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5. CICT&L Evidence Requirements Checklist v2

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Learning Outcome A: Explain your understanding of learning and how people learn.

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Review teaching methods and learning activities that engage and motivate learners to learn.

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Let's use this today, and in our teaching

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Here you will find a video summarising the main theories about learning

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THEORIES OF LEARNING: BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, & CONSTRUCTIVISM

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Getting Started With (GSW) Metacognition

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Getting Started With (GSW) Metacognition

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This "Getting Started With" (GSW) is all about Metacognition. You will see some theorists and theories in this website. There is a lot to read, but there are also videos to watch.

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Common misconceptions

There are a number of misconceptions surrounding metacognition and the related construct 'self-regulated learning'.

1. Metacognition is simply 'thinking about thinking'
Although metacognition does involve thinking about one's thinking, it is more complex than that. A large part of metacognition is actively monitoring one's own learning and making changes to one's own learning behaviours and strategies based on this monitoring.

2. Any strategy used while performing a cognitive task is metacognitive
This is not always the case. For example, using phonics rules to decode an unknown word when reading is a cognitive strategy. Flavell (1981) identified a useful distinction between the two: strategies used to make cognitive progress are 'cognitive strategies'; strategies used to monitor cognitive progress are 'metacognitive strategies'.

3. A teacher plays no role in their learners' metacognitive practice
Although a metacognitive approach typically focuses on allowing the learner to take control of their own learning, the teacher is still required to help in the development of their metacognitive skills. For example, the teacher needs to set clear learning objectives, demonstrate and monitor metacognitive strategies, and prompt and encourage their learners.

4. Metacognition is only applicable to older learners
Some researchers (e.g. Veenman and Spaans 2005) believe that metacognitive skills do not emerge until a child is 8 to 10 years old. However, Whitebread and Pino Pasternak (2010) document a number of studies which indicate evidence of young children's metacognitive abilities. Findings include children as young as 18 months demonstrating error-correction strategies, 5-year-old children showing an awareness of forgetting, and 3 to 5-year-olds exhibiting a wide range of verbal and non-verbal indicators of metacognitive processes in nursery and reception classrooms. These studies demonstrate that although young children may not be able to describe the metacognitive processes they are exhibiting, it does not mean that these processes are not occurring.

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There are a number of misconceptions surrounding metacognition and the related construct 'self-regulated learning'. 1. Metacognition is simply 'thinking about thinking' Although metacognition does involve thinking about one's thinking, it is more complex than that. A large part of metacognition is actively monitoring one's own learning and making changes to one's own learning behaviours and strategies based on this monitoring.

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This website is brilliant - you should bookmark it.

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Learning should involve activities to process the new material, linking it to what the student already knows. Tasks should be authentic, set in a meaningful context, and related to the real world. They should not just involve repeating back facts as this causes 'surface' learning.

As students' learning will involve errors, tasks should offer opportunities for self-assessment, correction, peer discussion, teacher feedback and other 'reality checks'.

Brain friendly strategies involve plenty of water, oxygen, protein, good diet, rest, and physical exercise as well as brain exercise. Learning drops by 20% if you eat excessive carbohydrates as this causes the release of ceratonin into our blood which relaxes us.

Full focus can only be attained for the same number of minutes as your age, up to about 20 or 25 mintues maximum. Short breaks and changes of focus help.
Use:

'Teaching by Asking' or guided discovery

Explaining tasks that require students to express their understanding to each other, and to develop this understanding before expressing it (e.g. peer explanation, and Jigsaw)

Ask 'diagnostic' question and answer, and use wrong answers to explore and correct misunderstandings. 'Socratic questioning'.

Use thought provoking tasks and questions that are high on Bloom's Taxonomy, rather than simple recall as these require more thought and processing.

Analysis: 'why?' questions.

Synthesis: 'how' could you? questions.

Evaluation: judgement questions.

These high order questions require students to construct their own conceptions of the new material. You can't reason with material until you have conceptualised it, so questions that require reasoning force conceptualisation.

Use Case studies that relate the topic to real life or former experience and so former learning.

Use Group work requiring students to discuss the material, so that peer checking and teaching takes place.

Learning involves 'pattern making', so use mind maps and summaries that point out the relation of the parts of a topic to the whole. Also point out the relation of today's topic to other topics.

Teach skills in the context of the topic of your subject. Think of yourself as a skills teacher who uses content to teach the skills.

Stimulation increases the learning rate. So use rich multi-sensory resources, lively activities and generate a sense of fun where you can.

For more constructivist teaching strategies see the following handouts:
25 ways of teaching without talking Formative Teaching Methods
See also the chapter in Teaching Today called 'Teaching is a two way process'. This includes a game which is an excellent experiential way of putting over constructivism.

Also see Carole Dweck's theory of motivation. This shows that students do not hold a constructivist view, but believe that learning depends on talent.
Constructivist Teaching Strategies
* Use teaching strategies that require students to make a construct. (Presenting information is not enough.) Students must apply, use, or process the information.

* Ensure that all students are participating in making constructs; holding them accountable for their learning.

* Ensure the tasks require students to process the information at a high level on Bloom's taxonomy: Evaluation, synthesis, analysis etc.

* Require the students to make a product that is used to diagnose learning errors and omissions. e.g. speaking to a partner, matching cards, written work etc.

* Require students to check for their own, and each other's learning errors and omissions.

* Require students to correct these learning errors and omissions.

* Make the above fun!

For example:

Problem solving tasks with self assessment and peer assessment

Evaluation matrix

* Decisions-decisions:

Students, working in pairs are given a text or watch a video etc, along with:

' Summary cards' which purport to summarise key points from the text, some of which are true and some of which are false: e.g.
* The left ventricle feeds the lung
* Heart rate is measured in beats per minute, and if you are very fit your heart rate will probably be lower than average.

Consequences cards' which state consequences of the facts given in the text.
These consequences are not actually stated in the text itself. Again some are true and some false E.g.
* If you blocked the left ventricle no blood would get to the head
* Furring of the arteries would usually raise blood pressure.

The pairs of students must decide which cards are correct, and what is wrong with the incorrect ones.
This is a greatly enjoyed activit y with the atmosphere of a game.

* Peer explaining

Students in pairs are given two related texts about topics that have not been explained to them, for example one about measles and another about mumps. They each study one of these alone for say 5 minutes. Alternatively they could use the same text/video etc, but look at different aspects of it. For example students could watch a video or read a text on the marketing policy of a small company, and one student could look out for strengths in the policy and another for weaknesses. Each student explains their topic to the other who asks questions until they understand. Integrative task: The pair then works together at a task that requires them to work together on both topics. A useful question for this is to ask students to "State what is the same, and what is different about measles and mumps." Or "Considering both strengths and weaknesses, what do you think of the marketing policy? How could strengths be built upon, and weaknesses addressed?"

