., Sweet, M., Parmelee, D. X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar

Michaelsen, Larry K., Sweet, Michael. 2008. "The Essential Elements of Team-based Learning." Pp. 7-27 in Team-based Learning: Small-group Learning's Next Big Step, edited by Michaelsen, L. K., Sweet, M., Parmelee, D. X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar

Miles, Matthew B., Huberman, A. Michael, Saldana, Johnny. 2014. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar

Simons, Tony L., Peterson, Randall S. 2000. "Task Conflict and Relationship Conflict in Top Management Teams: The Pivotal Role of Intragroup Trust." Journal of Applied Psychology 85(1):102-11. Google Scholar

Strauss, Anselm L. 1987. Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists. New York: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar

Sweet, Michael, Pelton-Sweet, Laura M. 2008. "The Social Foundation of Team-based Learning: Students Accountable to Students." Pp. 29-40 in Team-based Learning: Small-group Learning's Next Big Step, edited by Michaelsen, L. K., Sweet, M., Parmelee, D. X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar

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Student Accountability in Team-based Learning Classes

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Team-based learning (TBL) is a form of small-group learning that assumes stable teams promote accountability. Teamwork promotes communication among members; application exercises promote active learning. Students must prepare for each class; failure to do so harms their team's performance. Therefore, TBL promotes accountability. As part of the course grade, students assess the performance of their teammates.

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This blog by Stephen Tierney (Headteachers' Roundtable) proposes an accountability measure based on inclusion to be used alongside performance measures to tackle the "long tail of underachievement".

It elides all disadvantaged children, looked after children and SEN together under the umbrella of inclusion without explanation.

The author then moves onto the issue of exclusions, without evidencing the extent to which exclusion is the reason for underachievement in these groups.

Certainly, it is an issue for individuals in those groups but to argue it's an issue for the group as a whole is an extrapolation not evidence.

A supportive school environment is elided with no exclusions and low mobility.

This approach raises a variety of issues and concerns:

1) It misses out the wide variety of reasons why underachievement might occur including individual circumstances, school culture, curriculum, use of ineffective pedagogical practices, lack of teacher training and support, and poor whole school behaviour management systems.

2) Entire groups of children are being casually stereotyped as "challenging pupils" when this is not the case for the vast majority of children who form part of those groups.

3) The lesson of blurring the distinction between the disadvantaged and those with special educational needs should already have been learnt. Implying membership of an ethnic or social group is equivalent to or means to be impaired in some way have been the basis of crude stereotyping of individuals, itself a reason for historic underachievement of some groups in the education system.

4) Exclusion is not the only cause of mobility and no evidence is produced that it's a major one.

5) There is a tension in this measure which is not addressed. The achievement of disadvantaged groups may be harmed by a focus on less exclusion.

6) It is stated that the exact means of calculating this measure should be confidential. The reason given is to avoid gaming. But secrecy would result in lack of scrutiny, accountability and responsibility on the part of those setting the means of calculating.

No accountability measure is perfect.

But this does not justify the creation of one based on the elision of whole groups of children with a wide variety of needs and assumptions unsupported by evidence using a secret calculation.

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This blog by Stephen Tierney (Headteachers' Roundtable) proposes an accountability measure based on inclusion to be used alongside performance measures to tackle the "long tail of underachievement". It elides all disadvantaged children, looked after children and SEN together under the umbrella of inclusion without explanation.

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Leaders have a huge challenge when it comes to accountability.

They must both visibly model personal accountability and instill accountability in their team members.

This can be especially challenging when team members have the mentality that they have done enough, or it's not their job, or they can't do anything about the results being produced.

When people don't feel accountable, they drop to the lowest possible level of performance that their leader will accept. The accountable leader assumes responsibility for all associates, vendors, customers, and the organization as a whole. These leaders help team members shift into the "discretionary" performance zone. This zone is where members do their best to take responsibility for their individual success and for the success of the team and the organization.

What Is Accountability?

Accountability is taking ownership and acting in a responsible way, despite personal feelings, potential outcomes, or even possible consequences.

Accountable people demonstrate maximum effort in terms of fulfilling their responsibilities and keeping the promises they have made-and as they fulfill those expectations, they also proactively respond to challenges and obstacles that they encounter.

