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Fieldwork involves the collection of information or data. Quantitative data usually consists of factual information that can be counted and used in fieldwork. Qualitative data is more opinion-based, but is still useful for geographical investigations.

Data collection sheets

Data can either be:

1. primary - information that you collect yourself, eg tallies, measurements and photographs

2. secondary - information that someone else has previously collected and made available, eg on the internet

The design of primary data collection sheets is important. Simple methods of noting down information leads to clear and accurate data. Informed conclusions can then be drawn.

Sampling

It's important to collect enough data to give a good picture of events. Any data collected should not be biased , for example, some younger people might think that skate parks improve their city, but some older people might prefer gyms or cafes so ask a mixture of different ages to gain a balanced view.

Sampling techniques help to avoid bias:

1. Random sampling - selecting a person to interview or site to measure, at random. Random sampling is unbiased as particular people or places are not specifically selected.

2. Systematic sampling - collecting data in an ordered or regular way, eg every 5 metres or every fifth person.

3. Stratified sampling - dividing sampling into groups, eg three sites from each section of coastline, or five people from each age range. It is possible to combine stratified sampling with random or systematic sampling:

stratified random sampling - random samples are taken from within certain categories

stratified systematic sampling - regular samples are taken from within certain categories

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Qualitative and quantitative data - OCR - Revision 1

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Fieldwork involves the collection of information or data. Quantitative data usually consists of factual information that can be counted and used in fieldwork. Qualitative data is more opinion-based, but is still useful for geographical investigations.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Numerical and statistical skills - OCR - Revision 1

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Learn and revise numerical and statistical skills, including various measures of data and calculations, with GCSE Bitesize Geography (OCR).

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Graphs are a useful way to show numerical data. There are a variety of graphs that can help highlight patterns and be used to reach conclusions. Choosing the right graph is very important.

Line graphs

A line graph could be used to show the changes in a country's employment structure over time. This graph shows that in the post-industrial era approximately 11% of employed people work in primary industries, 31% in secondary industries, 54% in tertiary industries and 4% work in quaternary industries. Note how the total adds up to 100%.

Bar charts show grouped data as rectangular bars, eg the number of visiting a resort each month. Divided bar charts split up each rectangular bar to break the information down further. A divided bar chart could be used to show the age breakdown of tourists visiting a resort. They are sometimes drawn horizontally.

are bar charts that show how many people of different ages are living in a place or country. Population pyramids show the bars arranged sideways, rather than upwards. The x-axis shows the number of people, the shows their ages. The bars on the left show the number of males and the bars on the right show the number of females.

Bar charts and line graphs can be combined. Climate graphs are an example of this. The x-axis shows the months of the year and there are two y-axes to show average temperature and total rainfall. The temperature is shown as a line and the rainfall as bars.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Graphical skills - OCR - Revision 1

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Graphs are a useful way to show numerical data. There are a variety of graphs that can help highlight patterns and be used to reach conclusions. Choosing the right graph is very important. A line graph could be used to show the changes in a country's employment structure over time.

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Physical maps

Physical maps show natural features such as mountains, lowlands, major rivers, seas, oceans and like deserts and rainforests on a global scale. On a national scale, physical maps show and drainage features, such as rivers.

Some maps show physical features that are experienced rather than seen. Examples of this are average temperature and rainfall maps.

Human and political maps

Political maps show country boundaries and major cities. Human thematic maps show features that people have created. Examples of these are population distribution , flows, and layout.

Some maps show human features that are experienced rather than seen. Examples of this are , or even measures of world happiness.

Often, maps should have a arrow to show which way is north. North is at the top of the globe and south is at the bottom. East is to the right and west is to the left. Compass points in between these four are shown as combinations, eg the point in between north and east is called north-east. If the point is slightly closer to the east, it is called east-north-east.

Latitude and longitude

As the Earth is a sphere, lines of latitude and longitude are measured using degrees of a circle.

Lines of run from east to west . The is a line of latitude that lies at 0°. Lines above this are shown as °N (north) and lines below this are shown as °S (south).