* jigsaw

A Cooperative learning method

Jigsaw is one of many cooperative learning methods with high effect sizes*.

1. Divide a topic up into, say, four sub-topics. For example childhood diseases could be divided into mumps, measles, whooping cough and German measles. Alternatively students can be given four different key questions or 'spectacles' that require students to analyse the same materials from a different point of view. For example all students are given the same information about the beliefs and policies of the Nazi party, and different groups look at this from the point of view of women, the working class, the middle class and the church.

2. Divide students into four groups. The teacher chooses the groups and they should be mixed ability, experience, ethnicity gender etc. Don't use friendship groups. Students may complain at first but will soon accept it if you are insistent.

Each group studies one disease or question with the help of texts and worksheets etc. This is usually done in class time, though you might be able to adapt the method for students to do their learning outside of class time. (See Independent Learning)

1. The students now form new groups. Each new group is a 'jigsaw', with one student from each of the four original groups. Any students left over act as pairs in a full group. Each group now has one 'expert' in each of the four childhood diseases. (They may have two experts in one disease)

2. The new group now completes an activity that requires them to Peer Teach each other about their disease, and requires them to cooperate with the rest of the group over a combined task that requires them to integrate the four topics. For example they could be asked to:

1. Explain your disease to the rest of your new group, using the same headings as for the earlier tasks. (incubation time, mode of transmission etc)

2. Cooperate to find three things all the diseases have in common

3. Cooperate to find, for each of the four diseases, four unique characteristics.

4. Design a leaflet on childhood diseases. In your place the four diseases in order of:

* i. Severity of potential consequences * ii. Ease of protection

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Constructivism - a learning process - The Teachers Toolbox

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Constructivism is the process of the student learning new material, using previous knowledge as a foundation for new concepts.

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What is the Theory of Behaviorism in Learning?

Behaviorism is a psychological approach that focuses on studying observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. Founded by John B. Watson in the early 20th century, behaviorism emphasizes the importance of understanding the influence of the environment on individuals' actions.

This approach rejects the notion of analyzing emotions, thoughts, or consciousness, instead focusing solely on what can be directly observed and measured. By examining the relationship between stimuli and responses, behaviorism aims to explain human behavior through principles of conditioning, reinforcement, and stimulus-response associations.

Understanding the definition and principles of behaviorism is crucial in comprehending the role of external factors in shaping behavior and the effectiveness of behavior modification techniques.

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Types of Behaviorism

There are two main types of behaviorism: methodological behaviorism and radical behaviorism. Both types focus on the study of human and animal behavior, but they differ in key elements, strategies, and criticisms.

Methodological behaviorism, also known as Watsonian behaviorism, is based on the belief that only observable behavior should be studied. It originated from the works of John B. Watson and emphasizes the use of scientific methods for understanding behavior.

This type of behaviorism excludes mental processes and focuses solely on behavior as a response to stimuli. It heavily relies on objective observation and experimentation, and it often uses conditioning techniques, such as classical and operant conditioning, to explain behavior.

On the other hand, radical behaviorism, developed by B.F. Skinner, expands the scope of behaviorism by acknowledging the importance of both observable behavior and internal mental processes. It recognizes that behavior is influenced not only by external stimuli but also by internal thoughts, beliefs, and motivations. Radical behaviorism incorporates the concept of private events, such as thoughts and emotions, into the study of behavior, considering them as behaviors that are not directly observable but can still be objectively analyzed.

While methodological behaviorism has been criticized for its oversimplification of human behavior and neglect of internal processes, radical behaviorism has received criticism for its reductionist approach and its exclusive focus on behavior, neglecting the influence of other factors, such as genetics and biology.

In summary, the two types of behaviorism differ in their approaches to studying behavior, with methodological behaviorism focusing solely on observable behavior and radical behaviorism acknowledging the importance of both observable behavior and internal mental processes.

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History of Behaviorism in Learning

Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behavior and the relationship between stimuli and responses. It began to develop in the early 20th century and was influenced by the work of several key figures.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is renowned for his experiments on classical conditioning. He discovered that dogs could be conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, with an unconditioned stimulus, such as food. This led to the creation of what is known as Pavlovian conditioning, demonstrating the power of conditioning in shaping behavior.

Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist, introduced the concept of the law of effect, stating that behavior that is followed by a pleasant consequence is more likely to be repeated, while behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is less likely to be repeated. This laid the foundation for operant conditioning.

John B. Watson, an influential American psychologist, is considered the founder of behaviorism. He emphasized the importance of studying observable behavior and rejected the study of internal mental processes. Watson believed that all behavior is learned, and he aimed to explain how it could be understood and controlled.

Skinner expanded on the work of Watson and developed the concept of operant conditioning. He proposed that behavior is shaped by consequences and that reinforcement or punishment could be used to increase or decrease the likelihood of certain behaviors. Skinner's research on schedules of reinforcement and his invention of the operant conditioning chamber (commonly known as the "Skinner box") further solidified the principles of behaviorism.

In conclusion, behaviorism in learning has a rich history shaped by the contributions of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Their work laid the groundwork for understanding how behavior is learned and influenced by external factors.

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Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which an organism develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus through its association with a biologically significant stimulus. This type of learning was first described by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900s through his groundbreaking experiments with dogs.

Classical conditioning has since become a fundamental concept in the field of psychology, explaining the formation of both simple and complex behaviors in various species, including humans.

This form of conditioning is based on the principles of stimulus-response associations, providing insights into how our behaviors can be influenced and modified by our environment. Understanding classical conditioning can help us comprehend how new behaviors or responses can be learned, as well as how certain conditioned responses can be extinguished.

Through this introduction, we will further explore this essential concept in psychology and its applications in various aspects of our lives.

Pavlov's Experiments

Pavlov's experiments were pivotal in establishing the principles of classical conditioning and their contribution to the theory of behaviorism. Classical conditioning is a process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a reflexive response.

Pavlov conducted his experiments with dogs and observed their salivary response to food. Initially, the presentation of food (an unconditioned stimulus) naturally elicited salivation (an unconditioned response). He then introduced a neutral stimulus, such as ringing a bell, before presenting the food. Over time, the dogs began associating the bell with food and eventually salivated upon hearing the bell alone. The bell, previously a neutral stimulus, became a conditioned stimulus that triggered a conditioned response of salivation.

These experiments revealed that learned associations can be formed between stimuli and responses. The stimulus-response model, which posits that external stimuli elicit specific responses, gained significant support through Pavlov's work. His experiments demonstrated that responses could be obtained through learned associations rather than being solely predetermined or reflexive.

Pavlov's experiments greatly influenced the theory of behaviorism, which emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the environmental factors that shape it. His concept of conditioned reflexes provided a solid foundation for the behaviorist perspective, as it illustrated that behavior could be modified and influenced by external stimuli and reinforced through conditioning.