Sometimes just being an accountable leader and teaching others about accountability isn't enough to reach the level of discretionary performance that you need on your team. Leaders must have a mechanism to ensure accountability in others and a specific process for setting up and executing on agreements. The consistent use of accountability measures will elevate the performance of team members and solidify a culture of accountability.

Being an Accountable Leader

You must also take your own commitments and agreements seriously. When accepting an assignment or responsibility, be clear about what is within your power to complete. When you violate an agreement, admit your mistake, apologize, and repair the situation or relationship as quickly as possible. Always be honest and forthcoming with others and provide information that is clear and accurate.

In some situations, you may be privy to information that cannot be shared with employees. Act with integrity and simply share the information that you can. Always do your best and align your actions with your values. When you face adversity, be constructive in your response.

Leadership is a huge responsibility. You are accountable for bottom-line results, quality, productivity, and the motivation of other people. Thinking about and solidifying the accountability measures you have in place will ensure the lines of communication stay open on your team.

The Benefits of Accountability in Business

It can also greatly improve your team's ability to make decisions and solve problems. Individual team members will be more confident taking action if they know they are empowered to produce quality results without explicit direction and on their own terms.

People in your organization's culture will become more creative and shift into a proactive mindset. Every individual will contribute to the success of the team and organization. They will also strive to do the right thing.

As you enable others to become more accountable for success, you will have the energy and freedom to focus on longer-term strategic plans. As a leader, there is no better way to manage your time than to instill accountability in others.

CMOE has helped many leaders reach new levels of accountability within their organizations. Contact CMOE to learn more about how we can help your team take real ownership for results and accomplish more than ever before.

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How to Improve Team Performance with Accountability | CMOE

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Leaders have a huge challenge when it comes to accountability. They must both visibly model personal accountability and instill accountability in their team members. This can be especially challenging when team members have the mentality that they have done enough, or it's not their job, or they can't do anything about the results being produced.

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Helping Hands: Sharing Classroom Responsibilities (Virtual Tour)

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Sharing responsibilities according to RACI model

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1. Bruce Tuckman's Model of Team Stages
The Bruce Tuckman theory was created in 1965, and has been applied in countless organizations and scenarios. With four main stages titled forming, storming, norming, and performing; this theory is commonly referred to as the origin for successful team building.

2. Belbin's Theory of team roles
Belbin created a list of nine roles that every team should have. These roles are Plant, Resource investigator, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor Evaluator, Team Worker, Implementer, Completer-Finisher, and Specialist.

3. Hierarchy of Needs theory by Abraham Maslow
Maslow created a pyramid of the motivation in humans. The bottom starts off with Physiological items like food. The next section is Safety like the security of health. The third section is Love/belonging and an example would be family. The fourth is Esteem, meaning something like respect by others. The final section is Self-actualization and an example of this is morality.

4. Isabel Briggs-Myers and her MBTI theory
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test that perceives how people perceive the world. This is good for teamwork because it can help the team understand each other better.

5. John Adair's Leadership theory
This theory is a perfect model for what leadership and management should look like.

6. Carl Jung's Color theory
Jung's theory is about how color is a determinant of human behavior. By understanding this, you can better understand why people in your team do what they do.

7. Tajfel's theory on Social Identity
This theory presented the idea of social identity as a great way to describe inter-group behavior.

8. X and Y theory developed by Douglas McGregor
The X and Y theory is a description of how humans are motivated. This is also one of the most important theories that managers and employees should be familiar with.

9. Strength Theory
This idea is that if for the best teamwork you have to continually work at it and become strong, like a muscle.

10. Team Analysis Theory
This theory is that eventually your team will fall apart, so you will need to re-evaluate the situation and analyze what went wrong.

By a keen understanding of these teamwork theories, you will be able to get the most out of a group of people. Whether this is for a manager trying to create team unity, or a sports team looking for teamwork, these theories are perfect for your objective.

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The Different Theories About Teamwork And Teambuilding

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1. Bruce Tuckman's Model of Team Stages The Bruce Tuckman theory was created in 1965, and has been applied in countless organizations and scenarios. With four main stages titled forming, storming, norming, and performing; this theory is commonly referred to as the origin for successful team building. 2.

