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Do you think Dorothy Heights has or will inspire the new generation to work towards the goals of the civil rights movement. Why or why not.

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Dorothy Heights was also an author and wrote multiple books including, "Open Wide the Freedom Gates," and "The Core of America's Race Problem"
Both books talk about her life and the actions she took during the civil rights movement.

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Born on March 24, 1912, Dorothy Irene Height would become an activist, administrator, and educator dedicated to seeing racial and women's equality in the United States. Born in Richmond, Virginia, to parents James Height, a building contractor, and Fannie (Burroughs) Height, a nurse, she moved with her family to Rankin, a town near Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania, at the age of four. A severe asthmatic as a child, she was not expected to live to the age of 16. Always a diligent and dedicated student, Height won an Elks sponsored $1,000 scholarship in a national oratorical contest, which she used to attend New York University. Height earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Education, and a Masters in Educational Psychology from New York University in four years.

Height's first job was as a caseworker in the New York City Welfare Department. In 1937, Height met Mary McLeod Bethune, founder and president of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW). Bethune became Height's mentor and the two worked closely together until Bethune's death in 1955. Two years later Height became the fourth President of the National Council of Negro Women, a post she would hold until 1998. Height also served as National President of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority from 1946 to 1957. In 1952 Height served as visiting professor in the School of Social Work at the University of Delhi, India.

Height led the NCNW during the civil rights era of the 1950s and 1960s. As president, Height helped organize The March on Washington in 1963. She worked with every major civil rights leader of the period including Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Roy Wilkins, Whitney Young, and A. Philip Randolph. During the 1960s Height coordinated "Wednesdays in Mississippi," where both black and white women throughout the nation met to discuss racial justice issues. She also personally encouraged President Dwight Eisenhower to desegregate public schools, and urged President Lyndon B. Johnson to appoint black women into governmental positions.

Dorothy Height was equally well known for her leadership with the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA). She first became a staff member in Harlem in 1944. By 1946 she was elected the National Interracial Education Secretary for the YWCA where she led the effort to integrate all of the facilities of the agency. In 1965 Height became the first director of the YWCA's Center for Racial Justice, a position she held until her retirement from the organization in 1977. In 1971 she joined Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, Betty Fredian and others to found the National Women's Political Caucus.

In 1986, Height organized the first Black Family Reunion Celebration designed to reinforce the strengths and traditions of the African American family. Over the next two decades the events related to this celebration would attract over 12 million people.

Over the course of her lifetime, Dr. Height became well respected across the nation for her leadership in the campaign for women's employment, education, and equal pay. She is best known, however, for her efforts on behalf of racial equality. Her awards stretch over half a century. In 1944, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt honored Height with the Freedom from Want Award. In 1989 President Ronald Reagan awarded Height with the Citizens' Medal Award for distinguished service. President George W. Bush presented Height the Congressional Gold Medal and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2000.

Dorothy Irene Height never married. She died on April 20, 2010 at Howard University Hospital, Washington, D.C.

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Dorothy Irene Height (1912-2010) * BlackPast

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Image Ownership: Public Domain Born on March 24, 1912, Dorothy Irene Height would become an activist, administrator, and educator dedicated to seeing racial and women's equality in the United States. Born in Richmond, Virginia, to parents James Height, a building contractor, and Fannie (Burroughs) ... Read MoreDorothy Irene Height (1912-2010)

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Dorothy Height - a list of facts about this famous woman in Black History. This is information is written for both kids and adults.

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Do Now

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You may have heard of the four college students in Greensboro, North Carolina who sat at a segregated lunch counter at a Woolworth's and helped spark the Civil Rights Movement in 1960. Thursday in Chapel Hill, community and town officials are celebrating the Chapel Hill Nine - nine high school students who also sat down, to stand up.

The nine African American teenage boys in Chapel Hill were tight growing up, they even had a club. Douglas Perry, who goes by Clyde, says they lived close to each other and went to the same Lincoln High School in the segregated town.

"The hospital had a black waiting room and a white waiting room. The bus station was the same thing, a black and white waiting room," said Perry. "I mean, you know, that was the way we were brought up."

Their lives would soon change forever. Four African-American male college students from North Carolina A&T State University in Greensboro asked to be served at a Woolworth's counter on February 1, 1960. Four weeks later, on February 28, the group known as the Chapel Hill Nine, would do the same.