In conclusion, Pavlov's experiments in classical conditioning, demonstrating the formation of conditioned reflexes, have greatly contributed to the theory of behaviorism. They highlighted the importance of learned associations between stimuli and responses and helped establish the stimulus-response model as an essential aspect of behavioral psychology.

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Application to Learning Theory

In order to apply the concepts of behavioral learning in the context of learning theory, several strategies can be incorporated.

Firstly, creating the right environment is crucial. This involves using a conditioned stimulus, which is a stimulus that produces a specific response when paired with a specific behavior. For example, a teacher can use a bell as a conditioned stimulus to signal the start of a learning activity, conditioning the students to associate the bell with focused attention and engagement.

Another strategy is introducing self-directed learning and gamification. Self-directed learning allows students to take control of their own learning process, fostering independence and motivation. Gamification involves incorporating game-like elements into the learning experience, such as rewards, badges, and competition, to make it more engaging and enjoyable.

Furthermore, active learning techniques play an important role. This approach encourages students to actively participate in the learning process through hands-on activities, discussions, and problem-solving tasks. This active engagement enhances understanding and retention of information.

Lastly, social learning techniques can be utilized. This involves promoting collaboration and interaction among students. Group work, peer teaching, and cooperative learning activities help students learn from each other, exchange ideas, and develop effective communication skills.

By incorporating these strategies, educators can effectively apply the concepts of behavioral learning in the context of learning theory, creating a conducive environment for students to maximize their learning potential.

Limitations of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a specific response, has various limitations when applied to education. One significant limitation is that classical conditioning primarily focuses on involuntary responses. In an educational setting, where voluntary behavior plays a crucial role, this limitation restricts the application of classical conditioning.

Furthermore, classical conditioning lacks the ability to explain complex learning processes. It oversimplifies the understanding of human behavior, as it primarily assumes that learning occurs through association. However, education involves higher-order cognitive processes such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which cannot be adequately explained solely through classical conditioning.

Another limitation of classical conditioning in education is the inability to explain individual differences in learning. Each student possesses unique backgrounds, abilities, and interests, which influence their learning experiences. Classical conditioning fails to account for these individual differences, as it focuses on general associations between stimuli and responses. Consequently, educators must employ more comprehensive theories of learning, such as operant conditioning or cognitive approaches, to address the diverse needs of their students.

In conclusion, classical conditioning in education has limitations that prevent its comprehensive application. Its emphasis on involuntary responses, oversimplified understanding of learning processes, and inability to explain individual differences restrict its effectiveness as an educational tool. Educators should consider utilizing more encompassing theories to enhance their teaching methods and facilitate optimal learning outcomes.

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Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning that focuses on how an individual's behavior is influenced by the consequences of their actions. This theory suggests that behaviors can be reinforced or diminished through either positive or negative reinforcement, as well as punishment.

Positive reinforcement involves rewarding desired behaviors, while negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Conversely, punishment aims to decrease unwanted behaviors by either adding an aversive consequence or removing a desirable stimulus. Through operant conditioning, individuals can learn to associate their actions with certain outcomes, leading to changes in behavior over time.

This process of conditioning can be seen in various aspects of daily life, from classroom strategies to shaping the behavior of animals. Understanding the principles of operant conditioning can provide valuable insights into how behaviors are shaped and modified, offering practical applications in fields such as education, psychology, and animal training.

B.F. Skinner's Theory

B.F. Skinner was a renowned psychologist known for his theory of behaviorism. He believed that human behavior is shaped by external factors rather than internal thoughts and feelings. Skinner's work in radical behaviorism emphasized the importance of studying observable and measurable behavior.

One of the key concepts in Skinner's theory is reinforcement. He proposed that behavior is reinforced by positive consequences, such as rewards, which increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. Likewise, punishment and negative consequences decrease the probability of the behavior being repeated. Skinner's reinforcement principles were vital in shaping understanding of how behavior can be modified and controlled.

Skinner's behaviorist theory found practical application in the field of education. He advocated for a system where positive reinforcement is used to encourage desired behaviors in students. This approach involves rewarding students for displaying appropriate behavior, such as completing assignments or participating actively in class discussions. By employing these principles, educators can create a positive learning environment, motivating students to engage and succeed academically.

In conclusion, B.F. Skinner's theory of behaviorism, particularly his work in radical behaviorism and reinforcement principles, has had a significant impact on understanding human behavior and its practical application in education. By focusing on observable behavior and utilizing positive reinforcement, his theories have helped shape effective teaching practices.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to the practice of rewarding or reinforcing desired behaviors in order to motivate and encourage students in the context of education. This method is based on the belief that positive consequences can increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior.

One of the main benefits of positive reinforcement in education is that it creates a positive and supportive learning environment. When students receive recognition for their efforts, they feel valued, encouraged, and more motivated to engage in the desired behaviors. This enhances their self-esteem and confidence, fostering a growth mindset and leading to improved learning outcomes.

Educators can use rewards or incentives to motivate students and reinforce desired behaviors. These rewards can be tangible, such as stickers, certificates, or small gifts, or intangible, like verbal praise, increased privileges, or extra free time. By carefully selecting and delivering these rewards, educators can create a positive association with desired behaviors, making students more likely to repeat them.

To effectively use this method, educators should clearly define the desired behaviors and communicate the expectations to students. Consistency is also vital, as students need to know that their efforts will be consistently recognized and rewarded. Additionally, it is important to individualize the rewards and incentives to suit the needs and interests of each student, ensuring that they are meaningful and motivating.

Positive reinforcement is a powerful tool that educators can use to motivate students and reinforce desired behaviors in the context of education. By providing appropriate rewards and incentives, educators create a positive learning environment and enhance student engagement and learning outcomes.

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Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement refers to a concept in which a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an aversive stimulus when that behavior is displayed. In the context of education, negative reinforcement can have several benefits.

Firstly, negative reinforcement can help students avoid unpleasant situations. By reinforcing behaviors that lead to the removal of a negative stimulus, students are encouraged to take actions that prevent them from experiencing discomfort or inconvenience. For example, if a student consistently completes their homework on time to avoid the negative consequence of staying after school for extra help, they learn the value of proactive work completion.

Additionally, negative reinforcement can increase motivation and persistence. When students realize that their efforts to escape an aversive situation are successful, they are more likely to repeat those efforts in the future. This can lead to increased motivation to engage in desired behaviors and a greater sense of persistence when faced with challenges.

Furthermore, negative reinforcement can help reduce anxiety and stress in education. By reinforcing behaviors that alleviate stress or anxiety-producing situations, students are encouraged to engage in coping mechanisms or seek assistance when needed. This can create an environment that is more conducive to learning, as students feel supported and less overwhelmed by anxiety-inducing tasks or situations.