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Teamwork Theory: Tuckman's Stages of Group Development
Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model".
First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it?

Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.

But before reading on why not take the chance to "team-up" with our great range of e-guides . The complete set is now available at half price!

You'll find advice, tips, tools and new models which you won't find anywhere else. You can read about the real benefits of our teams bundle in our article on team building activities. Or why not download your half price offer right now! You're in good company with satisfied customers from over 30 countries around the world. Click the image below to view some of our most popular e-guides:

Tuckman's model is significant because it recognizes the fact that groups do not start off fully-formed and functioning. He suggests that teams grow through clearly defined stages, from their creation as groups of individuals, to cohesive, task-focused teams.

Our e-guide: Build a Better Team, has been specifically designed to help you understand and use a team stages model. It contains a tool for each stage to help you build a high-performing team - as quickly as possible.

Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Tuckman describes working with a team of social psychologists, on behalf of the U.S. navy. The team studied small group behaviour, from several perspectives. In doing so, Tuckman reviewed 50 articles on group development and noticed that there were two features common to these small groups: the interpersonal or group structure, and the task activity. From this he identified that groups evolved into teams via four common stages.

Firstly an orientation, testing phase which often led to a period characterized by a degree of conflict. This then generally resolved itself, leading to a more socially cohesive phase. Finally, groups settled to a functional phase, during which they focused on role-relatedness. To summarize these four phases, Tuckman coined the oft-quoted terms: "forming", "storming", "norming" and "performing".

Tuckman's teamwork theory is best illustrated on a graph which shows the link between group relationships (the horizontal axis) and task focus (the vertical axis). The optimal or "performing" position is reached when relationships have developed within the group and it has started delivering with a clear focus on the task.

However, Tuckman's ideas clearly indicate that it takes time to reach the "performing" stage, and it's normal for these teams to go through ups and downs as they develop relationships. Particularly in the early period, which is perhaps why Tuckman called it the "storming" phase!

The 4 Phases of Tuckman's Teamwork Theory

Forming:
The initial stage of team development during which individuals have not yet gelled together. Everybody is busy finding their place in the team, sizing each other up, and asking themselves why they are here! Find out more in our articles: Team Building Techniques and Teamwork Tips. The first offers advice on starting a new team while the second will help you take over an existing team (perhaps a far more common situation).

Storming:
People begin to see themselves as part of a team. However at this stage they may challenge each other, and the team leader, about such things as what the team is doing, and how things should be done. As the stage title suggests, conflict and confrontation typify this stage, as differences surface. This may result in some loss of performance or focus on the task, as the diagram illustrates.

Norming:
This is the phase where team members start to come together, developing processes, establishing ground rules, clarifying who does what, and how things will be done. This phase is characterized by a growing sense of "togetherness". Find out more about both the Storming and Norming phases in our article: Team Building Concepts.

Performing:
This is the final stage where increased focus on both the task, and on team relationships, combine to provide synergy. Performance is delivered through people working effectively together. We have written two articles to further develop this stage. Team Building in the Workplace will help you build a performing team. Characteristics of Effective Teamwork will help you and your team sustain that performance.

The value of Tuckman's model is that it helps us understand that teams evolve. It also helps us to consider how they may encounter different problems at different stages of their development.

One limitation of the model may be that it makes team building appear too linear and sequential. Although it's a useful analytical tool, we must remember that some teams may "loop" around in their development.

For example, not all teams evolve smoothly through Tuckman's stages but may yo-yo between norming and storming until they either begin to function, or are disbanded! Regardless of limitations, all well-conceived models can be useful in helping us to understand and better manage our circumstances.

Beyond Tuckman

Read our new book:

Uncommon Leadership: how to build competitive edge by thinking differently
"a tour de force ... all integrated into a fascinating intellectual package"

Professor Dennis J. Garritan, Adjunct Professor, Harvard University

Tuckman's famous phases are part of a teamwork theory based on stages of team development. His theory may have gained popularity partly due to the catchy labels for each of his stages.

