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CBSE NCERT Notes Class 12 Chemistry Solutions

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CBSE Ncert Notes for Class 12 Chemistry Solutions

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Teach Yourself Chemistry Visually in 24 Hours - by Dr. Wayne Huang and his team. The series includes High School Chemistry, AP Chemistry, General Chemistry, Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. Master Chemistry The Easy and Rapid Way with Core Concept Tutorials, Problem-Solving Drills and Super Review Cheat Sheets.

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Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays - Pass My Exams: Easy exam revision notes for GSCE Physics

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Comprehensive revision notes for GCSE exams for Physics, Chemistry, Biology

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" Gas Laws" is a virtual lab that uses this " Boyle's Law" animation, this graph pad, and this " Charles's Law" animation.

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Using Avogadro’s Number | How to Pass Chemistry

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Mole Conversions Made Easy: How to Convert Between Grams and Moles

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Classwork and Homework Handouts Classwork and Homework Handouts

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"...it was as though scales fell from my eyes, doubt vanished, and was replaced by a feeling of peaceful calm."
Lothar Meyer, upon hearing Avogadro's hypothesis
It took chemists a long time to understand the nature of gases. Perhaps this was because of the ephemeral quality of gases or because experiments with gases required more sophisticated equipment that did experiments with solids or liquids. Nonetheless, once the Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856) determined the true nature of gases, the mystery was solved and a more complete understanding of the atomic and molecular essence of matter was possible. This was Avogadro's great contribution to chemistry, as Lothar Meyer so dramatically declared in the quote above. This unit explores the physical nature of gases, the laws governing the behavior of gases, and applications of gases from air bags to ozone depletion.

The Gas Laws and the Ideal Gas Equation

Because scientists like the Irish chemist Robert Boyle (1627-1691), the French chemist Jacques Charles (1746-1823), and Avogadro could easily observe the macroscopic gas properties of mass, pressure, volume, and temperature, they provided the data which eventually led scientists to understand what a gas must be like at the particulate level. These pioneers summarized their observations into a set of equations which are the foundation for the ideal gas equation. All of the other gas equations can be derived from the ideal gas equation, so it is important to understand it well.

At low pressure (less than 1 atmosphere) and high temperature (greater than 0°C), most gases obey the ideal gas equation:

PV = nRT

Each quantity in the equation is usually expressed in the following units:

P = pressure, measured in atmospheres

V = volume, measured in liters

n = amount of gas, measured in moles

T = absolute temperature, measured in kelvins

R = the ideal gas constant, which has a value of 0.0821 L atm/mol K

The ideal gas law was originally developed based on the experimentally observed properties of gases, although it can also be derived theoretically. It expresses the relationships among the pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of a gas. When Boyle and Charles studied the properties of gases in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they studied the relationship between two of the variables, holding the others constant. Consequently, we have a set of simplified gas laws upon which the ideal gas law is based.

Boyle's Law (1662)

At a given temperature and number of moles of gas, Boyle's Law states that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional. In the form of an equation,

PV = constant

Charles' Law (1787)

At a given pressure and number of moles of gas, Charles' Law states that the volume and temperature of a gas are directly proportional. In the form of an equation,

VT = constant

Avogadro's Law (1811)

At a given temperature and pressure, Avogadro's Law states that the volume and mass (number of moles, n) of a gas are directly proportional. In the form of an equation,

Vn = constant

Notice how the time line develops. The gas laws evolved over a period of nearly 150 years. During this time, scientists were struggling in an attempt to understand the particulate nature of matter, and it was Avogadro who finally made the breakthrough by recognizing the relationship between the macroscopic properties of gases and the particulate nature of matter.

In order to standardize the literature about experiments with gases, scientists have adopted a convention whereby gas properties are often expressed at a set of conditions known as standard pressure and temperature (STP), defined as exactly 1 atmosphere and 273.15 K.

The Kinetic/Molecular Theory of Gases

Textbooks similarly state the details of the kinetic-molecular theory albeit somewhat differently. However, they usually summarize the same major points. Write a brief summary of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases, as presented in your textbook.