Lines of run from north to south. The or in London is a line of longitude at 0°. Lines to the right of this are shown as °E (east) and lines to the left of this are shown as °W (west).

Latitude is shown first and longitude is shown second, eg Manchester in the UK is at 53.5°N, 2.2°W.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Cartographic skills - OCR - Revision 1

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Physical maps show natural features such as mountains, lowlands, major rivers, seas, oceans and like deserts and rainforests on a global scale. On a national scale, physical maps show and drainage features, such as rivers. Some maps show physical features that are experienced rather than seen.

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Fieldwork in geography is all about following an enquiry .

Types of enquiry

An enquiry is a question that you set out to prove or disprove. A hypothesis is very similar, though it is a statement rather than a question. Both can be either physical or human in nature.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Introduction to fieldwork - OCR - Revision 1

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1 2 3 4 5 6 Page 1of 6 Fieldwork in geography is all about following an enquiry . An enquiry is a question that you set out to prove or disprove. A hypothesis is very similar, though it is a statement rather than a question.

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The Asian tsunami of 2004 was caused by tectonic activity beneath the Indian Ocean. A fault twenty miles below the ocean surface ruptured, forcing one of the plates to be thrust upwards by as much as 40 feet. The ocean above was forced upwards and the displaced water moved out as a series of giant ripples. From the land, the first sign of a tsunami is the water being dragged out to sea. The vertical wall of the tsunami destroyed everything in its path.

Students could be given a sequence of simple diagrams that show the stages of development of a tsunami and as they watch the clip they should idenitfy information to help them explain the development of the hazard, annotating as they watch. They may wish to view the short clip a few times to capture all of the key ideas. From this they should be able to develop a good explanation supported by their diagrams.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - The causes and effects of the 2004 Asian Tsunami

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The Asian tsunami of 2004 was caused by tectonic activity beneath the Indian Ocean. A fault twenty miles below the ocean surface ruptured, forcing one of the plates to be thrust upwards by as much as 40 feet. The ocean above was forced upwards and the displaced water moved out as a series of giant ripples.

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The people of Haiti have been remembering the victims of a devastating earthquake that struck the country four years ago, killing more than 250,000 people.

Across the country people have attended special religious ceremonies.

President Michel Martelly laid a wreath at a mass grave in Saint Christophe, where many victims were buried.

Some 150,000 people are still living in temporary accommodation.

The government issued a decree declaring 12 January a day of remembrance and reflection.

The shallow seven-magnitude earthquake struck on a Tuesday afternoon. The epicentre was just outside the capital, Port-au-Prince.

At least 1.5 million people were left homeless, in a country with a population of about 10 million.

Four years after the quake, signs of destruction are still everywhere.

Haiti, the poorest country in the Americas, has struggled to rebuild its infrastructure, despite millions of dollars in aid pouring into the country.

President Martelly said a year ago that only a third of the money pledged after the 2010 earthquake had actually been delivered.

"Where has the money given to Haiti after the earthquake gone?" asked Mr Martelly.

"Most of the aid was used by non-governmental agencies for emergency operations, not for the reconstruction of Haiti."

Mr Martelly, who came to power after the quake, estimated the material cost of the disaster at £13bn (£8bn).

But demonstrators have gone to the streets in recent months to demand the president's resignation, denouncing the high cost of living and accusing the government of corruption.

Since the earthquake, the Caribbean nation has been affected by landslides and hurricanes, as well as an epidemic of cholera and rampant crime.

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The people of Haiti have been remembering the victims of a devastating earthquake that struck the country four years ago, killing more than 250,000 people. Across the country people have attended special religious ceremonies. President Michel Martelly laid a wreath at a mass grave in Saint Christophe, where many victims were buried.

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The extent of the devastation is still unclear but there are fears thousands of people may have died.

Haiti's worst quake in two centuries hit south of the capital Port-au-Prince on Tuesday, wrecking the presidential palace, UN HQ and other buildings.

A "large number" of UN personnel were reported missing by the organisation. Many people have spent the night outside amid fears of more aftershocks.

