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AutoCAD Tutorial: Add a Point - How to change point style

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This R tutorial describes how to change line types of a graph generated using ggplot2 package.

The different line types available in R software are : "blank", "solid", "dashed", "dotted", "dotdash", "longdash", "twodash".

Note that, line types can be also specified using numbers : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 0 is for "blank", 1 is for "solid", 2 is for "dashed", ....

A graph of the different line types is shown below :

Generate some data

df

## time bill ## 1 breakfeast 10 ## 2 Lunch 30 ## 3 Dinner 15

Create line plots and change line types

The argument linetype is used to change the line type :

library(ggplot2) # Basic line plot with points ggplot(data=df, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=1)) + geom_line()+ geom_point() # Change the line type ggplot(data=df, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=1)) + geom_line(linetype = "dashed")+ geom_point()

Create some data

df2

## sex time bill ## 1 Female breakfeast 10 ## 2 Female Lunch 30 ## 3 Female Dinner 15 ## 4 Male breakfeast 13 ## 5 Male Lunch 40 ## 6 Male Dinner 17

Change globally the appearance of lines

In the graphs below, line types, colors and sizes are the same for the two groups :

library(ggplot2) # Line plot with multiple groups ggplot(data=df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line()+ geom_point() # Change line types ggplot(data=df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(linetype="dashed")+ geom_point() # Change line colors and sizes ggplot(data=df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(linetype="dotted", color="red", size=2)+ geom_point(color="blue", size=3)

Change automatically the line types by groups

In the graphs below, line types, colors and sizes are changed automatically by the levels of the variable sex :

# Change line types by groups (sex) ggplot(df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(aes(linetype=sex))+ geom_point()+ theme(legend.position="top") # Change line types + colors ggplot(df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(aes(linetype=sex, color=sex))+ geom_point(aes(color=sex))+ theme(legend.position="top")

Change manually the appearance of lines

The functions below can be used :

scale_linetype_manual() : to change line types

scale_color_manual() : to change line colors

scale_size_manual() : to change the size of lines

# Set line types manually ggplot(df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(aes(linetype=sex))+ geom_point()+ scale_linetype_manual(values=c("twodash", "dotted"))+ theme(legend.position="top") # Change line colors and sizes ggplot(df2, aes(x=time, y=bill, group=sex)) + geom_line(aes(linetype=sex, color=sex, size=sex))+ geom_point()+ scale_linetype_manual(values=c("twodash", "dotted"))+ scale_color_manual(values=c('#999999','#E69F00'))+ scale_size_manual(values=c(1, 1.5))+ theme(legend.position="top")

This analysis has been performed using R software (ver. 3.1.2) and ggplot2 (ver. 1.0.0)

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ggplot2 line types : How to change line types of a graph in R software?

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This R tutorial describes how to change line types of a graph generated using ggplot2 package. The different line types available in R software are : "blank", "solid", "dashed", "dotted", "dotdash", "longdash", "twodash". Note that, line types can be also specified using numbers : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

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How to use Autocad civil 3D points creation

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How to use Autocad civil 3D points creation

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How to Use AutoCAD Civil 3D Points Creation from AutoCAD Points - Convert Points Classes Tutorial

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A line is a one-dimensional figure, which has length but no width. A line made of a set of points which is extended in opposite directions infinitely. It is determined by two points in a two-dimensional plane. The two points which lie on the same line are said to be collinear points.

In geometry, there are different types of lines such as horizontal and vertical lines, parallel and perpendicular lines . These lines play an important role in the construction of different types of polygons. For example, a square is made by four lines of the same lengths, whereas a triangle is made by joining three lines end to end.

What is a Line?

A line can be defined as a straight set of points that extend in opposite directions

It has no ends in both directions(infinite)

It has no thickness

it is one-dimensional

Points, Lines and Angles

Points, lines and angles are the basic of geometry which collectively defines the shapes of an object.

An example of a combination of points, lines and angles is a rectangle which has four vertices defined by a point, four sides shown by lines and four angles equal to 90 degrees.

Similarly, we can define other shapes such as rhombus, parallelogram, square, kite, cube, cuboid, etc using these three primary figures.
Also, read:
What is a Line segment?

A line segment is part of a line which has defined endpoints

It has a beginning point and an ending point

What is a Ray?

A ray is a part of a line that has one endpoint (i.e. starting point) and it extends in one direction endlessly.

Types of Line

In Geometry, there are basically four types of lines. They are:

Horizontal Lines

When a line moves from left to right in a straight direction, it is a horizontal line.

Vertical Lines

When a line runs from top to bottom in a straight direction, it is a vertical line.

Parallel Lines

When two straight lines don't meet or intersect at any point, even at infinity, then they are parallel to each other.