However, it also provides a useful and simple way to think about how we humans interact in team situations. Firstly by illustrating that it's normal for teams go through stages as they develop. Secondly, by highlighting the need to manage different aspects of team behaviour at each stage of that development. The beauty and usefulness of Tuckman's model is perhaps in its simplicity.

Team development theories such, as Tuckman's group development stages, recognise that teams develop through different stages, from forming through to performing.

Whilst these theories give a useful understanding of different team requirements at different times, there are a number of questions that aren't particularly well answered by the models. For example:

How should you lead at the different stages of a team's development?

How do you identify when you are progressing through a stage?

How does the team develop in the organisational setting?

How is it affected by other outside influences?

The theory of group stages alone doesn't answer these questions. To do so, and thus to build a more robust teamwork concept, ideas about team leadership and outside factors need to be introduced. We've done just this in our STAR team performance model. You can see how this model applies to group stages in: Stages of Team Development.

This is the first of ten articles in our teamwork series. But for some practical tips on using teamwork theory, look at our great-value guides (below), or at our Team Building Exercises for all team stages.

Team Building Exercises and Team Stages

The exercises in this guide are grouped according to our team stages model. Remember, each team is unique and needs to be led through several developmental stages. These include:
Creating a new team or taking over an existing team

Exercise 1: Being a TEAM together

Exercise 2: True or false

Exercise 3: Who does what in a team?

Exercise 4: Getting the mix right

Exercise 5: Doing something for the first time

Exercise 6: Two years from now

Developing a team

Exercise 7: A clearer vision

Exercise 8: Mad, sad or glad

Exercise 9: Seeing the bigger picture

Exercise 10: Positive feedback

Exercise 11: Conflicting views

Performing and achieving results with a team

Exercise 12: Did you notice?

Exercise 13: Limiting beliefs

Sustaining team performance

Exercise 14: Scarce resources

Exercise 15: Keeping going

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Probably the most famous teamwork theory is Bruce Tuckman's "team stages model". First developed in 1965, Tuckman's model is widely known as a basis for effective team building. Yet how many people really know how to use it? Below we explain Tuckman's model and offer some fresh insights on how to take it further.

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Implementing Group Work in the Classroom | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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Group work can be an effective method to motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key critical-thinking, communication, and decision-making sk

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Creative Teaching: Simulations, Games, and Role Playing

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To keep up with the educational expectations of today's youth, we're called on to use innovative teaching techniques. Where resources and training programs aren't available to keep pace with our growing technological expansion, methods must be developed and used that involve active learning without depending on high technology.

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Abstract

Abstract
We describe a classroom exercise to allow students to explore foraging strategies in higher vertebrates. The exercise includes an initial interactive session in which students act as predators and are guided through foraging simulations, and a subsequent student-led session where classmates are employed as experimental subjects. Students rated the exercise, which utilises only cheap and widely available resources, significantly more highly than another more traditional module element in terms of development of both biological understanding and transferable skills for the workplace. As current trends are towards making tertiary level bioscience teaching more challenging and engaging, our experiences with this exercise support its introduction on a larger scale to undergraduate biology and ecology curricula.