The Red Cross says up to three million people have been affected.

Describing the earthquake as a "catastrophe", Haiti's envoy to the US said the cost of the damage could run into billions.

A number of nations, including the US, UK and Venezuela, are gearing up to send aid.

The quake, which struck about 15km (10 miles) south-west of Port-au-Prince, was quickly followed by two strong aftershocks of 5.9 and 5.5 magnitude.

The tremor hit at 1653 (2153 GMT) on Tuesday, the US Geological Survey said. Phone lines to the country failed shortly afterwards.

There is still no official word on casualties and the extent of the devastation is only now becoming clearer with dawn breaking.

China has already indicated in reports in state media that eight of its peacekeepers are buried and feared dead, with another 10 unaccounted for.

The AFP news agency quoted the Jordanian army as saying three of its peacekeepers had been killed and 21 wounded.

The Brazilian army said four of its peacekeepers were killed and a large number were missing.

A French official told AFP about 200 people were missing in the collapsed Hotel Montana, which is popular with tourists.

There have also been some reports of looting overnight.

Rachmani Domersant, an operations manager with the Food for the Poor charity, told Reuters that overnight the capital was in total darkness.

"You have thousands of people sitting in the streets with nowhere to go. There are people running, crying, screaming.

"People are trying to dig victims out with flashlights. I think hundreds of casualties would be a serious understatement."

Earlier, bodies white with dust could be seen piled on the back of a pick-up truck as vehicles tried to ferry the injured to hospital.

Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere and has suffered a number of recent disasters, including four hurricanes and storms in 2008 that killed hundreds.
'Thoughts and prayers'
In a statement issued in New York, the UN said that its local HQ in Haiti had "sustained serious damage along with other UN installations" and "a large number" of personnel were missing.

UN peacekeeping chief Alain Le Roy said it was unclear how many people were in the building.

The head of the UN mission in Haiti, Hedi Annabi, was reported to have been inside and is unaccounted for.

French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner said he was believed to be dead.

The UN's stabilisation mission plays a vital role in ensuring security in Haiti.

Raymond Joseph, Haiti's ambassador to the US, said the presidential palace, the tax office, the ministry of commerce and the foreign ministry had all been damaged, but the airport was intact.

He and Haiti's ambassador to Mexico, Robert Manuel, both said that President Rene Preval and his wife had survived the quake.

The World Bank said its local offices were destroyed but most of the staff were accounted for, Reuters reported.

US President Barack Obama said his "thoughts and prayers" were with the people of Haiti and that he expected "an aggressive, coordinated [aid] effort by the US government".

Venezuela says it will send a 50-strong "humanitarian assistance team".

The Red Cross is dispatching a relief team from Geneva and the UN's World Food Programme is flying in two planes with emergency food aid.

The Inter-American Development Bank said it was immediately approving a $200,000 grant for emergency aid.

The UK said it was mobilising help and was "ready to provide whatever humanitarian assistance may be required".

Canada, Australia, France and a number of Latin American nations have also said they are mobilising their aid response.

Pope Benedict XVI has called for a generous response to the "tragic situation" in Haiti.
'Shouting and screaming'
In the minutes after the quake, Henry Bahn, a visiting official from the US Department of Agriculture, said he had seen houses which had tumbled into a ravine.

"Everybody is just totally, totally freaked out and shaken," said Mr Bahn, who described the sky as "just grey with dust".

He said he had been walking to his hotel room when the ground began to shake.

"I just held on and bounced across the wall," he said. "I just heard a tremendous amount of noise and shouting and screaming in the distance."

Reports on the Twitter message site, which cannot yet be verified by the BBC, expressed the chaos in the wake of the quake.

Tweets from troylivesay spoke of the worst damage being in the Carrefour district, where "many two and three storey buildings did not make it".

In the immediate aftermath of the quake, a tsunami watch was put out for Haiti, Cuba and the Bahamas, but this was later lifted.

