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birth control is important in keeping family sizes small, and in limiting the increase in the human population

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birth control is important in keeping family sizes small, and in limiting the increase in the human population

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in 1654 von leeuwenhoek looked down his microscope a sample of semen

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in 1654 von leeuwenhoek looked down his microscope a sample of semen

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in 1695 hartsoecker made a drawing of what he tought one might look like under the microscope

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this caused difficulties in explaining why children resembled both their father and their mother

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this caused difficulties in explaining why children resembled both their father and their mother

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one idea was the homunculus gradually absorbed characteristics of its mother as it developed inside her uterus

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the female gametes (eggs) are made in the two ovaries. leading away from the ovaries are the oviducts, called the Fallopian tubes, that have a funnel-shaped opening at a short distance from ovaries

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uterus or womb has very thick walls, made of muscle, which can stretch when a woman is pregnant

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uterus or womb has very thick walls, made of muscle, which can stretch when a woman is pregnant

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the narrow opening at the base of the uterus is the cervix, also called the neck of the uterus. it leads to vagina, which opens to the outside

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urethra, vagina and rectum opens quite separately to the outside

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urethra, vagina and rectum opens quite separately to the outside

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eggs begin to mature during puberty, usually one at a time

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the male gametes (spermatozoa) are made in two testes 

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the male gametes (spermatozoa) are made in two testes 

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each testis is outside the body, in two sacs of skin called the scrotum

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ovulation takes place when an egg cell bursts out of the ovary and into the funnel at the end of the oviduct (once a month)

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ovulation takes place when an egg cell bursts out of the ovary and into the funnel at the end of the oviduct (once a month)

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outside the egg cell there is a layer of yelly, whereas cytoplasm contains yolk (a energy store

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the sperms are carried away in each testis in a tube called the sperm duct. each sperm duct is joined up with the urethra just below the bladder

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where the sperm ducts join the urethra, there is a gland called the prostate gland

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where the sperm ducts join the urethra, there is a gland called the prostate gland

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it makes a fluid which the sperm swim in

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the cells in the tubules will not develop into sperm if they get too hot

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sperm are made in tubules and stored in tube in epididymis

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sperms are made continually from puberty onwards

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the fallopian tube is lined with cilia which beat rhytmically, so that the egg travels toward the uterus, muscles in the wall of the oviduct also help to move it by peristalsis

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the egg must be fertilized within 8-24 hours after ovulation

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the sperm must reach egg while it is quite near the top of the oviduct if fertilisation is to be successful

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the sperm must reach egg while it is quite near the top of the oviduct if fertilisation is to be successful

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when the man is sexually excited, blood is pumped into spaces inside the penis, so that it becomes erect

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to bring the sperm as close as possible to the egg, the penis is placed inside the vagina

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to bring the sperm as close as possible to the egg, the penis is placed inside the vagina

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that is SEXUAL INTERCOURSE

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only the head of the sperm goes in

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muscles in the wall of the tubes containing sperm contract rhytmically (the wave of contraction begins in the testes, travels along the sperm ducts until the penis) so the sperm are squeezed out of the man's urethra

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sperm are pushed out of the penis into the vagina, one ejaculation deposits about a million sperm in the vagina

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sperm swim using their tails up through cervix, uterus and into the oviduct

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sperm swim using their tails up through cervix, uterus and into the oviduct

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they can swim at a rate of 4mm per minute, many will never reach the oviduct. one ejaculation deposits about a million sperm in the vagina

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the nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg

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the sperm swim using their tails, up through the cervix, the uterus and into the oviduct

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the sperm swim using their tails, up through the cervix, the uterus and into the oviduct

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sperm can only swim at a rate of about 4mm per minute

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as the sperm enters the egg, the egg membrane becomes impenetrable, so that no other sperm can get in, and they will all die

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....avoiding completely sexual intercourse, or....