Suppose two lines PQ and RS are parallel then it is represented as PQ||RS.

Perpendicular Lines

When two lines meet or intersect at an angle of 90 degrees or at a right angle, then they are perpendicular to each other.

If PQ and RS are two lines which are perpendicular to each other, then it is represented as PQ ⊥ RS.

Some Other types of Lines in Maths

1.Tangent lines

The Tangent is a straight line which just touches the curve at a given point. The normal is a straight line which is perpendicular to the tangent. To calculate the equations of these lines we shall make use of the fact that the equation of a straight line passing through the point with coordinates (x ₁, y ₁) and having gradient m is given by

\(\frac{y-y_{1}}{x-x_{1}}=1\)

We also make use of the fact that if two lines with gradients m ₁ and m ₂ respectively are perpendicular, then m ₁m ₂ = −1.
Example: Suppose we wish to find points on the curve y(x) given by \(x^{3} - 6x^{2} + x + 3 \) where the tangents are parallel to the line y = x + 5.
Solution: If the tangents have to be parallel to the line then they must have the same gradient. The standard equation for a straight line is y = mx + c, where m is the gradient. So what we gain from looking at this standard equation and comparing it with the straight line y = x + 5 is that the gradient, m, is equal to 1. Thus, the gradients of the tangents we are trying to find must also have gradient 1.

We know that if we differentiate y(x) we will obtain an expression for the gradients of the tangents to y(x) and we can set this equal to 1. Differentiating and making it equal to 1 we find:

\(\frac{dy}{dx}=3x^{2}-12x+1=1\)

from which

This is a quadratic equation which we can solve by factorisation.

\(\Rightarrow 3x = 0 \;\; or \;\; (x-4) = 0\)

\(\Rightarrow x = 0 \;\; or x = 4\)

Now having found these two values of x we can calculate the corresponding y coordinates. We do this from the equation of the curve: \(y = x^{3} - 6x^{2} + x + 3 \).

when x = 0: y = \((0)^{3} - 6(0)^{2} + 0 + 3 = 3\)

when x = 4: y = \((4)^{3} - 6(4)^{2} + 4 + 3= -25 \)

So the two points are (0, 3) and (4, −25)

These are the two points where the gradients of the tangent are equal to 1, and so where the tangents are parallel to the line that we started out with, i.e. y = x + 5.

2. Secant lines

A line in the plane is a secant line to a circle if it meets the circle in exactly two points. It is also equivalent to the average rate of change, or simply the slope between two points. The average rate of change of a function between two points and the slope between two points are the same thing.

In the left figure above,
\(\theta =\frac{1}{2}\) (arc A C + arc B D),
while in the right figure,

\(\phi =\frac{1}{2}\) (arc R T - arc S Q),

Where arc AB denotes the angular measure of the arc AB.

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Lines in Geometry (Definition, Types & Examples)

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A line is a one-dimensional figure, which has length but no width. A line made of a set of points which is extended in opposite directions infinitely. It is determined by two points in a two-dimensional plane. The two points which lie on the same line are said to be collinear points.

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A point in geometry is a location. It has no size i.e. no width, no length and no depth. A point is shown by a dot.

A line is defined as a line of points that extends infinitely in two directions. It has one dimension, length. Points that are on the same line are called collinear points.

A line is defined by two points and is written as shown below with an arrowhead.

$$\\ \overset{\leftrightarrow}{AB } \\$$

Two lines that meet in a point are called intersecting lines.

A part of a line that has defined endpoints is called a line segment. A line segment as the segment between A and B above is written as:

$$\overline{AB}$$

A plane extends infinitely in two dimensions. It has no thickness. An example of a plane is a coordinate plane. A plane is named by three points in the plane that are not on the same line. Here below we see the plane ABC.

A space extends infinitely in all directions and is a set of all points in three dimensions. You can think of a space as the inside of a box.

Video lesson

Plot a pint, a line, a line segment and an angle in a coordinate plane.

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An introduction to geometry (Geometry, Points, Lines, Planes and Angles) - Mathplanet

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A point in geometry is a location. It has no size i.e. no width, no length and no depth. A point is shown by a dot. A line is defined as a line of points that extends infinitely in two directions. It has one dimension, length.

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A leader line is a line that establishes a connection between a graphical representation of an item and some text. A leader points to a bit of our drawing and says:
'Oi - Look Here' and 'Read This!'.

The leader line itself should be a continuous Thin line (see this post on Linetype Definitions). A leader line also has a terminator and some text. A leader line may have a reference line under the text.

The British technical drawing standards give us four different types of terminators to use with our leader lines.