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"...it was as though scales fell from my eyes, doubt vanished, and was replaced by a feeling of peaceful calm." Lothar Meyer, upon hearing Avogadro's hypothesis It took chemists a long time to understand the nature of gases.

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The pressure, volume, and temperature of most gases can be described with simple mathematical relationships that are summarized in one ideal gas law.

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I want to send 250 grams of shelled walnuts to a friend (don't ask why - just go with the question). How many walnuts in shells do I need to buy? To figure this out, I need to know how much the shell of a walnut weighs (about \(40\%\) of the total weight of the unshelled walnut). I can then calculate the mass of walnuts that will give me 250 grams of shelled walnuts and then determine how many walnuts I need to buy.

Mass to Mass Problems

Mass-mass calculations are the most practical of all mass-based stoichiometry problems. Moles cannot be measured directly, while the mass of any substance can generally be easily measured in the lab. This type of problem is three steps and is a combination of the two previous types.

\[\text{mass of given} \rightarrow \text{moles of given} \rightarrow \text{moles of unknown} \rightarrow \text{mass of unknown}\]

The mass of the given substance is converted into moles by use of the molar mass of that substance from the periodic table. Then, the moles of the given substance are converted into moles of the unknown by using the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation. Finally, the moles of the unknown are converted to mass by use of its molar mass.

Summary

Mass-mass calculations involve converting the mass of a reactant to moles of reactant, then using mole ratios to determine moles of product which can then be converted to mass of product.

Contributors

CK-12 Foundation by Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna Robinson, and Jean Dupon.

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I want to send 250 grams of shelled walnuts to a friend (don't ask why - just go with the question). How many walnuts in shells do I need to buy? To figure this out, I need to know how much the shell of a walnut weighs (about \(40\%\) of the total weight of the unshelled walnut).

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When you are doing a large construction project, you have a good idea of how many nails you will need (lots!). When you go to the hardware store, you don't want to sit there and count out several hundred nails. You can buy nails by weight, so you determine how many nails are in a pound, calculate how many pounds you need, and you're on your way to begin building.

While the mole ratio is ever-present in all stoichiometry calculations, amounts of substances in the laboratory are most often measured by mass. Therefore, we need to use mole-mass calculations in combination with mole ratios to solve several different types of mass-based stoichiometry problems.

Mass to Moles Problems

In this type of problem, the mass of one substance is given, usually in grams. From this, you are to determine the amount in moles of another substance that will either react with or be produced from the given substance.

\[\text{mass of given} \rightarrow \text{moles of given} \rightarrow \text{moles of unknown}\]

The mass of the given substance is converted into moles by use of the molar mass of that substance from the periodic table. Then, the moles of the given substance are converted into moles of the unknown by using the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation.

Moles to Mass Problems

In this type of problem, the amount of one substance is given in moles. From this, you are to determine the mass of another substance that will either react with or be produced from the given substance.

\[\text{moles of given} \rightarrow \text{moles of unknown} \rightarrow \text{mass of unknown}\]

The moles of the given substance are first converted into moles of the unknown by using the mole ratio from the balanced chemical equation. Then, the moles of the unknown are converted into mass in grams by use of the molar mass of that substance from the periodic table.

Summary

Calculations involving conversions of mass to moles and moles to mass are described.

Contributors

CK-12 Foundation by Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna Robinson, and Jean Dupon.

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12.3: Mass-Mole and Mole-Mass Stoichiometry

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When you are doing a large construction project, you have a good idea of how many nails you will need (lots!). When you go to the hardware store, you don't want to sit there and count out several hundred nails.

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Avogadro's Number , 1 mole is equal to the mass of what element? , Who came up with the concept of the mole? , If you start with grams but need moles what do you do?

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What's an acid? What's a base? And what happens when the two react in a neutralization? Find out with Flocabulary's educational hip hop song and video.