Jim Merritt and the other boys knew the owner of Colonial Drug, John Carswell, and he knew them. They called him "Big John" because he was tall and had big feet.

"We were not strangers, we shopped there or came to his establishment just about every Sunday, if not every day," said Merritt, who was 16-years-old during the sit-in.

Despite the familiarity, Carswell wouldn't tolerate the protesters.

"Big John knew why we were there, I'm sure. He jumped on us right quick, 'Get out, get out,'" said Perry. "Asked Jim, 'Why are you sitting down? Get up, get out.' He didn't."

The teenagers all refused to get up from the counter at Colonial Drug. David Mason Jr. was 17-years-old.

"My greatest fear was that I would not be able to restrain myself in case someone would spit on me. I think I could take a punch but I could not take being spit on," said Mason Jr.

The police were called and the nine boys were escorted out of the drug store and later charged with trespassing. And so began acts of civil disobedience in Chapel Hill.

"We are just so proud of our young men who are older men now, very proud of the step they took and how brave they were," said Pam Hemminger, mayor of Chapel Hill.

Hemminger formed a task force in late 2017 to help begin documenting the town's civil rights history.

Molly Luby is the special projects coordinator at the Chapel Hill Public Library. She helped design an 11-foot-long banner that organizations can borrow from the library to display the town's civil rights timeline.

"Every time we bring out this timeline and our living members of the Chapel Hill Nine are there, there are standing ovations, these guys are the rock stars of Chapel Hill right now," said Luby.

There are even Chapel Hill civil rights trading cards featuring photos of civil disobedience and the article in the Chapel Hill News about the Chapel Hill Nine being found guilty of trespassing.

If you ask the four living members of the Chapel Hill Nine if they are heroes, they say no. The men, all in their 70s, say they did what they had to do.

"Our objective was to right a wrong and we were quite determined to do that, no matter what the consequences might be," said Mason.

Albert Williams agrees. He was 16-years-old during the sit-in.

"I would like to be remembered as a participant who tried to make a change and set an example," said Williams, looking up at the West End Wine Bar.

Colonial Drug is no longer a business in the 400 block of West Franklin Street. The spot where the Chapel Hill Nine took a seat, is now the West End Wine Bar. Three of the four men said they hadn't visited the site in 50 years or more, vowing to never come back after being turned away.

The group rattled off several of the black-owned businesses no longer on West Franklin Street, like Weaver Shoe Shop, Bo-Bo the Tailor, the Hollywood Grille and a taxi stand.

But the men may decide to visit the block more frequently. A crowd is expected today (February 28, 2019) to celebrate where a Chapel Hill Nine marker will be erected. One suggestion is a bench, so they can sit down.

The Chapel Hill Nine include: William Cureton, John Farrington, Harold Foster, Earl Geer, David "Dave" Mason, Jr., Clarence Merritt, Jr., James "Jim" Merritt, Douglas "Clyde" Perry and Albert Williams.

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Chapel Hill Nine To Get Marker On Franklin Street

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You may have heard of the four college students in Greensboro, North Carolina who sat at a segregated lunch counter at a Woolworth's and helped spark the Civil Rights Movement in 1960. Thursday in Chapel Hill, community and town officials are celebrating the Chapel Hill Nine - nine high school students who also sat down, to stand up.

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What do you think inspired Nyeeam to go around the world helping people feel better?

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FRESNO, California - Nyeeam Hudson is only 12-years-old and as a motivational speaker he is bringing an uplifting message to young people around the world.

On his recent visit to Fresno, Nyeeam had a message not only for school kids but adults too.

He goes by the name of King Nahh and his story shows the importance of allowing kids to express their creativity.

Nyeeam is a young man with a big voice- a voice that reaches all around the world.

"You don't have to change for someone who doesn't appreciate you for you to be yourself, be yourself at all times".

This 12 year old motivational speaker brought his message to students at Bethune Charter Academy in Southwest Fresno.

"Because I'm a young kid myself you know. I like making that connection," he stated.

King Nahh says being on stage in front of a crowd is something he's wanted to do since he was five and his need to be creative often got him in trouble.

"In class I was the talkative one. I would definitely say I was the class clown always making jokes and being funny and Like I said I did get in trouble a lot for talking," he mentioned.

Nyeeam was able to channel that talking when his father allowed him to make videos, instead of rapping he choose to be motivational

"I didn't want no one else like me to be in a classroom or be in the world period and not express their dreams because what somebody else thinks."