Have you been affected by the earthquake? If you have any information you wish to share with the BBC you can do so using the form below:
You can send pictures and video to yourpics@bbc.co.uk, text them to +44 7725 100 100 or if you have a large file you can click here to upload.
Click here to see terms and conditions
At no time should you endanger yourself or others, take any unnecessary risks or infringe any laws.

The BBC may edit your comments and not all emails will be published. Your comments may be published on any BBC media worldwide.

The BBC is not responsible for the content of external internet sites

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The extent of the devastation is still unclear but there are fears thousands of people may have died. Haiti's worst quake in two centuries hit south of the capital Port-au-Prince on Tuesday, wrecking the presidential palace, UN HQ and other buildings. A "large number" of UN personnel were reported missing by the organisation.

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HAITI BEFORE THE EARTHQUAKE

Haiti was 145th of 169 countries in the UN Human Development Index, which is the lowest in the Western Hemisphere

More than 70% of people in Haiti were living on less than per day

86% of people in Port au Prince were living in slum conditions - mostly tightly-packed, poorly-built, concrete buildings.

80% of education in Haiti was provided in often poor-quality private schools, the state system generally provided better education but provided far too few places

Half of people in Port-au-Prince had no access to latrines and only one-third has access to tap water

IMPACT OF THE 12 JANUARY EARTHQUAKE

7.0 Magnitude Quake struck near Port au Prince

3,500,000 people were affected by the quake

220,000 people estimated to have died

300,000+ people were injured

Over 188,383 houses were badly damaged and 105,000 were destroyed by the earthquake (293,383 in total), 1.5m people became homeless

After the quake there were 19 million cubic metres of rubble and debris in Port au Prince - enough to fill a line of shipping containers stretching end to end from London to Beirut.

4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed

25% of civil servants in Port au Prince died

60% of Government and administrative buildings, 80% of schools in Port-au-Prince and 60% of schools in the South and West Departments were destroyed or damaged

Over 600,000 people left their home area in Port-au-Prince and mostly stayed with host families

At its peak, one and a half million people were living in camps including over 100,000 at critical risk from storms and flooding

Unrelated to the earthquake but causing aid response challenges was the outbreak of cholera in October 2010. By July 2011 5,899 had died as a result of the outbreak, and 216,000 were infected

DEC RELIEF AND RECONSTRUCTION HEADLINE ACHIEVEMENTS

The DEC Appeal has now raised £107m - two-thirds directly and one-third through its member agencies - which will be spent over three years

DEC agencies and their partners have nearly £380m to spend in total from all sources

1.8million people reached by DEC funded aid

RESPONSE AND RECOVERY JULY 2010 - JULY 2012

(This is in addition to the aid delivered between January 2010 - July 2010)

Improving the water supply of 340,000 people

Supplying drugs to five cholera treatment facilities serving 18,000 people

Providing free medical care to 39,000 people

Giving tools and seeds to help 23,000 people in farming households support themselves

Providing improved shelter for 34,000 people

Giving information to 116,000 people about preparing for future disasters

Running literary classes for 60,000 vulnerable women to help them support themselves and their families

Training camp committee members to defend 25,000 camp residents from forced eviction.

READ THE THREE YEARS UPDATE ON DEC MEMBER AGENCIES WORK IN HAITI.

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READ THE THREE YEARS UPDATE ON DEC MEMBER AGENCIES WORK IN HAITI. HAITI BEFORE THE EARTHQUAKE Haiti was 145th of 169 countries in the UN Human Development Index, which is the lowest in the Western Hemisphere More than 70% of people in Haiti were living on less than per day

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Great British Property Scandal summary 2012

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Skip top of page navigation

Last Updated: September 2018

For help in using the International Data Base (IDB), please click here.

Click here for map interface access to IDB data.

Find the countries and areas with the largest total population for any year in the database from 1950 to 2050.

Select a year and rank
Submit

Rank

Country Of Area

Population

For help in using the International Data Base (IDB), please click here.

Click here for map interface access to IDB data.