Negative reinforcement in education can help students avoid unpleasant situations, increase motivation and persistence, and reduce anxiety and stress. By using this concept effectively, educators can create a positive and supportive learning environment for their students.

Positive Punishment

Positive punishment is a concept in psychology that involves applying negative consequences to discourage undesirable behaviors. It is based on the principle that by associating an unpleasant outcome with a specific behavior, individuals are less likely to repeat that behavior in the future.

The effects of positive punishment can be twofold. First, it serves as a deterrent by creating an aversive experience that individuals want to avoid. For example, a student who consistently disrupts the class may be given extra homework or be made to stay after school. By experiencing these negative consequences, the student may be less likely to repeat their disruptive behavior.

Second, positive punishment can help individuals understand the consequences of their actions and develop self-control. By immediately linking the negative outcome to their behavior, individuals learn to associate their actions with undesirable outcomes. This can lead to a better understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and promote responsible decision-making.

However, the potential impact of positive punishment on students' motivation, self-esteem, and behavior should be considered. Excessive or inappropriate use of positive punishment can create a hostile learning environment and damage students' motivation and self-esteem. It may lead to feelings of frustration, discouragement, and even defiance. Consequently, students may become less motivated to learn, exhibit low self-esteem, and engage in more problem behaviors.

To mitigate these negative effects, it is important to pair positive punishment with positive reinforcement and provide clear guidelines for behavior expectations. Additionally, open communication and support from teachers and parents can help students understand the purpose of positive punishment and its role in shaping behavior.

Overall, positive punishment involves applying negative consequences to discourage undesirable behaviors. While it can be an effective strategy for behavior management, it must be used judiciously and in conjunction with other positive behavioral supports to maintain students' motivation, self-esteem, and overall well-being.

Negative Punishment

Negative punishment is a concept within the framework of behaviorism that aims to decrease the frequency of a particular behavior by removing a desired stimulus. In behaviorism, the focus is on understanding how the environment influences behavior, and negative punishment is one of the strategies used to shape and modify behavior.

Negative punishment involves the removal of a desired stimulus as a consequence of engaging in a certain behavior. This leads to a decrease in the frequency of the behavior in future instances. For example, let's imagine a child repeatedly interrupts their sibling during playtime.

To address this behavior using negative punishment, the parent can remove the child from the play area whenever they interrupt. By doing so, the child experiences the removal of the desired stimulus, which is the opportunity to play with their sibling. Consequently, the child learns that their interrupting behavior results in the loss of the enjoyable activity, and they are more likely to refrain from interrupting in the future.

The main purpose of negative punishment is to help individuals learn and understand the consequences of their behavior. By removing a desired stimulus, negative punishment aims to teach individuals that engaging in certain behaviors can result in the loss of something they value. This can be effective in reducing the frequency of unwanted behaviors and promoting more desirable ones.

Overall, negative punishment within the context of behaviorism involves the removal of a desired stimulus to decrease the frequency of a targeted behavior. By employing this technique, individuals can learn the importance of making better choices and behaving in ways that align with societal expectations.

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Observational Learning (Modeling)

Observational learning, also known as modeling, is a powerful form of learning in which individuals acquire new knowledge and skills by observing others. Rather than relying solely on their own experiences, individuals can learn by watching the actions, behaviors, and outcomes of others.

This process allows people to learn from both positive and negative examples, expanding their knowledge and shaping their behavior. By mimicking the actions of others, individuals can adopt new behaviors, acquire skills, and adapt to their environment in a more efficient and less trial-and-error manner.

Observational learning plays a significant role in various areas of life, from children learning social skills from their parents to individuals acquiring new abilities in a professional or educational setting. Understanding the mechanisms behind observational learning can enhance our understanding of how individuals learn and can have implications for education, socialization, and behavior modification.

Bandura's Studies on Modeling and Imitation

Albert Bandura conducted several studies on modeling and imitation, focusing on the role of observation in learning and behavior. One of his key studies was the Bobo doll study, in which children observed an adult model interacting with a Bobo doll in an aggressive or non-aggressive manner.

Bandura explored the concepts of modeling and observational learning, which refer to the idea that individuals learn by observing and imitating others. In the Bobo doll study, children were divided into groups, with each group exposed to different adult models (aggressive, non-aggressive, or no model).

After observing the adult's behavior, the children were given the opportunity to play with the Bobo doll. Bandura found that children who observed the aggressive model exhibited more aggressive behavior towards the doll, while those who observed the non-aggressive model showed less aggression.

The main findings of Bandura's research suggest that observation and imitation play a significant role in learning and behavior. Through observing others, individuals acquire new behaviors and develop expectations about the consequences of those behaviors. This has important implications for understanding how individuals learn from their social environment and how behaviors can be influenced by the models they observe.

Bandura's studies highlight the importance of media and social interactions in shaping behavior, implying that exposure to positive role models can promote prosocial behaviors, while exposure to aggressive behavior can lead to the imitation of aggression.

Further Reading on Behaviorism Theory of Learning

These studies offer a diverse perspective on the efficacy of behaviorism theory in learning, spanning various educational contexts and theoretical frameworks.
1. Albert Bandura's theory of learning: bridging behaviourist and cognitivist role of online student's self-efficacy.
Summary: This study highlights the role of Albert Bandura's theory in bridging behaviorist and cognitivist learning theories. It emphasizes how a student's self-efficacy in online learning environments impacts engagement, completion, and learning outcomes.
2. Rats, reinforcements and role-models: Taking a second look at behaviourism and its relevance to education
Summary: This paper discusses the behaviorist model of learning as a sophisticated and adaptable tool for understanding and positively influencing various types of learning across diverse educational contexts.
3. Constructivism: The Career and Technical Education Perspective
Summary: This research suggests that cognitive constructivism may be more compatible with career and technical education, indicating a potential alternative to behaviorism as a learning theory.
4. Strategies for facilitating self‐directed learning: A process for enhancing human resource development
Summary: This study proposes an integrated framework combining experiential learning, behavioral modeling, threat elimination, and persuasion to improve self-efficacy perceptions and self-leadership skills in adult learning.
5. Self-efficacy for reading and writing: influence of modelling, goal setting, and self-evaluation
Summary: This paper explores how self-efficacy, a critical mechanism in social cognitive theory, influences the choice of tasks, effort, persistence, and achievement in the context of reading and writing.

These studies offer a diverse perspective on the efficacy of behaviorism theory in learning, spanning various educational contexts and theoretical frameworks.

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Explore the essentials of behaviorism theory in learning: its principles, impact on education, and application in various learning environments.

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What is the Learning theory of Cognitivism?

The Learning Theory of Cognitivism concentrates on how a person's mind receives, organizes, saves and retrieves information. The cognitive theory believes that the human mind functions like an information processor or computer. Therefore, the cognitivist approach looks beyond noticeable behaviour, considering learning as an internal mental process.