Introduction

Students across all ages and ability levels frequently identify themselves as having attention problems when listening to lectures () and lectures have been described as having among the lowest information retention rates of any teaching method ( WoodE.J. (2004) Problem-based learning: exploiting knowledge of how people learn to promote effective learning. Bioscience Education. Available at Milner-BolotinM. KotlickiA. and RiegerG. (2007) Can students learn from lecture demonstrations? The role and place of interactive lecture experiments in large introductory science courses. Journal of College Science Teaching. January/February, 45-49 LobatoC. , ApodacaP.M. , BarandiaranM.C. , San JoseM.J. , SanchoJ. and ZubimendiJ.L. (2010) Development of the competences of teamwork through cooperative learning at the university. International Journal of Information and Operations Management Education 3 (3), 224-240 AdamsD.J. (2009) Current trends in laboratory class teaching in university bioscience programmes. Bioscience Education. Available at Wood, 2004 Milner-Bolotin et al., 2007 Lobato et al., 2010 Knight and Wood, 2005 KnightJ.K. and WoodW.B. (2005) Teaching more by lecturing less. Cell Biology Education 4, 298-310 ). In addition to academic knowledge, classroom activities can also be instrumental in helping students to develop a range of transferable skills highly valued by employers ( Clarkeburn et al., 2000 ClarkeburnH. , BeaumontE. , DownieJ.R. and ReidN. (2000) Teaching biology students transferable skills. Journal of Biological Education 34 (3), 133-137 ). Student emphasis is on a desire for teacher-centred learning ( Virtanen and Lindblom-Ylänne, 2009 VirtanenV. and Lindblom-YlänneS. (2009) University students' and teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning in the biosciences. Instructional Science doi: 10.1007/s11251-008-9088-z ), which is the most familiar form of learning to most undergraduates. However, current trends in university bioscience programmes are towards enquiry-based learning, a form of learning by discovery which embraces the Scientific Method and includes students designing and carrying out their own experimental strategy to test a model or hypothesis ( Adams, 2009 www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol13/beej-13-3.pdf (accessed )[Google Scholar] ).[Crossref] [Google Scholar] ). Even moderate shifts away from passive learning, towards more interactive and cooperative learning have been demonstrated to result in significantly higher student learning gains ([Google Scholar] ). Cooperative learning, where students work together in small groups towards a common goal, is important in the development of teamwork skills ( www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol3/beej-3-5.htm (accessed )[Google Scholar] ). Demonstrations and simulations have an important role to play in tertiary level science teaching and there is evidence that increasing the level of student involvement in such lecture activities, for example by getting students to compare actual results to predictions (an example of interactive learning), can increase student interest, enjoyment and learning of underlying scientific concepts (

Here we describe a two-part classroom-based simulation exercise allowing students to become involved in examining foraging strategies in higher vertebrates. During the simulations, students play the role of predators and dried chick peas represent a novel prey item. The exercise consists of two sessions, the first of which uses interactive learning to guide students through timed foraging simulations which demonstrate the formation of a search image to a novel prey item and the concept of optimal foraging. This is followed by a student-led session in which groups of students are given sequential control of the class to conduct foraging experiments they have designed based on field studies on vertebrate species reported in the literature.

The Learning Experience

This exercise was part of a first-year (level 4) module in Ecology taken by students following various bachelor degree programmes at the Universidad Especialidades Espiritu Santo, Guayaquil, Ecuador. During the 2007-2008 academic year, a total of 115 students took part in the exercise. The exercise took place over two 1 hour 40 minute sessions. Materials used in both sessions, and instructions given to students in the first section, were trialled and honed using students registered for this and other relevant modules between 2005 and 2007.

In the first session, students formed small groups and were guided through a foraging simulation which involved each student transferring as many dried chick peas (representing a novel prey item) as possible using chop sticks (feeding apparatus) from a tray to a receptacle 30 cm away in a fixed period of time (two minutes). Sufficient chick peas (300) were provided to each student to ensure the transfer rate was not influenced by the decrease in the number of prey items in the tray during the simulation. Repeating the simulation five times with each individual reporting the number of chick peas transferred each time, provided valuable data for class discussion of the implications of prey switching and development of a search image. Students then repeated the simulations transferring only chick peas with a coloured spot (applied to 40% of the chick peas prior to the exercise using nail varnish). These data encouraged students to continue the prey switching discussion and also to consider foraging techniques and foraging efficiency. In the final part of the first session, different coloured spots were assigned different relative energy values (i.e. blue spot = 2, pink spot = 10, brown spot = 50). The rarer colours were given higher relative energy values. Groups were asked to devise an optimal foraging strategy and five simulations were carried out to test the strategies.

For the second session, which took place one week after the first, the small groups were asked to design a set of simulations using the basic chick pea and chop stick set up to investigate a particular aspect of foraging of their choice using their fellow classmates as experimental subjects. Students were encouraged to base their investigations around a report in a peer-reviewed journal of the foraging activities of any vertebrate species and to be as inventive as necessary to create suitable test conditions in the classroom. Each group was given 20 minutes of class time, sufficient to explain the conditions and to conduct five simulations. Assessment of the exercise was on the basis of a written report submitted two weeks after the second session based on the foraging results collected by the student's own group.