Letting your child be creative, letting them pursue a dream is a message shared by son and father.

"Seeing him and his innocence it wasn't about owning his creativity it was about letting him be free. Letting him be free even when you don't understand it," said his father Lonnie Hudson.

Lonnie Hudson is a single dad to Nyeeam...a self taught videographer and web page designer who grew up in foster homes without a father, and a mother who didn't understand her son's need to be creative.

"We would call it bad what he did, what my son do in the house is what got me in foster home, because my mother didn't understand that yelling and screaming that expression, my son writing on the walls, heh not the wall the refrigerator we can erase it and I write with him."

Letting his son follow his dream has led to this 12-year-old being named the most motivational kid in America by Forbes Magazine.

The Fresno County Superintendent of Schools brought King Nahh to Fresno where he also spoke to hundreds of educators at Warnors Theater. He had a message for teachers who might have the next King Nahh in the classroom.

"Let them explore not at a time when we're suppose to be learning but at lunch or at recess let them explore and find themselves because a child who has a talent they won't really know until they are free."

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Education Matters: 12-year-old motivational speaker visits Fresno, offers words of wisdom

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FRESNO, California - Nyeeam Hudson is only 12-years-old and as a motivational speaker he is bringing an uplifting message to young people around the world. On his recent visit to Fresno, Nyeeam had a message not only for school kids but adults too.

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I'm not perfect: I was created to be me ..

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Answer the question from this document.

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Create a new document and edit with others at the same time -- from your computer, phone or tablet. Get stuff done with or without an internet connection. Use Docs to edit Word files. Free from Google.

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How did the Little Rock Nine influence the beginning of the civil rights movement?

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Dr. Dorothy Height | Season 2006 | WETA Neighborhoods

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Dr. Dorothy Height exemplifies the important role of women in the Civil Rights Movement.

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A few months ago, Nyeeam (NYE-eem) Hudson, at the time ten years old, was playing in a park in New Jersey when another child started to relentlessly tease him about the outdated sneakers he was wearing.

Now, encounters like these are a part of childhood-everyone has experienced some version of it. But the difference is in people's reactions.

Nyeeam's was particularly ingenuous.

Unashamed, he calmly let the other child know that "These sneakers aren't even going to fit 20 years from now," pointing out that what really matters is "inside your mind: your wisdom, your knowledge, your power to inspire others."

In a now-gone-viral cell phone video he recorded after the incident, Nyeeam pleads with parents not to raise their children to be materialistic because "Once they don't have Jordan's or the cool clothes on, they're going to feel like they're not important."
Let's take a moment here.
Does it not take some restraint not to leap to your feet and holler, "Preach!"?

"He's his own thing. I just respect that," says his dad, a single father who went from one foster home to another growing up as a fatherless child. Nyeeam explains that his dad vowed to one day be a different kind of father to his own son.

Not surprisingly, the young guy-who is homeschooled by his dad-has carved out a side gig as a motivational speaker via videos he posts on Instagram (where he goes by the moniker King Nahh), delivering advice with the simplicity of a child but the wisdom of a sage.

Undeterred by the prospect of encountering bullying on social media-the "haters" who might respond to him with ugliness, he says "You can't expect to complete your dreams and do these different things without having the hate and people saying 'you suck.' What's the point of getting upset and angry? You don't say 'you suck too.' If you become ignorant like that person, you're just like them. You can't try to prove a point and do the same thing that person is doing. You gotta conduct yourself different."

Intrigued by the insights of a kid who hasn't yet entered middle school, I ask Nyeeam how people can achieve "greatness"-using a term that is a staple in his vocabulary.

"Make sure you're working on yourself every day," he replies without hesitation. He illustrates his point with a Lego example. When you're building with them, he says, "You don't see a masterpiece take shape until you add all the pieces. Greatness works the same way. Confidence is a piece, dedication is a piece, commitment is a piece. You're going to need a little bit of everything on your journey to greatness." People might not believe in you, he points out. Even so, "Never get discouraged. Just keep building yourself every day."

He urges people to be fearless, and accept that they won't always win. "A lot of people don't succeed because they're afraid to fail." He wishes they understood that "All these failures are going to get you closer to your success. You have to lose some to win some." That perspective on winning and losing might be of interest to a lot of adults determined not to be seen as on the wrong side of success.