An arrow terminator is used to point to an edge of an item. The dot is used to point to a face. The Architectural tick can be used for referring to multiple parallel edges. The final type of line has no terminator, and is used for pointing at dimension lines or lines of Symmetry.

Leader lines can have multiple segments and you can use one annotation to reference multiple faces and edges.

You can reference multiple parallel edges or faces with one leader.

It is recommended that you draw your leader lines at an angle to the rest of the drawing - i.e. Not parallel to the drawing itself. Increments of 15° are advised.

Finally, your Instruction text can be centred to the reference line, or it can sit above the reference line. The text should be a least twice the line thickness above the reference line. The text should never touch the reference line itself.
BS ISO 128-22:1999 Technical drawings - General principles of presentation - Part 22: Basic conventions and applications for leader lines and reference lines

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Technical Drawing Standards: Leader Lines.

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The leader line itself should be a continuous Thin line (see this post on Linetype Definitions). A leader line also has a terminator and some text. A leader line may have a reference line under the text. The British technical drawing standards give us four different types of terminators to use with our leader lines.

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2.1 CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING

The purpose of drafting is to present technical ideas in precise and concise forms.

A properly drafted drawing should be understood by any engineer.

A sample of a drafted drawing is given below.

2.1.1 Manual Drafting

This is the use of drafting boards, pencils, pens, and a number of specialized tools for drafting. While this method is still very popular, the techniques used in manual drafting are quickly being displaced by CAD (Computer Aided Design) systems.

I will not cover some of the manual drawing topics list below, but more information on them appears in a large number of drafting books.

2.1.2 Turning Three Dimensions Into Two (Multi View Drawings)

The problem with drafting is that the paper is flat, while the object drawn is not.

To get around this we can develop a number of views to work with.

This method of developing views is known as Orthographic projection

This method eliminates the perspective distortion in real vision, thus making it easier for technical depiction.

In this method, object faces that are parallel to the viewing plane are shown as actual size, but objects that are not parallel are foreshortened.

The number of views used is a function of the geometry. For a simple object such as a washer, only one view is needed. A more complicated object, such as a piston, would require at least two views.

2.1.2.1 - The Glass Box

The views are developed as if a glass box was placed over the object. The view from each direction was frozen, and when the box is unfolded, the resulting views are seen.

Imaging the case below of a small tetrahedron (a three pointed triangle),

The drawings are layed out with certain conventions. The example above is continued below for illustration, In the figure extra construction lines are added to show how the drawings in the different views are related.Note that the top view is related to the side view using a 45° line. These properties are a result of the `glass box' concept. The folding lines are often shown on drawings (they have two dashes and one long). Also note that in the figure shown below, the points in the top view will be the same distance from the folding line as they are in the side view.

The layout of the drawings is done by convention. In this drawing the right side view is to the right of the front view. If this drawing observed european standards, the right side view would be on the left hand side.

A useful method for keeping the large number of points in a drawing sorted is to number them. For example,

The view that is selected as the front is arbitrary, but it should

- be a natural front to the object.

- be the most important view

- chosen to minimize hidden lines in other views

- contain most of the detail

2.1.3 Lines

The number of lines on drawings will become confusing, therefore this calls for some method for differentiating between lines.

Hidden lines are dashed lines used to show lines that not visible.

Centre lines are used to show the axis of rotation for an object surface. These lines have long/short dashes.

Construction lines are drawn on to help locate final drawing lines. These lines are so light that they are often not even erased when the drawing is complete.

Some objects have disproportionate dimensions. As a result, it may be necessary to `break' them to show any reasonable level of detail. There are three types of breaks commonly used,

- S breaks - for round objects

- Z breaks - for thin long/wide objects

- freehand breaks - for long rectangular objects

2.1.4 Holes

There are a number of holes commonly depicted in drawings,

2.1.5 Special Cases

2.1.5.1 - Aligned Features

Aligned features - in some cases, features are revolved, and shown at a consistent radial distance, but not necessarily in the correct position.

Holes are commonly rotated to simplify views

Ribs and wings are commonly rotated to simplify views

Large features on parts may be rotated to simplify views. small features, such as slots may also be rotated between views for clarity.

Sheet metal parts start out flat, but are deformed to new useful shapes. Therefore it is common to draw sheet metal parts in the deformed, and the undeformed state.

2.1.5.2 - Incomplete Views

Incomplete views - certain details can be omitted to simplify the view. This method produces drawings that are not correct, but they are commonly used in practice.

Some views will end up having an excessive number of hidden lines. To combat this problem, we may sometimes just leave them out.

Large radial/cylindrical parts are often cropped to save space. But, enough is shown to make the remainder of the geometry obvious.

2.1.6 Section Views

when there are complicated internal features, they may be hard to identify in normal views with hidden lines. A view with some of the part "cut away" can make the internal features very easy to see, these are called section views.