An anonymous questionnaire completed at the end of the last taught session of the module consisted of seven statements and two open-ended questions for each of two exercises. Students were requested to rate their response to the statements on a scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) in a similar design to that used by Chang and Barufaldi (1999) ChangC.-Y. and BarufaldiJ.P. (1999) The use of a problem-solving-based instructional model in initiating change in students' achievement and alternative frameworks. International Journal of Science Education 21 (4), 373-388 . The questionnaire was administered in Spanish. Translations of the statements and questions are shown in Appendix 1. The questionnaire was carried out in the last taught session of the module and students absent from the session were e-mailed the questionnaire in an attempt to reduce the effect of this on questionnaire validity.

The questionnaire was designed to compare student opinion on the foraging exercise (which was supported interactive learning), to an exercise on cetaceans (which was supported by passive learning). Students were asked to rate their agreement with the statements with respect to two pieces of assessed coursework; a write-up of the foraging exercise and an essay exercise based on humpback whales ( Megaptera novaeangliae) in Ecuadorian waters. The essay exercise was based around two 1 hour 40-minute classroom sessions covering "An introduction to cetaceans" and "Humpback whale ecology", both traditional passive learning sessions. The essay theme "Humpback whales in Ecuador" was assigned in the second of these sessions with a submission date two weeks after the second session. Both the foraging and the humpback whale assignments were supported by the same amount of classroom time. Each assignment contributed 30% towards the coursework component of the module, which itself contributed 50% to the overall module mark. For both assignments, students were required to consult and cite relevant scientific literature.

In the cetacean sessions, the students were required to listen and watch the materials presented in the form of PowerPoint slides and video clips. Students could raise their hands and ask questions, however, no specific interaction was required. In the first foraging session, all students were required to move chick peas using chopsticks and report their data to the class. They were also required to predict results, compare expected and actual results, and devise and test optimal foraging strategies. While group work was not explicitly prohibited for the essay exercise, all students appeared to work on the assignment individually. Group work was required for the foraging exercise. The educational approaches being compared can be described as learning about biology (cetacean exercise) and learning how to do biology (foraging exercise). A total of 89 students returned a completed questionnaire.

Results and Discussion

This exercise requires dried chick peas, chop sticks, nail varnish and student ingenuity, and the 115 students that took part proved to have the latter in abundance. All 23 student groups involved in this exercise during the 2007-2008 academic year arrived at the second session with a workable idea for their use of class time, a result due at least in part to the fact that the write-up of the activity constituted a mandatory piece of assessed coursework for the module. The ideas selected for testing by the groups displayed a wide range of adaptations to the original simulation set up and can be placed into three general categories:

1. TollitD.J. , GreenstreetS.P.R. and ThompsonP.M. (1997) Prey selection by harbour seals, 1508-1518 Changing the availability of prey: A number of groups chose to change the abundance of different coloured chick peas, or introduce a new coloured chick pea. These simulations were designed to examine foraging responses to the natural temporal changes in the abundance of prey that can occur within and between seasons. As an example, one group flooded the foraging trays with chick peas of a high relative energy value during their simulations to examine subsequent changes in foraging strategies, based on observations reported for common seals ( Phoca vitulina; Tollit et al., 1997 Phoca vitulina, in relations to variations in prey abundance. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, [Crossref], [Google Scholar] [Web of Science ®] ).

2. BarretteM. and GiraldeauL.-A. (2006) Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food. Animal Behaviour 71, 1183-1189 Changing the background: Variously patterned and coloured paper sheets were placed behind the chick pea prey items to alter crypticity. For example, one group chose to examine the relationship between crypticity and scrounging which involved the introduction of an additional 'transfer plate' between the foraging tray and the final receptacle. Two chick peas had to be on the transfer plate before they were allowed to be moved to the final receptacle. Producers (defined as those searching for prey) had to share the chick peas being transferred from the transfer plate with Scroungers (defined as those waiting for the producers to find the prey), if a Scrounger was present at the transfer plate at the time of transfer. During simulations, individuals were free to switch between the Producer and Scrounger roles. In nutmeg manikins ( Lonchura punctulata), increased crypticity of prey has been reported to reduce the number of group members actively searching for food ( Barrette and Giraldeau, 2006[Crossref], [Google Scholar] [Web of Science ®] ) and using brown, spotted background sheets of paper, this was also demonstrated in the class simulations.