Nyeeam also explains that it's important to learn not only from those who have succeeded but those who have failed.

"Think about three people," he says. "The first person is walking on his journey and falls in a hole he doesn't see. The second person sees the hole and walks around it. The third person is you"-and you get to learn from both the successful person and the one who failed.

For someone sitting at their desk at school or work feeling discouraged about some aspect of their life, his advice is:

First, lways remember to enjoy your life. "Don't get so wrapped up in things." To be happy, he says, "Appreciate and value every moment you have." When troubles come along, remember that "Problems only mean you're alive, so find a way to smile no matter what."

Secondly, appreciate your accomplishments. He points out that many people focus too much on what they haven't done instead of what they have achieved. "There's someone in the world praying to be where you are right now. And the level you're willing to quit at? That's the level they're wishing for."

And finally, help other people. The obvious advice is to stay on the lookout for opportunities, but Nyeeam sees it differently. "Sometimes we're so focused on accomplishing our dreams that we forget about the people around us," he says, but "You have to give opportunities the same way you want opportunities to come to you. If all the people in the world just focused on what they wanted to do, there would be no one out here to help the next great person following their dreams." The person you lend a hand to might lend you a hand tomorrow, he notes. "Opportunities are not yours to keep, so make sure you give them away."

His dad's perseverance through formidable obstacles in childhood may have planted a seed in his son, but this young boy is taking things to a level many adults wouldn't imagine for themselves.

Nyeeam's current project is a book he's trying to self-publish by raising funds on a crowdfunding site -a book aimed at empowering children. His compassion is clearly a driving force. "In my community, there's a lot of young men without fathers who are not motivated to follow their dreams. I see young men looking down-they give up on everything." They may feel hopeless, but Nyeeam sees them as having a foundation for success and a need for motivation his book can provide. "I want them to have the structure and inspiration so they can do what they want. They can be great. I want them to learn that once you work for it, and dedicate yourself to it, everything will change sooner or later."

Bolstered by the incident in the park gaining widespread attention, Nyeeam says, "When I encounter people with negative energy, I think my work is not done. So I make another video or give another speech so I can motivate that person."

His ultimate dream? To speak to a stadium full of people some day. "That would really be amazing. I can already see it in my head. I know it's going to happen!"

While Nyeeam will probably achieve this, I doubt fame will change him. This 11-year-old believes in keeping it low-key. "Always stay humble," he says. "Once you become arrogant, you become ignorant and won't care about anyone else." He pauses, as if for a moment contemplating this alternate scenario.

Then he shrugs, "Nahhh."
Schooled on life by a kid.

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Meet The Most Motivational Kid In America

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A few months ago, Nyeeam (NYE-eem) Hudson, at the time ten years old, was playing in a park in New Jersey when another child started to relentlessly tease him about the outdated sneakers he was wearing. Now, encounters like these are a part of childhood-everyone has experienced some version of it.

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Nyeeam Hudson - HLN Interview on the Michaela Pereira Show

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The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute

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Three years after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, nine African American students-Minnijean Brown, Terrance Roberts, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls-attempted to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. The students, known as the Little Rock Nine, were recruited by Daisy Bates, president of the Arkansas branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). As president of the Montgomery Improvement Association, Martin Luther King wrote President Dwight D. Eisenhower requesting a swift resolution allowing the students to attend school.

On 4 September 1957, the first day of school at Central High, a white mob gathered in front of the school, and Governor Orval Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the black students from entering. In response to Faubus' action, a team of NAACP lawyers, including Thurgood Marshall, won a federal district court injunction to prevent the governor from blocking the students' entry. With the help of police escorts, the students successfully entered the school through a side entrance on 23 September 1957. Fearing escalating mob violence, however, the students were rushed home soon afterward.

Observing the standoff between Faubus and the federal judiciary, King sent a telegram to President Eisenhower urging him to "take a strong forthright stand in the Little Rock situation." King told the president that if the federal government did not take a stand against the injustice it would "set the process of integration back fifty years. This is a great opportunity for you and the federal government to back up the longings and aspirations of millions of peoples of good will and make law and order a reality" (King, 9 September 1957). Aware that the Little Rock incident was becoming an international embarrassment, Eisenhower reluctantly ordered troops from the Army's 101st Airborne Division to protect the students, who were shielded by federal troops and the Arkansas National Guard for the remainder of the school year. In a 25 September telegram, King praised the president's actions: "I wish to express my sincere support for the stand you have taken to restore law and order in Little Rock, Arkansas.... You should know that the overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action" (Papers 4:278).