In these views hidden lines are generally not used, except for clarity in some cases.

The cutting plane for the section is,

- shown with thick black dashed lines.

- has arrows at the end of the line to indicate the view direction

- has letters placed beside the arrow heads. These will identify the section

- does not have to be a straight line

sections can be lined to indicate,

- when the section plane slices through material

- two methods for representing materials. First, use 45° lines, and refer to material in title block. If there are multiple materials, lines at 30° and 60° may be used for example. Second, use a conventional set of fill lines to represent the different types of materials.

2.1.6.1 - Full Sections

Full sections - generally a straight section line cuts through a part to give a complete view of the inside. This section typically replaces one of the views that is confusing.

2.1.6.2 - Offset Section

Full sections will experience difficulties when the features do not lie along a single line.

We can use a section line that is turned to cut through features. This view can be used to replace one of the principle views.

2.1.6.3 - Half Section

In some cases it is better to illustrate internal features with both a section, and a full view. In this case we can cut away only part (a quarter) of the object, and draw a view that is half normal, half section.

this method is well suited to symmetrical parts, with the section starting at the axis of symmetry

Take note that the section line here only has one arrow head, but the direction must be observed

2.1.6.4 - Cut Away Sections

Instead of doing large scale sections, we can cut away a very specific region of interest.

In this case a break line is used, and the cutting plane lines used in other cases are not applicable.

2.1.6.5 - Revolved Section

When we have transition pieces, such as ribs, or airplane wings, we will want to show the shape, but this is not easy with conventional views, In this case we can break out a section.

The basic procedure is to

1. select a characteristic section, and draw cut lines to either side.

2. in between the breaks, draw a section that is rotated 90° so that it is obvious on the drawing.

This method is useful when space is at a premium

The cutting plane line is not used with this technique

2.1.6.6 - Removed Section

this is a more exact alternative to the revolved section method.

With this method a break is not used, but a cutting plane line is. The sections are then drawn at some other location on the page.

The only features shown are the features of the section.

labels such as A-A, B-B, etc are used to avoid ambiguity.

these views are often placed at a distance and arranged in the same order as the sections.

These section may also be shown using lines extended from the object

modified scales may also be used with appropriate notation

2.1.6.7 - Auxiliary Section

A section can be done that does not lie in one of the primary planes.

This done as a normal section

2.1.6.8 - Thin Wall Section

This method is used for assemblies of thin materials, such as sheet metal.

This illustrates how the pieces butt up against each other.

The sections are filled with black, but a small space is left between the piece to indicate the assembled faces (operations such as crimping, spot welding, etc are used for these)

2.1.6.9 - Assembly Section

When placing parts together we want to verify that they will match, and that they can be assembled. We also want to provide assistance to the assembler. To do this a cut away assembly drawing can be used.

There are a number of elements present in these diagrams,

- a parts list with numbered items

- generally section views are used, and oriented along the main assembly axis

2.1.6.10 - Special Cases

Because sections are to clarify confusing features on diagrams, they are sometimes not theoretically correct.

A few of the cases that are considered when working with sections are,

1. cutting lines may intersect ribs, but they may be drawn offset somewhat to clarify the rib geometry.

2. sections may be aligned to clarify the views

3. If a cutting plane cuts through intersecting features, the less important feature may be omitted for clarity, or to save time. For example, two rounds that intersect at an angle other than 90° would have an unusual shape, if one is not drawn, the section becomes much easier to do.

2.1.6.11 - Fill Patterns

Sections can be filled with a number of patterns to indicate different materials

This was a common technique in the past. Some examples are given below.

2.1.7 Auxiliary Views

The glass box can also be folded at odd angles. This technique produces views known as Auxiliary views.

These views are useful when we want to draw a view of a surface that is not normal to one of the primary viewing planes.

common terms used for this method are true size, and true shape. keep in mind that if a feature does not lie parallel to one of the primary viewing planes, it will appear distorted in every view.

These views can be constructed from any view in a drawing. typical names for these identify the view that they are drawn from,

We can also use auxiliary views to project other views for geometric purposes

hidden lines are typically not used in auxiliary views, unless needed for clarity. Also, a number of surfaces are not included because they are distorted, and of little value.

typically steps followed to construct an auxiliary view,

1. select the face that is to be drawn as i) a true surface, ii) a true length line, iii) an end view of a line.

2. draw construction lines perpendicular to the surface/line/point of interest. This line should go in a direction, and far enough that leaves enough space for the view.

3. draw a folding line at an appropriate distance. This will act as a reference plane.

4. transfer distances from another view. This view will typically be the view adjoining the view that the auxiliary is drawn from.