3. RoseL.M. and FediganL.M. (1995) Vigilance in white-faced capuchins, 63-70 Introducing a higher predator: Groups came up with a variety of strategies to investigate the effects on foraging of the introduction of a top predator. For example, one group employed a single class member ('the eagle') to place stickers on participants' backs. Each sticker in place at the end of a simulation represented a loss of 10 chick peas from the transferred total of that participant. Stickers could only be placed when the participant had their back to the eagle. The group videoed the simulations and subsequently calculated the distribution of time between vigilance and foraging for each participant. No significant difference was detected between the vigilance of male and female humans, unlike the findings for white-faced capuchins ( Cebus capucinus; Rose and Fedigan, 1995 Cebus capucinus, in Costa Rica. Animal Behaviour 49, [Crossref], [Google Scholar] [Web of Science ®] ).

When asked to respond to the statement "This exercise helped me to understand biological material", 76.4% of questionnaire respondents agreed or strongly agreed with relation to the foraging exercise, compared to 34.8% for the essay exercise ( Figure 1a). Rating the responses as 5 (strongly agree), 4 (agree), 3 (neutral), 2 (disagree) and 1 (strongly disagree), the foraging exercise scored significantly higher than the essay exercise on this statement (paired t (176) = −7.33, p &lt; 0.001). This correlates well with the opinions of teaching staff as to the quality of answers to exam questions in the areas covered by the foraging exercise and the essay. Students also rated the foraging exercise significantly more highly than the essay exercise when considering development of skills they will need in the workplace. When asked to respond to the statement "This exercise developed skills I will need in employment", 88.8% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with relation to the foraging exercise, compared to 59.3% for the essay exercise ( Figure 1b). Rating the responses as above, the foraging exercise again scored significantly higher than the essay exercise on this statement (paired t (176) = −6.19, p &lt; 0.001).

The results suggest that students find exercises using interactive and cooperative learning beneficial in the classroom in terms of both subject understanding and transferable skills development. As the two exercises examined different areas of the module syllabus, it is possible that the results reflect a pre-existing level of interest in one area of the syllabus over another. In selecting the humpback whale coursework, an element that many students on previous delivery of this module have expressed particular interest in, we hoped to reduce this possibility. As students were comparing an individual activity (the essay) with a group activity (the foraging exercise), it would be interesting in future to examine how the students rate the foraging exercise against other group activities. This would help determine the contribution to the success of the foraging exercise of the interactive learning in the first session and the cooperative learning in preparation for and delivery of the second session.

Questionnaire comments on how to improve the foraging exercise included requests for more class time for preparation and further simulations, and the inclusion of a formal oral presentation session to hear all groups report their findings. General comments on the exercise suggested that students particularly enjoyed the freedom given to them when designing simulations. Eleven respondents made specific positive comments about how well groups had functioned during this activity, confirming the observations made during the exercise by teaching staff.

Several authors have published details of innovative interactive classroom activities designed to develop an understanding of optimal foraging including who uses the taste of jelly beans, and who uses two types of dried beans and a hula hoop. The activity reported here differs from previously reported simulations in that the initial interactive activity is used as a base from which students are encouraged to design and conduct their own experiments to explore optimal foraging under different conditions. As students are required to work in small groups and use their fellow classmates to recreate a foraging experiment from a published paper, a deeper level of understanding of the study that has been conducted in the field is required than might be necessary for an essay writing exercise. Working in small groups encourages cooperative learning to reach the deeper level of understanding required. In a comment on the questionnaire, one student mentioned that a member of their group had not made any meaningful contribution to the work: a common complaint where group work is concerned. However, the same student then went on to say how sad the student who had not made a contribution looked when it was clear how successfully the group had conducted their class experiment without her help: "She really looked like she wished she had been part of it". Students had clearly developed a strong sense of ownership of the experiments they designed, which may be an important factor in the higher scores they awarded this exercise for skill development and biological understanding when compared to an essay writing exercise.