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Processing Request This Javascript allows the page in IE to resize to the minium width of 783 pixels and no less. Skip top of page navigation Last Updated: September 2018 For help in using the International Data Base (IDB), please click here. Click here for map interface access to IDB data.

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Variety of games, and homework help for children about mapping and geography.

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Seismic monitoring equipment around the world allows us to map the location and size of earthquakes as they occur, enabling us to predict the probable impact of future earthquakes. The pattern of the internal structure of the Earth, tectonic plates, and three main types of plate boundaries are all shown graphically.

Provides a stimulus for diagrams of the structure of the earth and how this leads to earthquakes as well as the different types of plate boundary. Can be used as a stimulus for a discussion on the role of monitoring earthquakes. Explains how the Richter scale is measured using a seismograph as well as what the focus and epicentre of an earthquake are. Could be used as a way of students testing their understanding of these processes by adding their own audio to the visuals.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Understanding earthquakes and plate tectonics

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Seismic monitoring equipment around the world allows us to map the location and size of earthquakes as they occur, enabling us to predict the probable impact of future earthquakes. The pattern of the internal structure of the Earth, tectonic plates, and three main types of plate boundaries are all shown graphically.

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The Dino Directory | Natural History Museum

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A-Z of dinosaurs full of facts and pictures. Search by name, type of dinosaur, or when and where they lived. Find out key information such as size and diet, and learn how to pronounce names.

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Exploring the latest in scientific discoveries from prehistoric life to missions to Mars.

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The BGS geological timeline | Time | Discovering geology | British Geological Survey (BGS)

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The geological timeline tells, through words and pictures, the story of the Earth from its formation 4600 million years ago to the present day.

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Seismic monitoring equipment around the world allows us to map the location and size of earthquakes as they occur, enabling us to predict the probable impact of future earthquakes. The pattern of the internal structure of the Earth, tectonic plates, and three main types of plate boundaries are all shown graphically.

Provides a stimulus for diagrams of the structure of the earth and how this leads to earthquakes as well as the different types of plate boundary. Can be used as a stimulus for a discussion on the role of monitoring earthquakes. Explains how the Richter scale is measured using a seismograph as well as what the focus and epicentre of an earthquake are. Could be used as a way of students testing their understanding of these processes by adding their own audio to the visuals.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Understanding earthquakes and plate tectonics

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Seismic monitoring equipment around the world allows us to map the location and size of earthquakes as they occur, enabling us to predict the probable impact of future earthquakes. The pattern of the internal structure of the Earth, tectonic plates, and three main types of plate boundaries are all shown graphically.

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The Dino Directory | Natural History Museum

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A-Z of dinosaurs full of facts and pictures. Search by name, type of dinosaur, or when and where they lived. Find out key information such as size and diet, and learn how to pronounce names.

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Colour-in geology map of the UK and Ireland | British Geological Survey (BGS)

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The BGS geological timeline | Time | Discovering geology | British Geological Survey (BGS)

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The geological timeline tells, through words and pictures, the story of the Earth from its formation 4600 million years ago to the present day.

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Choose the initial letter of the term you wish to visit and click on it.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Welcome to the ITS Education Asia comprehensive source of definitions for Geography related terms. The definitions cover a range of subject areas in:

Over 1500 terms defined. This dictionary is primarily aimed at supporting secondary/senior/high school and early tertiary students who are studying Geography or related subjects such as Earth Sciences.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
This resource was developed by:
Danny Harrington
M.A. (Oxon)
Director
ITS Tutorial School
Hong Kong registered school No:566985
These ITS resources may also be of help for students: Online Student Dictionaries
Any questions or comments [email protected]

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Choose the initial letter of the term you wish to visit and click on it. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Welcome to the ITS Education Asia comprehensive source of definitions for Geography related terms. The definitions cover a range of subject areas in: Over 1500 terms defined.

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Visit Bristol - The official tourist guide to Bristol

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metrobus Bristol - an express bus service for Bristol

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metrobus is an express bus service for the greater Bristol area. It's faster than a regular bus with direct routes to key destinations. Buying your ticket before you board means boarding times are five times faster than a regular bus.