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Female Basal Body Temperature during Menstrual Cycle

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has to be fitted by a doctor

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interfere with the ability of sperm to find and fertilise an egg, and also prevents the implantation and the development of any egg that does get fertilised

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is a circular slghtly domed piece of rubber which is inserted into the vagina, stopping sperm getting through the cervix into the uterus. it is associated a spermicide

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sperm ducts cut and the cut ends tied

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usually one egg is released into the oviduct every month in an adult woman

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usually one egg is released into the oviduct every month in an adult woman

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oestrogen is not the only female sex hormone

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first, a follicle develops inside an ovary. this is stimulated by FSH. the developing follicle secretes oestrogen which makes the lining of the uterus grow thick and spongy. throughout this time, the pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH which stimulate the follicle to keep on secreting oestrogen. when the follicle is fully developed, raises the production of LH, this causes OVULATION. the empty follicle stops secreting oestrogen and becomes a corpus luteum, which starts the secretion of progesterone, while levels of FSH and LH fall. progesterone causes prepares the uterus (it becomes thick spongy and well supplied with blood) in case the egg is fertilized. if this doesn't happens, the corpus luteum gradually disappears, progesterone is not secreted and the lining of the uterus breaks down. if the egg is fertilized the corpus luteum carries on secreting progesterone until the embryo sinks into the uterus wall, and a placenta develops. the progesterone mantain the uterus lining, so menstruation doesn't happen during the pregnancy

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first, a follicle develops inside an ovary. this is stimulated by FSH. the developing follicle secretes oestrogen which makes the lining of the uterus grow thick and spongy. throughout this time, the pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH which stimulate the follicle to keep on secreting oestrogen. when the follicle is fully developed, raises the production of LH, this causes OVULATION. the empty follicle stops secreting oestrogen and becomes a corpus luteum, which starts the secretion of progesterone, while levels of FSH and LH fall. progesterone causes prepares the uterus (it becomes thick spongy and well supplied with blood) in case the egg is fertilized. if this doesn't happens, the corpus luteum gradually disappears, progesterone is not secreted and the lining of the uterus breaks down. if the egg is fertilized the corpus luteum carries on secreting progesterone until the embryo sinks into the uterus wall, and a placenta develops. the progesterone mantain the uterus lining, so menstruation doesn't happen during the pregnancy

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sexually transmitted infections are caused by bacteria or viruses

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sexually transmitted infections are caused by bacteria or viruses

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passed during sexual intercourse

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human immunodeficiency virus

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over a long period of time, HIV slowly destroiys T cells, many years after the infection the number of T cells which would normally kill viruses is very low, so it's very difficult for someone's own immune system to protect them against HIV

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about ten years after initial infection with HIV, a person is likely to develop symptoms of AIDS unless they are given effective treatment

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about ten years after initial infection with HIV, a person is likely to develop symptoms of AIDS unless they are given effective treatment

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a person with AIDS usually dies from a collection of several illnesses

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a person with AIDS usually dies from a collection of several illnesses

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as yet, no vaccine has been produced to prevent HIV infection, despite large amounts of money being spent on research

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....questo però ce lo leggiamo in italiano...

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E' ancora troppo presto per cantare vittoria. Ma ad ogni congresso sull'Hiv il mantra era sempre quello: a quando il vaccino? Perché va bene la terapia che tiene sotto controllo il virus, e che va fatta a vita, va bene la Prep, la profilassi pre-esposizione. Ma, certo, un vaccino sarebbe la chiave di volta in quella che è stata la prima vera epidemia globale. Per questo la notizia di uno studio - pubblicato su Lancet - che, dopo aver dimostrato di essere ben tollerato e di provocare una risposta immunitaria definita "robusta" in soggetti sani e in una specie di macachi, passa alla fase successiva, quella della sicurezza e dell'efficacia, è certamente una buona notizia. Anche perché questo vaccino ha dimostrato di funzionare proteggendo i macachi da una infezione provocata da un virus simile ad Hiv.

Ma veniamo ai risultati: il trial clinico di questo vaccino - uno dei 5 che è riuscito ad arrivare alla sperimentazione in 35 anni di epidemia - ha coinvolto quasi 400 adulti sani tra 18 e 50 anni di 12 ospedali (Africa, Thailandia, Usa) utilizzando un vaccino a mosaico, ovvero che prende dei frammenti di differenti virus Hiv e li combina per stimolare una risposta immunitaria contro un'ampia varietà di forme di Hiv. Il vaccino è stato poi somministrato a volontari, in una delle sette combinazioni previste e in quattro dosi in 48 settimane, oppure è stato dato loro placebo.
"I primi risultati - secondo Dan Barouch, direttore del centro di Virologia e ricerca sui vaccini al Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, che ha condotto lo studio - vanno interpretati con cautela perché l'efficacia nell'indurre una isposta immunitaria Hiv-specifica non vuol dire necessariamente che il vaccino protegga gli uomini dalll'infezione da Hiv. E quindi aspettiamo i risultati della fase 2b di efficacia - trial che abbiamo chiamato HVTN705 o Imbokodo - che ci dirà se davvero questo vaccino possa impedire l'infezione negli uomini. O meglio nelle donne, visto che sarà testato su 2600 donne a rischio di contrarre il virus.