5. Complete the view.

an example is given below, and all faces are drawn for illustration, but normally only the angled face would be drawn. Because this is the first auxiliary from the drawing, it is called the primary auxiliary view.

There are special drafting techniques for rounded, or curved surfaces, these can be found in any drafting textbook.

2.1.7.1 - Secondary Auxiliary Views

sometimes it is necessary to make an auxiliary view, using an auxiliary view. When this is done, the first auxiliary is constructed as normal. The second auxiliary is made from the first, but the distances can only be transferred from the first auxiliary for the second auxiliary.

These views can be needed for a number of purposes, but generally they will be needed when the object does not lie perpendicular, or parallel to any of the viewing planes.

2.1.7.2 - Partial Auxiliary Views

It is not necessary to draw entire auxiliary views, they can be draw in part, and break lines use.

This technique allows simplified illustrations of features of interest, without full development of an auxiliary view.

2.1.8 Descriptive Geometry

The use of drafting to determine geometric properties, such as shortest distances between points and lines.

These methods can also be used to solve statics (vector) problems, etc.

These methods use extensions to the methods of auxiliary views that allow curved surface to be considered.

the basic steps in these methods are,

1. find the true lengths of a line

2. find the end view of a line

3. find the edge view of the surface

4. find the true shape of the surface

These steps will allow determination of a number of properties,

- points can be projected into other views

- lines can be projected into other views

- the true length of a line can be determined

- a point view of a line can be found

- distances between points and lines can be found

- distances between lines can be found

- distance between a point and plane

- angle between two planes

2.1.9 Isometric Views

These views are done as a way of realistically drawing objects. This is not correct, as a perspective drawing would be, but it is very good for engineering problems.

The viewing directions are skewed so that up is still up, but straight back now goes to the left and back, and right goes to the right and back. Both of the moved axis are drawn at 30° to the horizontal.

The values measured off these views will be accurate when measured along the axis.

2.1.10 Special Techniques

There are a number of special techniques of interest when doing manual drafting, but of declining interest in view of modern CAD systems. A list of these techniques are given below, and are described in good detail in most drafting books,

- drawing with revolution

- drawing with four centres

- cavalier (45°, with full depth size)

- cabinet (0-90°, with half depth size)

- general (0-90°, with between half and full depth size)

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ebook: Implementation; Products, Robotics, and Other Useful Things

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The purpose of drafting is to present technical ideas in precise and concise forms. A properly drafted drawing should be understood by any engineer. A sample of a drafted drawing is given below. 2.1.1 Manual Drafting This is the use of drafting boards, pencils, pens, and a number of specialized tools for drafting.

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How to Draw a Point with Coordinates in AutoCAD 2018

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Technical drawings provide clear and accurate information how an object is to be manufactured. It shows and describes clearly and accurately the information required to build or manufacture a product.

Technical drawing is a form of design communication based on line symbols recognized and understood worldwide. Hence, technical drawing is often referred to as a universal language understood (readable) by anyone regardless of the language they speak. Contractors, estimators, tradesmen and builders rely totally on technical drawings for the information they need to build, construct and manufacture a product. To work in design and manufacturing industries, the study of technical drawing -ability to prepare, read and interpret technical drawing is essential.

Line symbols used in technical drawing are often referred to as ALPHABET OF LINES. The use of line symbols enables engineers/designers to express features of designed products clearly and accurately. Line features vary not only by width but also by how they are graphically represented in a drawing. Line significance is conveyed by line weight or thickness of the line. Every line is drawn at different thickness and darkness to express contrast as well as importance. Lines that are less important are thin and light. Key to successful drafting is to have a good technical knowledge of these various line characteristics - to understand where and when to apply them in technical drawing.

1. OBJECT OR VISIBLE LINES - Thick dark line use to show outline of object, visible edges and surfaces.

2. CONSTRUCTION LINE - Very light and thin line use to construct layout work.

3. DIMENSION LINE - Thin and dark lines use to show the size (span) of an object with a numeric value. Usually terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.

4. HIDDEN LINE - Short dash lines use to show non visible surfaces. Usually shows as medium thickness.

5. CENTRE LINE - Long and short dash lines. Usually indicates centre of holes, circles and arcs. Line is thin and dark.

6. EXTENSION LINE - Thin and dark line use to show the starting and ending of dimension.

7. CUTTING PLANE LINE - Extra thick line use to show cutaway views or plane of projection where a section view is taken. Arrow indicates direction of view.

8. SHORT AND LONG BREAK LINES -Short and long medium line use to show cutaway view of a long section.

9. LEADER LINE - Medium line with arrowhead to show notes or label for size or special information about a feature.

10. PHANTOM LINE - Long line followed by two short dashes use to show alternate position of a moving part.

11. SECTION LINE - Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use to show interior view of solid areas of cutting plane line.