We believe this exercise represents an economical yet effective classroom activity to help students develop a deeper understanding of a complex biological theme while concurrently gaining confidence in transferable skills such as working in groups, making oral presentations, summarising key issues clearly and coping under pressure, skills highly valued by employers. Peer group discussions have proved effective in encouraging high quality decision-making in other areas of biological science (), and minimal teaching input while groups prepare for the second session may be an important factor in the student-evaluated success of the exercise. Student feedback, together with our experience, support introduction of such exercises on a larger scale to undergraduate biology and ecology curricula.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Luis Chavez, Universidad Espeicialidades Espiritu Santo, Guayaquil, Ecuador, for invaluable assistance with class scheduling and questionnaire administration.

Appendix 1

This exercise was enjoyable.

This exercise developed skills I will need in employment.

This exercise helped me develop the ability to cope under pressure.

This exercise helped me develop the ability to summarize key issues clearly.

This exercise helped me develop the ability to work in groups.

This exercise helped me to develop the ability to make oral presentations.

This exercise is something I would like to see more of in other modules.

This exercise helped me to understand underlying biological material.

What changes would you recommend to this exercise for next year's students?

Any other general comments about the exercise?

References

AdamsD.J. (2009) Current trends in laboratory class teaching in university bioscience programmes. Bioscience Education. Available at www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol13/beej-13-3.pdf (accessed )

BarretteM. and GiraldeauL.-A. (2006) Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food. Animal Behaviour 71, 1183-1189

ChangC.-Y. and BarufaldiJ.P. (1999) The use of a problem-solving-based instructional model in initiating change in students' achievement and alternative frameworks. International Journal of Science Education 21 (4), 373-388

ClarkeburnH. , BeaumontE. , DownieJ.R. and ReidN. (2000) Teaching biology students transferable skills. Journal of Biological Education 34 (3), 133-137

GraceM. (2009) Developing high quality decision-making discussion about biological conservation in a normal classroom setting. International Journal of Science Education 31 (4), 551-570

HanrahanM. (1998) The effect of learning environment factors on students' motivation and learning. International Journal of Science Education 20 (6), 737-753

KnightJ.K. and WoodW.B. (2005) Teaching more by lecturing less. Cell Biology Education 4, 298-310

LauerT.E. (2000) Jelly belly jelly beans and evolutionary principles in the classroom: appealing to the students' stomachs. The American Biology Teacher 62 (1), 42-45

LobatoC. , ApodacaP.M. , BarandiaranM.C. , San JoseM.J. , SanchoJ. and ZubimendiJ.L. (2010) Development of the competences of teamwork through cooperative learning at the university. International Journal of Information and Operations Management Education 3 (3), 224-240

Milner-BolotinM. KotlickiA. and RiegerG. (2007) Can students learn from lecture demonstrations? The role and place of interactive lecture experiments in large introductory science courses. Journal of College Science Teaching. January/February, 45-49

RayD.L. (2010) To eat or not to eat: an easy simulation of optimal diet selection in the classroom. The American Biology Teacher 72 (1), 40-43

RoseL.M. and FediganL.M. (1995) Vigilance in white-faced capuchins, 63-70 Cebus capucinus, in Costa Rica. Animal Behaviour 49,

TollitD.J. , GreenstreetS.P.R. and ThompsonP.M. (1997) Prey selection by harbour seals, 1508-1518 Phoca vitulina, in relations to variations in prey abundance. Canadian Journal of Zoology 75,

VirtanenV. and Lindblom-YlänneS. (2009) University students' and teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning in the biosciences. Instructional Science doi: 10.1007/s11251-008-9088-z

WoodE.J. (2004) Problem-based learning: exploiting knowledge of how people learn to promote effective learning. Bioscience Education. Available at www.bioscience.heacademy.ac.uk/journal/vol3/beej-3-5.htm (accessed )

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Promoting Interactive Learning: A Classroom Exercise to Explore Foraging Strategies

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Abstract Abstract We describe a classroom exercise to allow students to explore foraging strategies in higher vertebrates. The exercise includes an initial interactive session in which students act as predators and are guided through foraging simulations, and a subsequent student-led session where classmates are employed as experimental subjects.