Lo studio è importante - premette Stefano Vella, che dirige il Centro per la salute globale dell'Istituto superiore di Sanità ed è un grande esperto di Hiv - ma non basterà. Perché gli approcci più nuovi che si stanno seguendo sono altri e sono quelli che si seguono per qualsiasi vaccino: individuare un antigene che deve sviluppare gli anticopri neutralizzanti, che impediscono l'infezione al 100 per cento. Il vaccino diq uesto studio, invece, è stato sviluppato per stimolare l'immunità cellulare e non anticorpale. Quindi è vero che produce tanti anticorpi ma non sappiamo quanto efficaci contro il virus, che è astuto e muta velocemente. Solo gli anticorpi neutralizzanti, quindi, possono bloccarlo. E credo che non siamo lontani dalle prima prove sui non infetti".

di MARIA TERESA BRADASCIO

di ANNA RITA CILLIS

di DIANA TARTAGLIA

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E' ancora troppo presto per cantare vittoria. Ma ad ogni congresso sull'Hiv il mantra era sempre quello: a quando il vaccino? Perché va bene la terapia che tiene sotto controllo il virus, e che va fatta a vita, va bene la Prep, la profilassi pre-esposizione.

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ahahahah

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and stages leading to it. into the oviduct the zygote divides by mitosis

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until implantation occurs, the embryo obtains food from the yolk of the egg

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until implantation occurs, the embryo obtains food from the yolk of the egg

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the uterus has a thin, spongy lining and the embryo sinks into it

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from the zygote to the embryo (after eleven weeks the embryo become a fetus)

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from the zygote to the embryo (after eleven weeks the embryo become a fetus)

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before implantation into the thin, spongy lining of uterus, embryo obtains food from the yolk of the egg

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placenta grows as the embryo grows and connects embryo to the wall of the uterus, it is where the substances are exchanged between the mother's blood and the embryo's blood, it is the embryo's life support system

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placenta grows as the embryo grows and connects embryo to the wall of the uterus, it is where the substances are exchanged between the mother's blood and the embryo's blood, it is the embryo's life support system

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the placenta is soft and dark-red and has finger-like projections called villi which fit closely into the uterus wall

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the placenta is joined to the fetus by the umbilical cord

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the placenta is joined to the fetus by the umbilical cord

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the arteries take blood from the fetus into the placenta, and the vein returns the blood to the fetus

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in the placenta are capillaries filled with the mother's blood and the wall of the uterus is filled with the mother's blood

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in the placenta are capillaries filled with the mother's blood and the wall of the uterus is filled with the mother's blood

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the fetus's and the mother's blood are brought very close together, because the wall of the placenta is very thin, but they don't mix at all

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the dissolved oxygen in the blood passes into the fetal blood by simple diffusion

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oxygen and food materials in the mother's blood diffuse across the placenta in the fetus's blood, and then are carried along the umbilical cord to the fetus

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oxygen and food materials in the mother's blood diffuse across the placenta in the fetus's blood, and then are carried along the umbilical cord to the fetus

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as the fetus grows, the placenta grows too. by the time the baby is born, the placenta will be a flat disc, about 12 cm in diameter and 3cm thick

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chorionic villi

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also active transport and pinocitosis

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helps to support the embryo and to protect it

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most organs are present, some movements occur

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'ontogenesis is a brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogenesis, determined by the physiological functions of heredity (generation) and adaptation (maintenance)" )

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'ontogenesis is a brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogenesis, determined by the physiological functions of heredity (generation) and adaptation (maintenance)" )

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(Haeckel, E. 1899)

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A Calender of Development from Zygote to Birth