In a classroom, cognitivism offers Advantageous Learning Environments that evolve through interactive mental activities that stimulate the thinking ability of students. For instance, when learners listen to thought-provoking questions, it tutors their brains to move further from their current knowledge to get solutions.

Cognitivists believe that humans learn from thinking. They believe that we learn from our experiences and that we can change our behaviors based on new information. Knowledge is considered an internal process rather than a product.

Cognitive learning theories are based on the idea that knowledge acquisition occurs when learners actively engage in problem-solving activities. CLT assumes that students learn better when they use their own thinking skills rather than being taught facts and procedures.

It emphasizes active learning over passive learning. Active learning involves students engaging in meaningful tasks that require them to apply their own thinking skills. Passive learning involves students simply memorizing information.

If you've read any books on learning theory, you will have probably already encountered names such as Bandura's Social Learning Theory, Piaget's cognitive development and Kolb's Learning Cycle. If you're interested in why cognition is central to learning and how it might differ from other perspectives of education, then keep reading. We'll talk about why cognition is important for the design of instruction and how it might differ from other current learning theories.

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What are the main principles of Cognitivism?

Cognitivism principles intend to optimize how adult learners can understand, think about, integrate and process new information. The new knowledge adds to the familiar knowledge in the memory of adult learners. The following are the main principles of cognitivism for more effective human learning in Educational Settings:

1. Learning must be purposeful and focused.

2. Learning must be self-directed;

3. Learning must come from Analysis to Discovery.

4. Organising information into Schemas helps students build conceptual models.

5. Long-term memory is enhanced by enabling students to organise and encode learning material.

6. Curriculum content must be well-sequenced and understood in the context of the bigger picture.

What is Cognitive Learning?

Cognitive learning is an active acquisition of learning that concentrates on helping students learn how to maximize their mental ability. Cognitive strategies make it easier for the students to connect new information with current understanding, thus aggravating their retention and memory capacity.

Embracing a 'thinking approach' to learning promotes Cognitive Development of students and prepares them to use their brains more effectively. Cognitive learning involves long-lasting, constructive, and active involvement of students in educational practices. It makes learners completely engaged in the learning process which makes it easier to think, learn and remember things.

The cognitive process does not involve repetition or memorization. It is related to meaningful learning how to learn and creating true understanding. The following are some critical features of cognitive learning strategies:

Applying visualizations to enhance students' recall and basic understanding of the concepts taught in the classroom;

Asking learners to show active participation in explaining and justifying their thinking;

Helping students understand and explore connections between different ideas.

Having discussions about the depth of knowledge or topic being taught.

Asking learners to reflect on knowledge in memory of students;

Offers opportunities for Learners and students to find new answers to problems.

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Cognitivism and connectivism

What is the main goal of instruction in Cognitivism?

Cognitivist learning theories explain that the primary goal of instruction is to achieve academic achievement through the Acquisition Of Knowledge in the most effective way. To achieve the main goal of instruction students are encouraged to use the most beneficial cognitive strategies to gain knowledge.

Self-regulated learning is the process of monitoring, controlling and managing student behaviours, thoughts, emotions, and interactions with the environment, including social interactions and task performance. Due to its large scope, self-regulated learning gives opportunities for learners to know how responses can be organized across a wide range of coping strategies and skills (E.G., Self-Planning cognitive restructuring, self-talk, etc.). With such a broad focus, self-regulated learning enables an individual to explain the loss of control which may occur due to engaging in a wide range of less desirable behaviours such as excessive drinking.

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What is the difference between Cognitivist and Behavioral Theories of learning?

Cognitivist Theories and Behavioral Theories of learning are both these instructional theories that have a dominant position in educational psychology. Cognitive development theory was proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget in response to behaviorism proposed by B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson during the early 20th century. There is a major difference between cognitive learning theories and behavioral theories of education. The cognitive learning theories focus on cognitive development or cognitive processes involving internal mental processes and the primary approach of behaviorism is focused on external factors or external observable behaviours. The behavioural theory believes that a student is a passive blank slate shaped by external forces or both negative and positive reinforcement.

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Cognitivist and Behavioural learning theories

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What is the Two-store Model of cognitivism?

The Two-store Model or dual memory model is an early model of cognitivism. This specific approach to learning assumes that there is a connection between long-term memory and working memory. The two-store model of cognitive theory is now considered incomplete and simplistic but seen as a beginning point to understanding cognitive learning theories. The expansion in the field of developmental psychology has led to the development of more theories of cognitivism. Hence, in Educational Psychology there is no universally accepted theory or cognitive model.

How can educational technology aid cognition for learning?

Cognitive Load Theoryproposes that when the mind's cognitive abilities get overloaded it stops the learning process in the students. However, Cognitive Load Theorists believe that Educational Technology may help reduce cognitive abilities overload. The main goal of instruction is to use Educational technology to keep students focused on the learning process of the target lesson.

From an instructional design perspective, we can use technology to break down complex tasks and scaffold the learning experience. Advanced knowledge acquisition is dependent upon how well a student has thought about the curriculum content. Instructional design practices can be enhanced by providing learning tools that lessen the load on the working memory.

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Cognitivist Learning Model

What is the effect of Mobile Learning on Cognition?

The rapid advancement of science and technology has shone light on the importance of 21st Century Skills and Academic Abilities In Students. When used purposely, Mobile learning applications provide effective learning tools that can enhance learning and improve cognitive development in students. Mobile learning makes learning more accessible to students, teachers and parents.

Students show more interest in education. Research shows that mobile learning can engage learners at higher levels of cognition. Therefore, students should be provided with mobile learning opportunities such that students can develop higher levels of cognitive abilities.

How is cognitivism used in the classroom?

Social learning theory concentrates on the conceptions of learning and reinforcement, whereas, Cognitivist Theories focus on the cognitive processes and their role in the learning outcomes of the students. By bringing our conscious attention to the nuts and bolts of how we think and learn, we begin to see learning as a science that all of us can master.

Cognitive learning strategies are useful for children because these address issues that allow students to gain Academic Achievement through learning effectively and ensuring that the concepts learned in class are not just memorized, but also well-understood. Cognitive Processing Strategies help children in the following different ways:

Finding the most helpful way of formal and informal learning -whether a student is an auditory learner, visual learner, or otherwise;

Helping children to apply and retain 21st-century skills and new concepts effectively;

Teaching children the way to take an approach to the "big picture" to learning to find out how smaller cognitive conceptions fit into Complex Learning Tasks or larger thoughts.

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Applying a cognitive approach in an organizational setting

Below is an example of utilizing a cognitive approach as one of the organizational strategies for goal setting at a workplace:

A team leader in the department of training in a big enterprise has been asked to instruct a new intern to conduct a cost-benefit analysis for a forthcoming project.