SOME ADDITIONAL INFO GRAPHS

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Technical drawings provide clear and accurate information how an object is to be manufactured. It shows and describes clearly and accurately the information required to build or manufacture a product. Can We Help with Your Assignment? Let us do your homework! Professional writers in all subject areas are available and will meet your assignment deadline....

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Tiny House made easy by Adam Ketcher Review

Lines are drawn to describe objects, hidden conditions, and important relationships between components and space. A line drawn on a surface has both direction and weight. The weight of a line refers to its thickness and intensity; a line can also be continuous or dashed. The direction can be straight, curved, diagonal, or a combination of these. In drafting, continuous lines of various weights are used to represent objects and major elements such as structural walls and columns. Dotted lines are usually used to denote objects hidden from view. However, they can also be used to denote other things, such as a wheelchair turning radius or ceiling height changes on a floor plan. The following are the most commonly used line types. Examples are shown in Figure 3-7.

* Cutting lines: show major slices in a building or object.

* Object lines: show major outlines of building elements or objects.

* Hidden lines: indicate areas or objects not visible on the surface, or objects hidden behind others. They are also used to show objects above the cutting plane of a floor plan, such as wall cabinets, beams, arches, etc.

* Centerlines: locate the symmetrical center of objects such as windows, doors, beams, and walls.

* Dimension lines and extension lines: indicate the physical dimensions of objects. Dimensions are placed directly above the dimension line or inserted within it.

* Leaders: line extending from text and ending with an arrow, pointing to an object or place.

* Break lines: indicate where an object or area is not drawn in its entirety.

* Layout lines: are used in the preliminary blocking out of components and for lettering guidelines.

Line Weights and Their Uses

Line weight refers to the blackness (intensity) and width of a line on the drawing surface. In general, heavy (dark) lines are used to represent cutting planes and contours (or outer boundaries) of an object. In a floor-plan view, it is often the walls that are drawn with the darkest lines in order to define the spaces (Figure 3-8). These lines appear to be the closest to the viewer and are perceived as major elements. Medium and lighter lines appear to be farther away from the viewer and are used for secondary emphasis.

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object line

o z dimension i extension line

--"inbreak line

Figure 3-7 These are common line types used in drawings to describe objects, hidden conditions, and important relationships between components and space.

Drawings for interior design projects generally use three line widths: thick (dark), medium, and thin (light). Thick lines are generally twice as wide as thin lines, usually V32 inch or about 0.8 mm wide. Thin lines are approximately V" inch or 0.4 mm wide. Medium lines fall between these two extremes. In pencil drawings, each type can be further broken down, depending on the variety of lead and level of pressure. With the variety of mechanical pencils on the market today, it is easy to control line widths. As discussed in Chapter 2, fine-line mechanical pencils are available in a 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, or 0.9 mm lead. By switching to different pencils, the drafter can vary line weight easily.

Figure 3-8 In a floor plan, the walls are often drawn darkest to define the spaces. The viewer tends to see these lines first, and thus they are perceived as major elements.

Figure 3-9 Dark, thick lines are commonly used in building sections to denote where a plane is cut.

Figure 3-9 Dark, thick lines are commonly used in building sections to denote where a plane is cut.

BUILDING SECTION

Thick, Dark Lines

Thick, dark lines are used for major sections (Figure 3-9), details, borderlines, and cutting plane lines. A thick, intense line can represent the walls on a floor plan or structural members, such as fireplaces or stairways, the outline of a ceiling on a reflected ceiling plan, or the outline of a building on a site plan. Thick, intense lines are also used to emphasize an object or element.

Medium Lines

Medium-weight lines are used for hidden objects and are usually drawn dashed or dotted. They are also used for outlining the planes of objects and for centerlines, as well as for furniture and equipment. Thin, Light Lines

Thin, light lines are generally used as guidelines, drawn to help line up certain details or to help with lettering height. These lines should be barely visible and should disappear when a print or copy is made. Lines that are a little darker are used for dimension and extension lines, leaders, door swings, and break lines.

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Line Types - Construction Drawings - Northern Architecture

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Tiny House made easy by Adam Ketcher Review Lines are drawn to describe objects, hidden conditions, and important relationships between components and space. A line drawn on a surface has both direction and weight. The weight of a line refers to its thickness and intensity; a line can also be continuous or dashed.

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When you are preparing drawings, you will use different types of lines to convey information. Line characteristics, such as widths, breaks in the line, and zigzags, all have definite meanings.