At the end of the school year, Ernest Green became the first African American to graduate from Central High School. King attended his graduation ceremony. In honor of their momentous contributions to history and the integration of the Arkansas public school system, in 1958 the Little Rock Nine were honored with the NAACP's highest honor, the Spingarn Medal.

Before schools opened in the fall of 1958, Faubus closed all four of Little Rock's public high schools rather than proceed with desegregation, but his efforts were short lived. In December 1959, the Supreme Court ruled that the school board must reopen the schools and resume the process of desegregating the city's schools.

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Three years after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal, nine African American students-Minnijean Brown, Terrance Roberts, Elizabeth Eckford, Ernest Green, Thelma Mothershed, Melba Patillo, Gloria Ray, Jefferson Thomas, and Carlotta Walls-attempted to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.

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National Museum of African American History and Culture

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In 1954 the United States Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were illegal. The case, Brown v. The Board of Education, has become iconic for Americans because it marked the formal beginning of the end of segregation.

But the gears of change grind slowly. It wasn't until September 1957 when nine teens would become symbols, much like the landmark decision we know as Brown v. The Board of Education, of all that was in store for our nation in the years to come.

The "Little Rock Nine," as the nine teens came to be known, were to be the first African American students to enter Little Rock's Central High School. Three years earlier, following the Supreme Court ruling, the Little Rock school board pledged to voluntarily desegregate its schools. This idea was explosive for the community and, like much of the South, it was fraught with anger and bitterness.

On September 2, 1957 the night prior to what was to be the teens' first day in Central High classrooms, Arkansas governor Orval Faubus ordered the state's National Guard to block their entrance. Faubus said it was for the safety of the nine students.

On September 4, just 24 hours after a federal judge ordered the Little Rock Nine to begin attending Central High immediately, a belligerent mob, along with the National Guard, again prevented the teens from entering the school.

Sixteen days later a federal judge ordered the National Guard removed. Once again on September 23, the Little Rock Nine attempted to enter the school. Though escorted by Little Rock police into a side door, another angry crowd gathered and tried to rush into Central High. Fearing for the lives of the nine students, school officials sent the teens home. They did, however, manage to attend classes for about three hours.

Finally, 52 years ago today, on September 25, 1957, following a plea from Little Rock's mayor, Woodrow Mann, President Dwight Eisenhower federalized the National Guard and sent U.S. Army troops to the scene. Personally guarded by soldiers from the National Guard soldiers and the Army's 101st Airborne, the Little Rock Nine began regular class attendance at Central High.

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In 1954 the United States Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were illegal. The case, Brown v. The Board of Education, has become iconic for Americans because it marked the formal beginning of the end of segregation.

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60 Years On, A Look Back at the Little Rock Nine

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The story of Daisy bates and her connection to the Little Rock Nine

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Daisy Bates: Media Tactics | Season 13 | Independent Lens

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Media-savvy civil rights leader Daisy Bates fought to desegregate schools in Little Rock.

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Who is the woman who helped integrate schools in the South?

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Daisy Bates was an African American civil rights activist and newspaper publisher who documented the battle to end segregation in Arkansas.

Synopsis

Daisy Bates was born on November 11, 1914, in Huttig, Arkansas. She married journalist Christopher Bates and they operated a weekly African-American newspaper, the Arkansas State Press. Bates became president of the Arkansas chapter of the NAACP and played a crucial role in the fight against segregation, which she documented in her book The Long Shadow of Little Rock. She died in 1999.

NAACP Presidency

Civil rights activist, writer, publisher. Born Daisy Lee Gatson on November 11, 1914, in Huttig, Arkansas. Bates's childhood was marked by tragedy. Her mother was sexually assaulted and murdered by three white men and her father left her. She was raised by friends of the family.

As a teenager, Bates met Lucious Christopher "L.C." Bates, an insurance agent and an experienced journalist. The couple married in the early 1940s and moved to Little Rock, Arkansas. Together they operated the Arkansas State Press, a weekly African-American newspaper. The paper championed civil rights, and Bates joined in the civil rights movement. She became the president of Arkansas chapter of the National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1952.