In this situation, it is presumed that the intern holds no experience with cost-benefit analysis in a company.

The protocols for this activity may not exactly correspond to those of the cost-benefit analysis but the resemblance between the cognitive activities enables the unfamiliar information to be used in a familiar situation.

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Further Reading on Cognitivism

Together, these articles offer a critical examination of cognitivism, suggesting that while it has provided valuable insights into the cognitive processes, its scope may be too narrow, overlooking the importance of social context, nonrational processes, and the subjective experience of individuals.

This critique calls for a broader, more integrative approach to understanding cognition that encompasses both rational and nonrational elements, as well as the interplay between individual minds and their social and physical environments.

1. The extent of cognitivism by V. Arponen (2013). This article explores the critique of cognitivism, especially in the context of human action and social surroundings, inspired by Wittgenstein's philosophy. It discusses the concept of shared knowledge as a driving force behind human action, highlighting latent cognitivism within the critique itself. The study provides an insightful examination of cognitivism's scope and its implications for understanding human behavior and social interaction.

2. The nature and plausibility of Cognitivism by John Haugeland (1978). Haugeland's paper delves into cognitivism's scientific underpinnings, differentiating it from mathematical physics and emphasizing its focus on interpreted states and processes. It argues for cognitivism's empirical rigor, despite its theoretical novelty, and discusses its stance on reductionism and the meaningfulness of cognitive processes.

3. Where Did the Word 'Cognitive' Come From Anyway? by C. D. Green (1996). Green traces the philosophical history of the term "cognitive," showing its evolution from early 20th-century ethical theories through logical positivism. The paper argues that cognitivism, by focusing on truth-evaluable aspects of the mental, offers a scientific framework that excludes certain problematic aspects of mentalism, such as consciousness and emotion.

4. Escape From Cognitivism: Exercise as Hedonic Experience by P. Ekkekakis and Zachary Zenko (2016). This article critiques cognitivism's dominance in exercise psychology, arguing for a more nuanced understanding of exercise behavior that incorporates nonrational processes. It suggests a dual-process model that better accounts for the complex motivations behind exercise, proposing that hedonic experiences play a significant role.

5. The holy grail of cognitivism: a response to Adams and Aizawa by Richard Menary (2010). Menary addresses Adams and Aizawa's definition of cognitivism, challenging their stance on cognitive representation and content determination. He advocates for cognitive integration, arguing against the strict dichotomy between derived and underived content and emphasizing the empirical research that blurs these distinctions.

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Cognitivism Learning Theories: A teachers guide

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What is the cognitivist theory of learning, and what are the implications for classroom practice?

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You will find some more info and videos here, and it relates to various learning theories too.

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What is active learning?

Active learning is a process that has student learning at its centre. Active learning focuses on how students learn, not just on what they learn. Students are encouraged to 'think hard',
rather than passively receive information from the teacher. Research shows us that it is not possible to transmit understanding to students by simply telling them what they
need to know. Instead, teachers need to make sure that they challenge their students' thinking. With active learning, students play an important part in their own learning process.
They build knowledge and understanding in response to opportunities provided by their teacher.
What is your definition of active learning? Transcript
Listen to these teachers giving their personal definitions. How
do their definitions compare with yours?
In the rest of this unit we will look at the basics of active learning in more detail. We will look at the theory behind active learning, discuss the benefits of an active learning approach
and discover some practical examples. We will also hear from experienced teachers, who will be sharing their ideas.

Throughout the unit we will ask you reflective questions that will help you to think about how you can apply active learning in your lessons.

At the end of the unit there is a glossary of key words and phrases.
Transcript
What is the theory behind active learning?

Active learning is based on a theory called constructivism. Constructivism emphasises the fact that learners construct or build their own understanding. Constructivists argue that learning is a process of 'making meaning'. Learners develop their existing knowledge and understanding in order to achieve deeper levels of understanding. This means that learners are more able to analyse, evaluate and synthesise ideas (thus achieving the higher order skills of Bloom's Taxonomy). Skilled teachers make these deeper levels of understanding more possible by providing learning environments, opportunities, interactions, tasks and instruction that foster deep learning.

The theory of 'social constructivism' says that learning happens mainly through social interaction with others, such as a teacher or other students. One social constructivist, Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), developed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development. This zone lies between what a learner can achieve alone and what a learner can achieve with their teacher's expert guidance. Skilled teachers focus learning activities in this zone. Skilled teachers scaffold learning by providing guidance and support that challenges students based on their current ability. This helps students to develop their understanding in stages.

Skilled teachers also provide rich feedback using Assessment for learning (AFL). Skilled teachers use AFL to help students to understand two things: firstly their current strengths and weaknesses and secondly what they need to do to improve. AFL activities are sometimes based on formal assessments. However, AFL can also be based on many types of informal assessment which can include peer assessment, where students assess each other.

Active learning also links to other theories of learning:

Learning should be relevant and within a meaningful context.
This idea was developed by the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). It influenced numerous educators in the early 20th century such as John Dewey (1859-1952) and Maria Montessori (1870-1952). The main idea is that we learn best when we can see the usefulness of what we learn and connect it to the real world.

Learning is developmental.
Learning experiences for young people should be appropriate to their level of development. Some of this is linked to their age, although development level and age are not always the same thing.

What are the benefits of active learning?

Active learning helps students to become 'lifelong learners'
In an active learning approach, learning is not only about the content, but is also about the process. Active learning develops students' autonomy and their ability to learn. Active learning gives students greater involvement and control over their learning. This means that students are better able to continue learning once they have left school and college.

Active learning encourages success
Cambridge examinations do not simply test recall of knowledge. Successful candidates draw on their understanding in order to evaluate and synthesise ideas. Therefore, Cambridge programmes and qualifications are best taught using an active learning approach. Encouraging active learning helps students to achieve higher grades, based on their enhanced skills and understanding.

Because active learning encourages students to take a central role in their own learning, it prepares them better for both higher education and for the workplace. Analytical skills also help students to be better at problem solving and applying their knowledge. Universities and employers value this.

Active learning is engaging and intellectually exciting
An active learning approach encourages all students to stay focused on their learning, which will often give them greater enthusiasm for their studies. Teachers also find that they enjoy the level of academic discussion with their students which an active learning approach encourages.

Listen to these educators giving their views on the benefits of active learning for their students. Which of the benefits are most relevant to your students?

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Active learning is a process that has student learning at its centre. Active learning focuses on how students learn, not just on what they learn. Students are encouraged to 'think hard',rather than passively receive information from the teacher. Research shows us that it is not possible to transmit understanding to students by simply telling them what theyneed to know.

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The Power of "Yet"

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Developing a Growth Mindset with Carol Dweck

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This book is excellent! It is designed for this course. Take a look and do as much reading as possible. Make notes in your journal.