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What is life like in a Brazilian favela? - CBBC Newsround

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Raphael is 13-years-old and has lived in Doña Marta Favela in Rio de Janeiro his whole life. He tells us what it's like to live there, and how things have changed.

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David Shukman takes a walk through the streets of Brazil's largest favela, Rocinha, to see how life has changed there since the original Rio Earth Summit in 1992.

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Tomasz Schafernaker takes a look at the formation of Cape Verde-type hurricanes and where their energy comes from.

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Through deadly winds, rain and floods - the New Orleans radio station that fought to keep listeners alive during Hurricane Katrina.

Not long after 4pm, Dave Cohen's pager began beeping like crazy.

The National Hurricane Center had issued its latest storm advisory, and it didn't look good.

The path of the hurricane had shifted 150 nautical miles west into the north-central coast of the Gulf of Mexico.

Florida would escape the brunt of Katrina's second battering. New Orleans and its surrounding areas would be her target instead.

"They said it was coming straight for New Orleans. And all those things we had feared about the worst-case scenario suddenly came rushing back," he explains.

But with the weekend already under way and Katrina three states away in Florida, many people in New Orleans had stopped paying attention to the weather forecasts.

"Screaming from the rooftops probably would have been as effective," says Dave.

"Whatever they were doing for that weekend, they had initiated those plans."

Dave Cohen hails from Chicago, and has been with the station since 1997. He has one of those soothing radio voices which melts in your eardrums. There's a warm and welcoming smile under his neatly trimmed beard. He is smart but not intimidating.

The sport team was still covering the Saints game, but during half-time, Dave and his news crew dramatically ramped up their coverage.

That's also when Dave picked up the phone and called his wife.

"Start packing," he told her. "You've got to go."

A decade on, Garland Robinette, Dave Cohen and Diane Newman all still work at WWL.

In their new offices, which they relocated to post-Katrina, glass cabinets are filled with awards they won for their marathon broadcasts.

For them, the trophies are bittersweet. More than 1,800 people lost their lives in the storm, and more than a million people in the Gulf Coast region were displaced.

Families like Diane's were torn apart - after their time at the Hyatt, her parents and her sister Carol moved to Baton Rouge.

Two weeks after the storm, Diane was summoned to Washington to testify before the Federal Communications Commission. She addressed the group of sharp-suited men in clothes she had bought at a Baton Rouge Walmart.

WWL had given "hope to the hopeless", she told the commission. She spoke about the power of radio, and singled out the staff who worked through the storm.

"Many of our radio family members lost everything they owned. Many didn't know the fate of their spouses, parents, brothers, sisters, friends," she said.

"But, we did the work.

"We do the work."

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Through deadly winds, rain and floods - the New Orleans radio station that fought to keep listeners alive during Hurricane Katrina. Not long after 4pm, Dave Cohen's pager began beeping like crazy. The National Hurricane Center had issued its latest storm advisory, and it didn't look good.

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About a million people have died in earthquakes in the last two decades, most in a handful of huge quakes in urban areas.

Yet the population of cities at risk continues to grow.

Is such death and destruction inevitable?

Four experts talk to the BBC World Service Inquiry programme about how far we can quake-proof a city.

Dr Emily So: Lessons from the dead
Civil engineer Dr Emily So is director of Cambridge University's Centre for Risk and the Built Environment.
"Most deaths from earthquakes are caused by buildings collapsing: people are more likely to die in bad buildings.

"There are different types of buildings around the world, and with each of these the collapse mechanisms are different; dependent on roof types, the type of environment. For drier climates - in Peru for example - the roofing structure will be much lighter so that prevents death. Even though it collapses, the roof doesn't crush people.

"It's these kind of subtleties that I want to capture with my work.

"In 1999 there was an earthquake in Chichi in Taiwan which was 7.6 [on the Richter scale]. It killed just over 2,000 people. The same magnitude earthquake in Kashmir in Pakistan in 2005 killed over 86,000.