As the head of the NAACP's Arkansas branch, Bates played a crucial role in the fight against segregation. In 1954, the United States Supreme Court declared that school segregation was unconstitutional in the landmark case known as Brown v. Board of Education. Even after that ruling, African American students who tried to enroll in white schools were turned away in Arkansas. Bates and her husband chronicled this battle in their newspaper.

Little Rock Nine

In 1957, she helped nine African American students to become the first to attend the all-white Central High School in Little Rock, who became known as the Little Rock Nine. The group first tried to go to the school on September 4. A group of angry whites jeered at them as they arrived. The governor, Orval Faubus, opposed school integration and sent members of the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the students from entering the school. Despite the enormous amount of animosity they faced from white residents of the city, the students were undeterred from their mission to attend the school.

Bates' home became the headquarters for the battle to integrate Central High School and she served as a personal advocate and supporter to the students. President Dwight D. Eisenhower became involved in the conflict and ordered federal troops to go to Little Rock to uphold the law and protect the Little Rock Nine. With U.S. soldiers providing security, the Little Rock Nine left from Bates' home for their first day of school on September 25, 1957. Bates remained close with the Little Rock Nine, offering her continuing support as they faced harassment and intimidation from people against desegregation.

Later Activism

Bates also received numerous threats, but this would not stop her from her work. The newspaper she and her husband worked on was closed in 1959 because of low adverting revenue. Three years later, her account of the school integration battle was published as The Long Shadow of Little Roc k. For a few years, she moved to Washington, D.C., to work for the Democratic National Committee and on antipoverty projects for the Lyndon B. Johnson's administration.

Bates returned to Little Rock in the mid-1960s and spent much of her time on community programs. After the death of her husband in 1980, she also resuscitated their newspaper for several years, from 1984 to 1988. Bates died on November 4, 1999, Little Rock, Arkansas.

For her career in social activism, Bates received numerous awards, including an honorary degree from the University of Arkansas. She is best remembered as a guiding force behind one of the biggest battles for school integration in the nation's history.

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Daisy Bates was an African American civil rights activist and newspaper publisher who documented the battle to end segregation in Arkansas. Daisy Bates was born on November 11, 1914, in Huttig, Arkansas. She married journalist Christopher Bates and they operated a weekly African-American newspaper, the Arkansas State Press.

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Her story and words

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More of his background

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Steve Biko spearheaded the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa. He died in 1977, from injuries sustained while in police custody. Learn more at Biography.com.

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Learn about who he is

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Stephen Bantu Biko was born in King William's Town, in the Cape Province of South Africa, in 1946. After matriculating he went to Natal University to study medicine in 1966. Initially he involved himself in the activities of the National Union of South African Students(NUSAS), but he and others felt increasingly that white liberals dominated NUSAS. In 1968 the all-black South African Students' Organisation(SASO) was formed with Biko as its first president.' When we broke away to form an exclusive black movement', Biko stated, 'we were accused of being anti-white. But with many more whites at university, the non-racial students' union was dominated by white liberals. They made all the decisions for us. We needed time to look at our own problems, and not leave them to people without experience of the terrible conditions in the black townships or of the system of Bantu education'.

Together with other SASO office-bearers Biko travelled the country, visiting black campuses and propounding the emergent philosophy of black consciousness. They defined 'black' as including not only Africans, but Coloured (mixed-race) and Indians""all those designated 'non-white' by the apartheid state. At the end of his third year at university he was expelled for his political activities. He was under constant surveillance and harassment from the security police. But in the same year he was instrumental in forming the Black Peoples' Convention(BPC), as an umbrella political movement for groups sharing the ideas of 'Black Consciousness'.

In 1972 Biko started working for the Black Community Programmes in Durban; among its projects was Black Review 1972, an analysis of political trends. Black Review was subsequently banned, and in February 1973 Biko himself, together with other officials of SASO and BPC, was served with banning orders. Banning orders are designed severely to restrict the activities and lives of those on whom they are served. Biko was immediately banned from all the organisaÂtions with which he had been associated, and he was restricted to King William's Town for the next five years""that is, he was not permitted to leave the confines of the town. A banned person is also prohibited from being at any meeting, and a meeting takes place as soon as the banned person talks to two people together. This meant that not only could Biko no longer work in the organisations he had helped to found, but he could not meet to have discussions with others. Friends could come to visit him, provided only one person came at a time, and provided they themselves were not banned. (Banned people may not communicate with other banned people.)