Construction Lines

Usually the first lines that you will use on a drawing are construction lines. These are the same lines that you used to lay out your drafting sheet. They will also be used to lay out the rest of your drawing. Line weight for construction lines is not important since they will not appear on your finished drawing. They should be heavy enough to see, but light enough to erase easily. A 4H to 6H pencil with a sharp, conical point should be used. With the exception of light lettering guidelines, all construction lines must be erased or darkened before a drawing is reproduced.

Center lines

Center lines are used to indicate the center of a circle, arc, or any symmetrical object. (See fig. 3-24.)

Center lines are composed of long and short dashes, alternately and evenly spaced, with a long dash at each end. They should extend at least one-fourth in. outside the object. At intersecting points, center lines should be drawn as short dashes. A very short center line may be drawn as a single dash if there is no possibility of confusing it with other lines. Center lines may also be used to indicate the travel of a moving center, as shown in figure 3-24.

Visible Lines

The visible edge lines of the view are drawn as solid, thick lines. These include not only the outlines of the view, but lines defining edges that are visible within the view. (See fig. 3-25.)

Hidden Lines

Hidden edge lines are drawn with short dashes and are used to show hidden features of an
object. A hidden line should begin with a dash in contact with the line from which it starts,
except when it is the continuation of an unbroken line. (See fig. 3-26.)

To prevent confusion in the interpretation of hidden edge lines, you must apply certain standard techniques in drawing these lines. A hidden edge line that is supposed to join a visible or another hidden line must actually contact the line, as shown in the upper views of figure 3-27; The incorrect procedure is shown in the lower views.

Extension Lines

Extension lines are used to extend dimensions beyond the outline of a view so that they can be read easily. These thin, unbroken lines are started about one sixteenth of an inch from the outline of the object and extend about one eighth of an inch beyond the outermost dimension line. They are drawn parallel to each other and perpendicular to the distance to be shown. (See fig. 3-30.)

In unusual cases, extension lines may be drawn at other angles if their meaning is clear. As far as practical, avoid drawing extension lines directly to the outline of an object. When it is necessary for extension lines to cross each other, they should be broken (exceptions to this rule have been adopted since the development of CAD software).

Dimension Lines

A dimension line, terminating at either end in a long, pointed arrowhead, is inserted between each pair of extension lines. Occasionally, when the radius of an arc is to be indicated, there is an arrow at only the end of the line that touches the arc. The other end, without an arrow, terminates at the point used as the center in drawing the arc.

The arrowhead on a dimension or leader line is an important detail of a drawing. If these arrowheads are sloppily drawn and vary in size, the drawing will not look finished and professional.

The size of the arrowhead used on a drawing may vary with the size of the drawing, but all arrowheads on a single drawing should be the same size, except occasionally when space is very restricted. The arrowheads used on Navy drawings are usually solid, or filled in, and are between one eighth and one fourth of an inch long, with the length about three times the spread. (See fig. 3-32.)

With a little practice, you can learn to make good arrowheads freehand, Referring to figure 3-32, first define the length of the arrowhead with a short stroke as shown at A. Then draw the sides of the arrowhead as indicated at B and C. Finally, fill in the area enclosed by the lines, as shown at D.

Leaders

Leaders are used to connect numbers, references, or notes to the appropriate surfaces or lines on the drawing. From any suitable portion of the reference, note, or number, a short line is drawn parallel to the lettering. From this line the remainder of the leader is drawn at an angle (dog leg) to an arrowhead or dot. In this way, the leader will not be confused with other lines of the drawing. If the reference is to a line, the leader is always terminated at this line with an arrowhead, as shown in figure 3-33. However, a reference to a surface terminates with a dot within the outline of that surface.

Break Lines

The size of the graphic representation of an object is often reduced (usually for the purpose
of economizing on paper space) by the use of adevice called a break. Suppose, for example, you want to make a drawing of a rectangle 1 ft wide by 100 ft long to the scale of 1/12, or 1 in. = 1 ft. If you drew in the full length of the rectangle, you would need a sheet of paper 100 in. long. By using a break, you can reduce the length of the figure to a feasible length, as shown in figure 3-34.

On the original object, the ratio of width to length is 1:100. You can see that on the drawing the ratio is much larger (roughly about 1:8). However, the break tells you that a considerable amount of the central part of the figure is presumed to be removed. The thick, wavy lines shown in view (A), figure 3-34, are used for a short break. A short break is indicated by solid, freehand lines, and is generally used for rectangular sections. For wooden rectangular sections, the breaks are made sharper (serrated appearance) rather than wavy. For long breaks, full, ruled lines with freehand zigzags are used, as shown in view (B), figure 3-34. For wider objects, a long break might have more than one pair of zigzag lines. For drawings made to a large scale, special conventions are used that apply to drawing breaks in such things as metal rods, tubes, or bars. The methods of drawing these breaks are shown in figure 3-35.