"I was watching news [of the 2005 Pakistani earthquake], and the frustration that we know how to build against building collapse and prevent these deaths was really the motivation behind the work I'm doing now.

"With a lot of developing countries like Pakistan, Nepal and Haiti, the population are keen to use modern materials like concrete, but they haven't got the skills or money to build them properly.

"They have the aesthetic of concrete, but not the actual material of an engineered reinforced concrete building, and therefore when the earthquake strikes, it becomes dead weight and falls on the people inside.

"Because of urbanisation, we are tending to build more and more in cities, and in more hazardous regions. Population density is making the issue more prominent.

"I think it is possible to earthquake-proof a city. We have the knowledge and the know-how to prevent collapse of buildings. We have the knowledge and know-how of where to put people because of research into seismology.

"But it comes down to awareness, the quality of the buildings, education, building control, economics and possibly political will as well, because these events don't happen very often, and priorities in different countries are different.

"There's a saying that for every $1 (£0.70) spent in mitigation, $7 (£4.90) is saved in relief and reconstruction, and that's the key message. Given that we know the hazard itself is not preventable, it's the vulnerability and exposure of the built environment and its inhabitants that we need to work on."

David Malott: High-tech city
Architect David Malott designed three of the world's ten tallest towers.
"Tall buildings are somewhat inherently more stable in an earthquake: the ground shakes, moving back and forth at something like half a second to two-and-a-half seconds. A building - depending on its height - will also have a natural frequency to it.

"When the ground shaking and the building swaying match up, they go into resonance and that's where we see these catastrophic results.

"Buildings in the low to mid-height range are inherently more susceptible to ground shaking, whereas a building which is 100 floors tall, ironically falls outside of that frequency of the earthquake and therefore doesn't go into resonance.

"I've been working on tall buildings for 15 years now. The first one I completed was the Shanghai World Financial Centre which is 492m tall.

"[When Shanghai shook during the Sichuan quake of 2008], it hardly moved. We have sensors on the building, and even during this earthquake, the tower moved something like a metre at its top.

"That's actually a very small amount of movement relative to the height of the tower. There's something to these towers being very flexible and able to sway gently, even though the forces of nature might be quite violent, that enables these structures to withstand what nature throws their way.

"There are a number of techniques to test whether a building is earthquake-proof. Computers play a large role in the early days. Engineers take historic data on past earthquakes and plug it into the computer model, and we watch the way the structure behaves in that earthquake, and the computer lets us know how big to make the columns, how thick a steel should we use.

"As the design gets more mature, in China for example, designers are required to build a large structural model. We put it on what's called the shaking table [which] rocks back and forth to simulate that earthquake environment, and then sensors are placed on the physical model and we watch how that model performs.

"This is expensive [but] these buildings are designed to last for 100 years, perhaps 200, so the investment you make in performing these tests is a drop in the bucket compared to the initial costs.

"The paradox is that the parts of the world where we're finding the greatest need for these tall towers in terms of just population density - places like China, Japan, Indonesia - are in the ring of fire, where we find the most difficulty in terms of earthquakes and typhoons. We're building in perhaps what's the most dangerous locations on earth, and that's the challenge."

Martijn Schildkamp: Low-tech approach
Architect Martijn Schildkamp founded a charity called Smart Shelter to strengthen cheap housing. He has built schools in Nepal using quake-resistant methods.
"Is it possible to earthquake-proof a city in the developing world? If you have a lot of money, yeah, but there's not a strong lobby behind it yet who can invest and do the testing, because the investment will never be returned.

"So there's still a lot of guess work. [When you drive through an area after an earthquake], you see houses which look like they've been built the same, but one is completely collapsed and the neighbour is still standing strong. Why? What's the difference here?

"We see stone, wood and bricks all over the world, so if you can figure out those basics and then have a little bit of tweaking on the local level, we can go a long way.

"One important element is the number of horizontal beams that hold the walls together. We call it 'tying up your building' like a present, and this combination of very simple techniques is what we train. Over and over again, repeating, repeating, supervising, supervising, but it really works.