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GM -> DM
Divide by mass (g)

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Multiply by mass (g)

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Divide by Avogadro's #

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Multiply by Avogadro's #

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Stoichiometry Made Easy: Stoichiometry Tutorial Part 1

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A summary of Stoichiometric Calculations in 's Stoichiometric Calculations. Learn exactly what happened in this chapter, scene, or section of Stoichiometric Calculations and what it means. Perfect for acing essays, tests, and quizzes, as well as for writing lesson plans.

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The Mole and Atomic Mass | Chemistry | Quiz | Visionlearning

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The mole is an important concept for talking about a very large number of things - 6.02 x 10 23 of them to be exact. This module shows how the mole, known as Avogadro's number, is key to calculating quantities of atoms and molecules.

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Mole Concept and Stoichiometry - Mrs. M McDermott - La Vega High School

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ChemTeam: Mole: Percent Composition Answers for Part One.How big is a mole? (Not the animal, the other one.)

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Balancing Eq

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Free gamified quizzes on every subject that students play in class and at home. Pick an existing quiz or create your own for review, formative assessment, and more.

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Balancing Chemical Equations With Fractions | How to Pass Chemistry

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Ch.9 Chemical Reactions Flashcards | Quizlet

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Start studying Ch.9 Chemical Reactions. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools.

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C.8A | Define and use the concept of a mole.

Define

CONCEPT OF A MOLE

Used to represent amounts and proportions of atoms and molecules in practical, measurable amounts using standard lab equipment

Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023 (representative) particles per mole

Representative particles

Atoms

Formula units

Molecules

Ions

Molar mass

Gram atomic mass

Gram molecular mass

Gram formula mass

Use

CONCEPT OF A MOLE

Perform conversions involving:

Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023 (representative) particles per mole

Representative particles

Atoms

Formula units

Molecules

Ions

Molar mass

Gram atomic mass

Gram molecular mass

Gram formula mass

Calculate precise amounts and proportions of reactants needed for a chemical reaction

Predict the amount of each product in a chemical reaction using stoichiometry

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C.7E Classify molecular structure for molecules with linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron pair geometries as explained by Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

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C.7E Classify molecular structure for molecules with linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron pair geometries as explained by Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

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C.7D Describe metallic bonding and explain metallic properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, and ductility.

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C.7D Describe metallic bonding and explain metallic properties such as thermal and electrical conductivity, malleability, and ductility.

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C.7C Construct electron dot formulas to illustrate ionic and covalent bonds.

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C.7C Construct electron dot formulas to illustrate ionic and covalent bonds.

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C.6D Express the arrangement of electrons in atoms of representative elements using electron configurations and Lewis valence electron dot structures.

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C.6D Express the arrangement of electrons in atoms of representative elements using electron configurations and Lewis valence electron dot structures.

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C.8E | Write and balance chemical equations using the law of conservation of mass.

Write, Balance

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Including, but not limited to:

Write and balance chemical equations

Know symbols used in a chemical equation

+

→

Solid (s)

Liquid (l)

Gas (g)

Aqueous (aq)

Heat  (Δ)

Translate word equations into chemical formula equations

Write word equations from formula equations

Explain balanced equations in terms of the law of conservation of mass

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C.8F | Differentiate among double replacement reactions, including acid-base reactions and precipitation reactions, and oxidation-reduction reactions such as synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, and combustion reactions.

Differentiate

AMONG REACTIONS

Including, but not limited to:

Differentiate among types of reactions taking place (given reactants and products)

Double replacement

Acid-base (neutralization)

Precipitation

Predict precipitation reactions using solubility rules

Oxidation-reduction (redox)

Synthesis (combination)

Decomposition

Single replacement

Combustion

Determine when oxidation-reduction reactions will occur using the Activity Series of Metals

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Page ID

98011

[ "article:topic", "showtoc:no" ]

1. Naming Ions

2. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal that Forms Only One Type of Cation

3. Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation

1. Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

2. Summary

3. Contributors

* * * * * * *

* * * * *

Skills to Develop

To use the rules for naming ionic compounds.