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An invaluable resource for all teachers seeking to update and improve their professional skills. Written in a lively, accessible style the authors draw heavily from the experience of teachers they have worked with in different parts of the world.

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This website is wonderful. Full of free resources. Please bookmark it in your browser.

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Geoff Petty is one of Britain's leading experts on teaching methods. Enjoy experimenting with these methods but don't expect to use them perfectly straight away. Make sure you understand why they should work, and adapt your use of them until they begin to work well.

FOR TEACHERS

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Geoff Petty is one of Britain's leading experts on teaching methods. Enjoy experimenting with these methods but don't expect to use them perfectly straight away. Make sure you understand why they should work, and adapt your use of them until they begin to work well.

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Making use of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to Problem Solve

Defining the Problem

Consider an individual in your class whose behaviour is problematical. Can you type this behaviour as due to a lack of belongingness, esteem, or self-actualisation needs? Or is it a combination of these?

Considering Solutions

What do you do in most classes that satisfies:
Self-actualisation needs?
Self-esteem needs and the need for esteem from others?
Belongingness needs?

Recognising and Devising Some Strategies

Which strategies do you use now to satisfy these needs through college work?

Self-actualisation needs

Work towards personal targets
Express personal values beliefs and priorities
Make choices to control your own development in the direction of your own values
Express yourself, and your values, through accomplishments: creativity, performances, ..
The search for identity and a search for a meaning to one's life: through work, through making use of your own talents and abilities; from exploration of what interests you...

Esteem needs

Self-esteem:
Achievement, success and confidence, through overcoming challenges and making progress in a direction that your value
recognition of one's own success
adequacy: to be able to cope by oneself

Esteem of others:
respect: a desire for dignity through reputation, prestige, and status
recognition of others of your success, achievement etc

Belongingness and love needs

To give affection and regard to others, to help others
To belong: to my team, class, group, and college
To get affection and recognition from others
To be valued as a person, not just for what I do for others
To be wanted as a person
Which new strategies could you use, and which old ones could you use more often, to satisfy these needs through college work?
Don't underestimate the power of symbols that show esteem needs, and belongingness needs are being met.

For example:
My name being remembered and used positively
A welcome when I come in the class
My work on the classroom wall
A star earned for effort on the classroom wall or on my work
Teacher recognition in the form of competences signed off, comments on work etc

Motivating with Maslow.
We can also consider classes as a whole with Maslow. Indeed his theory could be used to predict the motivating effect of active learning:

Students should be set a challenge which requires a personal response (self actualisation)
e.g. design a poster
develop you own opinions and ideas, along with a full justification on......

Students work in pairs or small groups and their ideas should be valued by that group (belongingness and love needs)
Students should help each other: (belongingness and love needs)

The products made by students as part of their active learning should be valued, there should be an 'audience' for them other than the teacher. (esteem needs)
E.g. Displaying the poster in the corridor or on the classroom wall or put on the intranet.
Students presenting their ideas to the class and having them valued.

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Maslow's hierarchy of needs - The Teachers Toolbox

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Making use of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to Problem Solve Defining the Problem Consider an individual in your class whose behaviour is problematical. Can you type this behaviour as due to a lack of belongingness, esteem, or self-actualisation needs? Or is it a combination of these?

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Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance | Angela Lee Duckworth | TED

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Explain your understanding of the purposes of assessment.

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Identify and explain key features of what you think makes an effective lesson, and evaluate the impact any new learning will have on your future practice

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Please use this: read and watch the videos and make notes in your journal.

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Assessment for learning in practice

AFL emphasises the creation of a learner-centred classroom with a supportive atmosphere, where students are not afraid to make mistakes and learn from them.
We are going to look at five approaches or strategies that you can use in a lesson or programme of study.

1. Questioning
Questions are a quick and important way of finding out what your learner understands about a subject. You can use this information to plan their teaching.

There are two main types of question: closed and open.

A closed question requires a short answer, such as remembering a fact. The answer is usually right or wrong.
For example, a Geography teacher might ask: 'What is the capital of Peru?'

On average, teachers only wait 0.9 seconds after asking a question before taking an answer from a learner. Mary Rowe suggests that increasing 'wait time' to three seconds improves the quality of answers.

One way to help increase 'wait time', and to ensure the whole class is actively engaged, is to ask your learners to write down the answer to a closed question on a piece of paper, mini whiteboard or tablet, and hold it up. This immediately gives you feedback about who understands, who does not, and therefore what the next steps in the learning might be.

A good strategy to use if a learner gets the answer wrong is to make this into a positive event. You could say: 'I'm glad you said that, as I'm sure lots of other students have the same misunderstanding.'

In an AFL classroom, finding out what learners do not know is as valuable as finding out what they do know. This knowledge will help you to see what material your learners need to spend extra time on to make sure that they all understand.

Open questions need longer answers, and often require the learner to provide an opinion.
E.g. A Physics teacher might ask: 'What will happen to the flow of water through a hose pipe if a smaller nozzle is fitted to it? Explain how this relates to the study of voltage, current and resistance in a simple electric circuit.'

Open questions like this allow all learners to try to answer the question and be part of a discussion. You can then facilitate this discussion, asking questions to develop the discussion such as 'Tell me more about that' and 'Why do you think that?'

'Dialogic teaching' is a term that describes on-going talk between teachers and learners, which leads to effective learning. If you discuss ideas with your learners, you can get a clearer view of what understanding your learners have about a topic, and put right any misunderstandings.

Reflection
Watch the video of a teacher talking about how he uses questioning. Do you use any of these techniques in your own classroom?
Transcript
Want to know more?
This video shows good use of closed questioning. How would you adapt this for your own classroom?

2. Feedback
Feedback is the process in which learners come together with their teachers to discuss where they are in their learning, where they want to be in their learning, and how they are going to get there. It usually involves looking at a particular piece of work done by the learner. Feedback can be described as the 'bridge' between teaching and learning.

The aims and objectives of any assignment must be clearly understood by both the teacher and the learner. You can help by providing 'success criteria' before your learners start work.

Feedback might involve marking. However, a learner may only remember the mark/grade and not act on any comments to improve their work. In an AFL classroom, a teacher will give 'comment only' feedback on their learners' work. If you do want to add a grade, give this later on, so that the learners read the comments before they receive the grade. Effective feedback depends on task-focused comments, rather than ego-focused comments.

Here is an example of ego-focused feedback: 'Great work Melanie, the best in the class.' This kind of feedback can make strong learners complacent, thinking that they do not have anything to do to improve. They might also be scared of trying something they find difficult in case they lose their high place. Weak learners can feel as if there is nothing they can do to get better.

You should aim to provide feedback to each learner that praises task-focused aspects of their work, but also contains targets about how to improve their learning.
E.g. 'Ali, you have written a good introduction to your story. Now, can you think how you can make the description of the main character more striking?'