Phantom Lines

Phantom lines are used most frequently to indicate an alternate position of a moving part,
as shown in the left-hand view of figure 3-36.

The part in one position is drawn in full lines, while in the alternate position it is drawn in phantomlines.Phantom lines are also used to indicate a breakwhen the nature of the object makes the use of the conventional type of break unfeasible. An example of this use of phantom lines is shown in the right-hand view of figure 3-36.

Section Lines

Sometimes the technical information conveyed by a drawing can best be shown by a view thatrepresents the object as it would look if part of it were cut away. A view of this kind is called a section. The upper view of figure 3-37 shows a plan view of a pipe sleeve.

The lower view is a section, showing the pipe sleeve as it would look, viewed from one side, if it were cut exactly in half vertically. The surface of the imaginary cut is crosshatched with lines called section lines. According to DoD-STD-100C, "section lining shall be composed of uniformly spaced lines at an angle of 45 degrees to the baseline of the section. On adjacent parts, the lines shall be drawn in opposite directions. On a third part, adjacent to two other parts, the section lining shall be drawn at an angle of 30 to 60 degrees."

The cross-hatching shown in figure 3-37 could be used on any drawing of parts made of only one material (like machine parts, for example, which are generally made of metal). The cross-hatching is the symbol for metals and may be used for a section drawing of any type of material.

A section like the one shown in figure 3-37, which goes all the way through and divides the object into halves, is called a full section. If the section showed the sleeve as it would look if cut vertically into unequal parts, or cut only part way through, it would be a partial section. If the cut followed one vertical line part of the way down and then was offset to a different line, it would be an offset section.

Viewing or Cutting Plane Lines

VIEWING PLANE LINES are used to indicate the plane or planes from which a surface or several surfaces are viewed.

CUTTING PLANE LINES are used to indicate a plane or planes in which a sectional view is taken.

Section views are used to give a clearer view of the interior or hidden feature of an object that normally cannot be clearly observed in conventional outside views. A section view is obtained by cutting away part of an object to show the shape and construction at the cutting plane. Notice the CUTTING PLANE LINE AA in figure 3-38, view A. It shows where the imaginary cut has been made. The single view in figure 3-38, view B, helps you to visualize the cutting plane. The arrows point in the direction in which you are to look at the sectional view.

Figure 3-38, view C, is a front view showing how the object would look if it were cut in half.

The orthographic section view of section A-A, figure 3-38, view D, instead of the confusing front view in figure 3-38, view A, is placed on the drawing. Notice how much easier it is to read and understand.

Note that hidden lines behind the plane of projection are omitted in the sectional view. These lines are omitted by general custom, the custom being based on the fact that the elimination of hidden lines is the basic reason for making a sectional view. However, lines that would be visible behind the plane projection must be included in the section view.

Cutting plane lines, together with arrows and letters, make up the cutting plane indications. The arrows at the end of the cutting plane lines are used to indicate the direction in which the sections are viewed. The cutting plane may be a single continuous plane, or it may be offset if the detail can be shown to better advantage. On simple views, the cutting plane should be indicated as shown in figure 3-38, view A. On large, complex views or when the cutting planes are offset, they should be shown as in figure 3-39.

All cutting plane indications should be identified by use of reference letters placed at the point of the arrowheads. Where a change in direction of the cutting plane is not clear, reference letters may also be placed at each change of direction. Where more than one sectional view appears on a drawing, the cutting plane indications should be lettered alphabetically.

The letters that are part of the cutting plane indication should always appear as part of the title; for example, SECTION A-A, SECTION B-B, If the single alphabet is exhausted, multiples of letters maybe used. The word SECTION may be abbreviated, if desired. Place the title directly under the section drawing.

Stitch Lines

Stitch lines are used to indicate the stitching or sewing lines on an article. They consist of a series of very short dashes (medium thickness), approximately half the length of the dash of hidden lines, evenly spaced. Long lines of stitching may be indicated by a series of stitch lines connected by phantom lines.

Match Lines

Match lines are used when an object is too large to fit on a single drawing sheet and must be continued on another sheet. The points where the object stops on one sheet and continues on the next sheet must be identified with corresponding match lines. They are medium weight lines indicated with the words MATCH LINE and referenced to the sheet that has the corresponding match line. Examples of construction drawings that may require match lines are maps and road plans where the length is much greater than the width and it is impractical to reduce the size of the drawing to fit a single sheet.

(Source: NAVEDTRA 14069, U.S. Navy)

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When you are preparing drawings, you will use different types of lines to convey information. Line characteristics, such as widths, breaks in the line, and zigzags, all have definite meanings. Usually the first lines that you will use on a drawing are construction lines.

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Creating Point Markers and Point Labels in Civil 3D

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