After learning a few more details about the names of individual ions, you will be a step away from knowing how to name ionic compounds. This section begins the formal study of nomenclature, the systematic naming of chemical compounds.

Naming Ions

The name of a monatomic cation is simply the name of the element followed by the word ion. Thus, Na⁺ is the sodium ion, Al ³⁺ is the aluminum ion, Ca ²⁺ is the calcium ion, and so forth.

We have seen that some elements lose different numbers of electrons, producing ions of different charges (Figure 3.3). Iron, for example, can form two cations, each of which, when combined with the same anion, makes a different compound with unique physical and chemical properties. Thus, we need a different name for each iron ion to distinguish Fe ²⁺ from Fe ³⁺. The same issue arises for other ions with more than one possible charge.

There are two ways to make this distinction. In the simpler, more modern approach, called the Stock system, an ion's positive charge is indicated by a roman numeral in parentheses after the element name, followed by the word ion. Thus, Fe ²⁺ is called the iron(II) ion, while Fe ³⁺ is called the iron(III) ion. This system is used only for elements that form more than one common positive ion. We do not call the Na⁺ ion the sodium(I) ion because (I) is unnecessary. Sodium forms only a 1+ ion, so there is no ambiguity about the name sodium ion.

Element

Stem

Charge

Modern Name

Common Name

The second system, called the common system, is not conventional but is still prevalent and used in the health sciences. This system recognizes that many metals have two common cations. The common system uses two suffixes (- ic and - ous) that are appended to the stem of the element name. The -ic suffix represents the greater of the two cation charges, and the -ous suffix represents the lower one. In many cases, the stem of the element name comes from the Latin name of the element. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists the elements that use the common system, along with their respective cation names.

Ion

Name

Ion

Name

The name of a monatomic anion consists of the stem of the element name, the suffix - ide, and then the word ion. Thus, as we have already seen, Cl − is "chlor-" + "-ide ion," or the chloride ion. Similarly, O 2− is the oxide ion, Se 2− is the selenide ion, and so forth. Table \(\PageIndex{2}\) lists the names of some common monatomic ions. The polyatomic ions have their own characteristic names, as discussed earlier.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Name each ion.

1. Ca²⁺

2. S2−

3. SO₃ 2−

4. NH₄⁺

5. Cu⁺

SOLUTION

1. the calcium ion

2. the sulfide ion

3. the sulfite ion

4. the ammonium ion

5. the copper(I) ion or the cuprous ion

Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Name each ion.

1. Fe²⁺

2. Fe³⁺

3. SO₄ 2−

4. Ba²⁺

5. HCO₃−

Answer a:

iron(II) ion

Answer b:

iron(III) ion

Answer c:

sulfate ion

Answer d:

barium ion

Answer e:

hydrogen carbonate ion or bicarbonate ion

Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Write the formula for each ion.

1. the bromide ion

2. the phosphate ion

3. the cupric ion

4. the magnesium ion

SOLUTION

1. Br−

2. PO₄ 3−

3. Cu²⁺

4. Mg²⁺

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

Write the formula for each ion.

1. the fluoride ion

2. the carbonate ion

3. the stannous ion

4. the potassium ion

Answer a:

F⁻

Answer b:

CO₃ ²⁻

Answer c:

Sn ²⁺

Answer d:

K⁺

Now that we know how to name ions, we are ready to name ionic compounds. A binary ionic compound is a compound composed of a monatomic metal cation and a monatomic nonmetal anion. The metal cation is named first, followed by the nonmetal anion as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) for the compound BaCl ₂. The word ion is dropped from both parts.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Subscripts in the formula do not affect the name.

Example \(\PageIndex{3}\): Naming Ionic Compounds

Name each ionic compound.

1. CaCl2

2. AlF3

3. KCl

SOLUTION

1. Using the names of the ions, this ionic compound is named calcium chloride.

2. The name of this ionic compound is aluminum fluoride.

3. The name of this ionic compound is potassium chloride

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

Name each ionic compound.

