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Jürgen Habermas developed the concept of the public sphere in one of his earliest books, "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society" in 1989. Habermas defined the Public Sphere as: "an arena independent of government (even if in receipt of state funds) and also enjoying autonomy from partisan economic forces, which is dedicated to rational debate (i.e to debate and discussion which is not 'interest', 'disguised', or 'manipulated') and which is both accessible to entry and open to inspection by the citizenry. It is here, in this public sphere, that the public opinion is formed." Habermas argued that the "bourgeois public sphere" emerged in an expanding capitalist society exemplified by 18th-century Britain, where entrepreneurs were becoming powerful enough to achieve autonomy from state and church, and demanded wider and more effective political representation to expand their business. The idealized version of a public space was characterized by greater accessibility of information, a more open debate within the bourgeoisie, and a space independent of both business interests and state apparatus. However, as capitalism expanded and attained dominance, the call for reform of the state was then replaced by an effort to take it over to further business interests. By lobbying parliament, funding political parties and cultural institutions, the autonomy of the public sphere was severely reduced. According to Habermas, the growing power of information management and manipulation through public relations and lobbying firms in the twentieth century has contributed to contemporary debates becoming a 'fake version' of a genuine public sphere. Habermas has also detected re-feudalization in the changes within the mass media systems, which have also become monopoly capitalist organizations, promoting capitalist interests, affecting their role as disseminators of information for the public sphere.

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Modernization theory was after World War II where developing countries could become modern by following the path of Western countries. Using mass media like radio, newspapers, and TV to spread Western ideas about democracy, capitalism, and economic growth. Key influencers include Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm, they believed that media would change how people thought and raise hopes for a better future. This was during the Cold War and was backed by Western governments and groups like UNESCO. This approach sent information from the top down and judged progress mostly by economic growth. Over time critics argued that this ignored culture, power, and inequality often helping the rich more than everyday people and widening the gap between rich and poor. They also pointed out that traditional and modern cultures can exist together since many societies used modern media to support their own values  leading scholars to push for more inclusive and culture centered approaches to development.

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The idea of structural imperialism centers around the idea that there are two types of states in the world. The first type is the core state, and the second type is the peripheral state. You can think of the core state as a big power in the world like the US or China. The peripheral state is a country that is usually smaller like Taiwan. These core countries dominate when it comes to economics, military, and communication. According to Gutang, the mechanics of the theory work out like this: the core countries get all the benefits whether it's economically or an invention the core countries get most of the benefits. While the peripheral really doesn't get much if any benefit. However when it comes to communication and culture, usually the core countries purposefully spread their influence out to kind of dominate the peripheral ones. An example of this was during the British occupation of India, the British made lots of money from the raw materials in India yet India never received any benefit. However Indian citizens were forced to adapt to British culture.

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Antonio Gramsci's theory of Hegemony states that dominant powers (such as countries or political groups) share their common ideas and beliefs throughout the media to persuade viewers into thinking that their world views and ideas are normal and universally accepted. This is done through the media by spreading agendas and promoting certain values over others. His theory reinforces the idea that most of the media we view, whether it be online or in movies or tv shows, reflects the interests of the most powerful. Therefore, the more powerful groups can have a global influence over the less powerful.

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Chapter 2 explains the cultural studies approach as a way to understand international communication by focusing on culture and meaning, not just money and power. This approach looks at media as something that carries messages and ideas, and it studies how people in different countries understand these messages in their own ways. Instead of saying that Western media always forces its culture on others, cultural studies shows that audiences are active and can interpret media based on their own experiences and backgrounds. It also talks about whether global media makes cultures more similar or creates hybrid cultures, which are a mix of global and local influences. Overall, this approach helps explain how media affects people’s identities and cultures around the world.

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The Frankfurt School developed it and argues that in capitalist societies, culture is mass-produced and sold like a commodity. Adorno and Horkheimer used the “culture industry” to explain how films, radio, and popular music are made using standardized “factory-like” methods. Saying they are similar to mass-produced cars that are made on an assembly line. They argued that the standardization of culture turns it into entertainment and distracts people rather than encouraging critical thinking in society. Theorists claimed that people consume culture to satisfy emotional needs shaped by capitalism and not for its deeper meaning, creating a one-dimensional society where changes are harder to imagine. One specific example is the UNESCO report that argued cultural industries were increasingly being controlled by major media corporations and that Western cultural products dominated international markets, marginalizing non-commercial products.

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Dependency theory is a way to explain how the United States replaced European strength across the world. This theory is based on the fact that, after gaining independence, Latin American countries had their communication infrastructure developed exclusively by the United States. The United States’ growth is attributed to the electronic know-how of the U.S. military and scientists gained from the Cold War.

The dependency theory also takes into account American imperialism, notably through the sheer volume of movies, television programs, and advertising produced by Hollywood and other media exports.

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The Globalization Theory helps to explain how the ways we communicate are becoming increasingly more interconnected across the world. These processes range from political and economic to more cultural and general communicative types. This growth is posited to lead to a more intensified flow of information, people, and all kinds of media across the planet. This is also theorized to create increased tensions between global integration and people's local/national identities. An example of this is our streaming services like Amazon Prime or Netflix. These services show the same shows across the planet, but also invest in more local productions to appeal to certain groups of people and hide other shows that may not conform to the local market where they stream.

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Freedom of information flow is the concept that communication and information should flow freely across national borders without government control or censorship. After World War II, Western countries—particularly the United States—promoted this concept to support democracy, free markets, and freedom of speech. However, because most media power is concentrated in the West, this primarily benefited Western governments and media corporations, while limiting the voices from developing countries.

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Here are the sections of Chapter 2 you are assigned to summarize. 

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Here are the sections of Chapter 2 you are assigned to summarize. 

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Dependency theory -Ruben

Structural imperialism - Sean

Hegemony -Anthony

Free flow of information -Nguyen

Modernization theory -Chemae

The public sphere - Jason

Critical theory - Emily

Globalization - Chris

Cultural studies - Sully

Theories of the information society - Tori