Banned people also may not write for publication, nor may anything they say be quoted. There are other restrictions placed on banned people, usually prohibiting them from entering various buildings, such as any court, educational institutions, the offices of newspapers and other publishers, and similar places. Biko was also refused a passport to attend a conference to which he had been invited by the Catholic Justice and Peace Commission in Germany. Life for a banned person is full of tensions and requires constant alertness. The homes of banned people are normally visited frequently by the security police. If Biko were to be in a room with his wife at a time when a friend walked in, he was liable to be arrested for breaking his bans. In fact the banned person must become his own jailer. But because bans require a total withdrawal from all social and political activities, a total retirement from any involvement, many banned people seek ways to work in spite of the difficulties.

Biko's restrictions only increased his determination to work among his own people. He knew the needs of the black community, and he believed in self-help. In 1975 he founded the Zimele Trust Fund to help political prisoners and their families, and the Ginsberg Educational Trust for the purpose of assisting black students. In that same year the government acted against the young black militants by taking many into detention. Biko was one of those arrested; he was held for 137 days without charge or trial. Restrictions on him were increased at the end of the year, when he was proÂhibited even from associating with the Black Community Programme. But he still managed to do some work. He became Secretary-General of the Zimele Trust Fund in 1976, and in that year, at the congress of the Black People's Convention in Durban""a congress he could not attend because of his banning orders""Biko was elected Honorary President of the organisation.

Thus Biko remained active despite the many bans, and his prestige, particularly among young activists, was high. During the disturbances following the police massacre of Soweto students in June 1976, Soweto leaders demanded that the government negotiate the country's future with three black leaders"" Nelson Mandela, leader of the African National Congress, imprisoned for life on Robben Island; the late Robert Sobukwe, leader of the Pan Africanist Congress, living under restrictions in Kimberley; and Steve Biko.

Biko was arrested and detained many times. He was first charged with breaking his banning orders in 1974; he was acquitted. Thereafter he was arrested and charged several times on different counts, including various allegations that he had broken his banning orders and a charge of obstructing the course of justice by persuading witnesses in a political trial to change their evidence. In August 1976, at a time of mass demonstrations against apartheid throughout the country following the Soweto massacres, Biko was arrested together with a reporter from the East London Daily Dispatch; he was held in solitary confinement for 101 days. His bans prevented any statement or account of his detention from being published. Once again, in March 1977, he was arrested, detained, and then later released. And again in July 1977, arrested, charged and released on bail.

Arising out of the revolt of school children against Bantu Education that began in Soweto in July 1976, many pupils and students, their ages ranging from 17 to 24 years, had been arrested in Port Elizabeth and charged under the security laws with conspiring to commit sabotage, and to hinder the police during demonÂstrations. In one case, 31 students were each sentenced to five years' imprisonÂment. When Biko was arrested in July 1977, it was on a charge of defeating the ends of justice in a case involving other school students. The State claimed that Biko had instructed seven students to say they were forced to make false statements to the police. In his judgment the magistrate found the evidence given by the accused 'was certainly far more satisfactory than that of the State witnesses'. There were cries of Amandla! (Power) and clenched fists salutes from the crowded public gallery in the court when Biko was discharged.

Some charges against Biko were still pending at the time of his death, including one of breaking his banning order when he entered an educational institution to write an examination (he was studying law by correspondence), but Biko was never convicted of any crime while he lived. He was never arrested for inciting violence, never accused of it. The police waited until he was dead to make their wild accusations. Then they said they had documents to prove Biko was a terrorist, planning sabotage, murder, and riots in the streets. 'They do not accuse people""they accuse documents', wrote Donald Woods. 'I could write documents myself and say that the Prime Minister had just become a card-carrying member of the Communist Party'. Finally, August 1977. Biko was arrested once again. Together with a friend and BPC activist, Peter Jones, he was stopped in a car at a roadblock and taken into custody in Port Elizabeth.

The fate of Peter Jones is not known. At the time of writing, he is still in detention.

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Stephen Bantu Biko was born in King William's Town, in the Cape Province of South Africa, in 1946. After matriculating he went to Natal University to study medicine in 1966. Initially he involved himself in the activities of the National Union of South African Students(NUSAS), but he and others felt increasingly that white liberals dominated NUSAS.

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Have you ever heard this word before? Where did it happen? Where are the various aspects of apartheid found on the Pyramid of Hate?

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Apartheid Explained: Global History Review