1. AgI

2. MgO

3. Ca₃P₂

Answer a:

silver iodide

Answer b:

magnesium oxide

Answer c:

calcium phosphide

If you are given a formula for an ionic compound whose cation can have more than one possible charge, you must first determine the charge on the cation before identifying its correct name. For example, consider FeCl ₂ and FeCl 3 . In the first compound, the iron ion has a 2+ charge because there are two Cl − ions in the formula (1− charge on each chloride ion). In the second compound, the iron ion has a 3+ charge, as indicated by the three Cl − ions in the formula. These are two different compounds that need two different names. By the Stock system, the names are iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)).

Name of cation (metal) + (Roman Numeral in parenthesis) + Base name of anion (nonmetal) and -ide

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Naming the \(FeCl_2\) and \(FeCl_3\) Compounds in the Modern/Stock System.
If we were to use the stems and suffixes of the common system, the names would be ferrous chloride and ferric chloride, respectively (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)) .
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Naming the \(FeCl_2\) and \(FeCl_3\) Compounds in the Old/Common System.

"Old" base name of cation (metal) and -ic or -ous + Base name of anion (nonmetal) and -ide

-ous (for ions with lower charge)

-ic (for ions with higher charge)

Example \(\PageIndex{4}\):

Name each ionic compound.

1. Co2 O3

2. FeCl2

SOLUTION

Explanation

Answer

a

We know that cobalt can have more than one possible charge; we just need to determine what it is.

Oxide always has a 2− charge, so with three oxide ions, we have a total negative charge of 6−.

This means that the two cobalt ions have to contribute 6+, which for two cobalt ions means that each one is 3+.

Therefore, the proper name for this ionic compound is cobalt(III) oxide.

cobalt(III) oxide

b

Iron can also have more than one possible charge.

Chloriide always has a 1− charge, so with two chloride ions, we have a total negative charge of 2−.

This means that the one iron ion must have a 2+charge.

Therefore, the proper name for this ionic compound is iron(II) chloride.

iron(II) chloride

Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)

Name each ionic compound.

1. AuCl₃

2. PbO₂

3. CuO

Answer a:

gold(III) chloride

Answer b:

lead(IV) oxide

Answer c:

copper(II) oxide

Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

The process of naming ionic compounds with polyatomic ions is the same as naming binary ionic compounds. The cation is named first, followed by the anion. One example is the ammonium Sulfate compound in Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\).
Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

1. (NH4 )2 S

2. AlPO4 ,

3. Fe3 (PO4 )2

SOLUTION

Explanation

Answer

a. The ammonium ion has a 1+ charge and the sulfide ion has a 2− charge.

Two ammonium ions need to balance the charge on a single sulfide ion.

The compound's name is ammonium sulfide.

ammonium sulfide

b. The ions have the same magnitude of charge, one of each (ion) is needed to balance the charges.

The name of the compound is aluminum phosphate.

aluminum phosphate

c. Neither charge is an exact multiple of the other, so we have to go to the least common multiple of 6.

To get 6+, three iron(II) ions are needed, and to get 6−, two phosphate ions are needed .

The compound's name is iron(II) phosphate.

iron(II) phosphate

Exercise \(\PageIndex{5A}\)

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): A Guide to Naming Simple Ionic Compounds.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) is a synopsis of how to name simple ionic compounds.

Exercise \(\PageIndex{5B}\)

Name each ionic compound.

Summary

Ionic compounds are named by stating the cation first, followed by the anion.

Positive and negative charges must balance.

Some anions have multiple forms and are named accordingly with the use of roman numerals in parenthes.

Ternary compounds are composed of three or more elements.

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Page ID 98011 [ "article:topic", "showtoc:no" ] Naming Ions Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal that Forms Only One Type of Cation Naming Binary Ionic Compounds with a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions Summary Contributors * * * * * * * * * * * * Skills to Develop To use the rules for naming ionic compounds.

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