Animated map: The Nepal earthquake and its 120 aftershocks

"Our buildings have been tested. Last year during the [Nepal] earthquakes, our buildings survived without a scratch. They were about 70km (43 miles) from the epicentre, so relatively close.

"In all fairness, the region where we are was not as severely hit as Kathmandu Valley, [but] I'm convinced that our schools would have done very well there as well.

"What I see now is that there's a lot of experimenting. In Nepal where people are building with sandbags and straw bales and plastic bottles, their justification is that it should be quick and cheap. I absolutely am against experimenting in the backyard of people that already lost their house once.

"It should be done in a safe environment in a university, where we first figure out exactly how it works before we consider building thousands of these at the same time in villages in Nepal. It just doesn't make sense.

"For Nepal, I see the benefit of building with gabion boxes - woven steel nets which we fill with stones. Rather than stacking them next to a mountain to prevent landslides, they say, 'No, let's stack them into walls,' because then we don't need cement which is very scarce and expensive there.

"We have two students working in Bologna in Italy to figure out if we can make those gabion boxes earthquake-resistant."

Dr Lucy Jones: Prioritise wisely
Dr Lucy Jones is science advisor for risk reduction at the US Geological Survey.
"Stopping all earthquake damage is an insanely expensive process. Stopping enough that you can keep your society functioning, that's very doable if you're willing to put in time and effort.

"What you need to do is prioritise. There's only so much money that's available. There's only so much political capital that's available, and being wise about which ones you tackle is critical.

"I had the opportunity within the US Geological Survey to create a project to demonstrate how we could use hazard science to improve a community's resilience to natural disasters.

"We created a model of what a magnitude 7.8 San Andreas earthquake would be like, and said 'let's use the media, use the attention to get people to focus on what we know about the big earthquake and motivate some political action'.

"We ended up getting 5.5 million people to participate in the drill, which is a quarter of the population of Southern California.

"The good news is we've gotten traction. Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti turned out to be a very visionary guy who listened to what we had to say, and committed to doing something about it. The Resilience by Design programme that I helped him develop is moving forward.

"There is a style of construction that was popular in the 1950s and 1960s called non-ductile reinforced concrete. There are 1500 of those buildings in Los Angeles and thousands more in the region.

"Probably 10-20% of them would collapse under strong shaking, and their concrete is heavy, so the largest number of fatalities are expected to occur in those buildings.

"We're mandating retrofit. We're talking about billions of dollars having to be spent on existing buildings, and we were able to talk the business community into supporting this. We passed unanimously in the city council. Nobody objected, because they can see their investment is at stake.

"So there are a lot of very positive things that are growing, and if we can just hold the earthquake off for long enough, I think we can turn it around.

"I don't think I'm going to earthquake-proof Southern California, but I really do think that we can get enough pieces in place that we can keep her going."

The Inquiry is broadcast on the BBC World Service on Tuesdays from 12:05 GMT. Listen online or download the podcast.

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About a million people have died in earthquakes in the last two decades, most in a handful of huge quakes in urban areas. Yet the population of cities at risk continues to grow. Is such death and destruction inevitable? Four experts talk to the BBC World Service Inquiry programme about how far we can quake-proof a city.

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nepal earthquake documentary - Bing video

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BBC - Volcano Live, Iceland Erupts: A Volcano Live Special

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A look at two waterfalls in different stages of development; High Force on the River Tees and an un-named smaller falls on a tributary of the Tees. The process of a waterfall eroding its way upstream and creating a gorge is explained. The difference in appearance between different types of falls is explained in terms of geology.

Could be used as a case study of landforms created by the erosional power of rivers (gorges and waterfalls). Provides a stimulus for the creation of a series of diagram showing the erosional processes that create a waterfall, as well as the types of waterfall that can be created.

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BBC Bitesize - GCSE Geography - Waterfalls

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A look at two waterfalls in different stages of development; High Force on the River Tees and an un-named smaller falls on a tributary of the Tees. The process of a waterfall eroding its way upstream and creating a gorge is explained. The difference in appearance between different types of falls is explained in terms of geology.