Reflection
Think about a time when you gave feedback to a learner that could be described as more ego-specific than task specific. What might you have done differently?

Want to know more?
In this video, Dylan Wiliam explains why task-focused feedback is more effective than ego-focused feedback.

There are some good examples of how to give effective feedback in different subject areas on http://www.teachthought.com.

In this handout, by the RAPPS project, you will find lots of suggestions for different ways of giving classroom feedback.

3. Peer assessment or peer feedback
Peer feedback, or peer assessment, is the process by which learners assess each other's work and give each other feedback. This feedback is based on an understanding of what makes a successful piece of work. The teacher is vital to this process, as teachers know their learners and can help them to develop their critical and reflective thinking skills.

Giving learners independence is a great way for them to take responsibility for their own learning. Peer feedback also helps learners to develop their social skills and to use higher-level skills such as thinking critically and analytically.

A successful peer feedback session requires learners to 'think like a teacher' for each other. Each learner will apply the success criteria to another learner's work, and make value judgements based on these. The learner then has to give their partner ideas for how to improve the work. In doing this, they will both be increasing their own understanding of what makes a successful piece of work.

At primary school level, the theory behind AFL is the same, but the tasks might be different, to reflect the different stages of the pupils' cognitive development. For example, learners could use pictures to describe positive and negative aspects of the work.

Reflection
Watch the video of learners taking part in a peer feedback session. Notice how independently they are working. Would this be effective for your learner?
Transcript
Want to know more?
In this video, learners explain what they like about peer feedback.
Transcript
4. Self-assessment
'Students need to learn for themselves how they move up to the next level ... they need to internalise the process. Learning cannot be done for them by the teachers.' (Mary James, 1998)

In self-assessment a learner evaluates their own work, and thinks about their own learning. This helps them to make sense of what the teacher says, relate it to previous learning and use this for new learning. Ultimately, self-assessment enables learners to set their own learning goals and be responsible for their own learning. However, be aware that learners cannot become reflective learners overnight. It takes time and practice to develop these skills, and the role of the teacher is crucial in encouraging this.

"Students need to learn for themselves how they move up to the next level."

Introducing learners to self-assessment
When you introduce self-assessment to your learners, carefully guide the process. To start with, give learners a list of questions to ask themselves, and write down the answers. Starting a 'learning log' or 'reflective journal' is good practice. This is a notebook in which the learner documents their recent experiences, asking themselves questions such as:
'What made sense and what didn't?'
'How does this subject fit in with what I already know?'
'What did I do well and what could I have improved?'

Ideally, you will talk to each of your learners individually to guide their thinking until they feel comfortable with the process. Self-assessment is an activity which requires one-to-one tutorials to be fully successful. In these short sessions, you can ask questions to help your learners to reflect on their studies.

Having thought about how their work could be improved, your learners can then set themselves targets to make their work better. These targets can cover any aspect of learning, from time management to asking more questions in class if they do not understand something.

5. The formative use of school tests and exams
This 'Getting started' guide has focused mainly on formative assessment strategies and checking learning in the classroom. However, learners often have to take summative school tests such as end-of-year exams or final exams.

Return marked test or exam papers to learners, so that they can spend time understanding where they earned most marks and where they had misunderstandings.

After the exam or test, find out which questions were answered less well by most learners. This will give you important information about what subjects, ideas and skills your learners need to work on. You can then focus on explaining the areas of the syllabus that gave problems to most learners. Your learners could also re-work exam questions in class in pairs or groups as a peer-learning activity.

www.headguruteacher.com explains in more depth how internal school tests and exams can be used to maximise learning.

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Getting started with Assessment for Learning

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AFL emphasises the creation of a learner-centred classroom with a supportive atmosphere, where students are not afraid to make mistakes and learn from them. We are going to look at five approaches or strategies that you can use in a lesson or programme of study. 1.

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Black & Wiliam - Assessment for Learning

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Black & Wiliam - Assessment for Learning

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Medals & Missions

This is an excellent summary of Black & Wiliam's study on the effective classroom.

The summary notes that Formative Assessment (Assessment for Learning, AfL) is the best method and has the most positive impact on learning.

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Dylan William: What do we Mean by Assessment for Learning?

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This tells us what the examiners are looking for. Use it!

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Watch this video about "experiential learning" and notice how it is closely related to reflective practice.

Ultimately we learn by trying, failing, reflecting and doing...

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Experiential Learning: How We All Learn Naturally

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Read this and make notes in your reflective journal

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What is the research behind reflective practice?

Educational researchers have long promoted the importance of reflecting on practice to support student learning and staff development.

There are many different models of reflective practice. However, they all share the same basic aim: to get the best results from the learning, for both the teacher and students.
Each model of reflection aims to unpick learning to make links between the 'doing' and the 'thinking'.

Kolb's learning cycle
David Kolb, educational researcher, developed a four-stage reflective model. Kolb's Learning Cycle (1984) highlights reflective practice as a tool to gain conclusions and ideas from an experience. The aim is to take the learning into new experiences, completing the cycle. Kolb's cycle follows four stages.

First, practitioners have a concrete experience. This means experiencing something new for the first time in the classroom. The experience should be an active one, used to test out new ideas and teaching methods.
This is followed by...

Observation of the concrete experience, then reflecting on the experience. Here practitioners should consider the strengths of the experience and areas of development. Practitioners need to form an understanding of what helped students' learning and what hindered it.
This should lead to...

The formation of abstract concepts. The practitioner needs to make sense of what has happened. They should do this through making links between what they have done, what they already know and what they need to learn. The practitioner should draw on ideas from research and textbooks to help support development and understanding. They could also draw on support from other colleagues and their previous knowledge. Practitioners should modify their ideas or devise new approaches, based on what they have learnt from their observations and wider research.
The final stage of this cycle is when...

The practitioner considers how they are going to put what they have learnt into practice. The practitioner's abstract concepts are made concrete as they use these to test ideas in future situations, resulting in new experiences. The ideas from the observations and conceptualisations are made into active experimentation as they are implemented into future teaching. The cycle is then repeated on this new method.

Kolb's model aims to draw on the importance of using both our own everyday experiences and educational research to help us improve. It is not simply enough for you to reflect. This reflection must drive a change which is rooted in educational research.

Gibbs' reflective cycle

The theoretical approach of reflection as a cyclical model was further developed by Gibbs (1998). This model is based on a six-stage approach, leading from a description of the experience through to conclusions and considerations for future events. While most of the core principles are similar to Kolb's, Gibbs' model is broken down further to encourage the teacher to reflect on their own thoughts and feelings.

Gibbs' model is an effective tool to help you reflect after the experience, and is a useful model if you are new to reflection as it is broken down into clearly defined sections.

Description
In this section, the practitioner should clearly outline the experience. This needs to be a factual account of what happened in the classroom. It should not be analytical at this stage.

Feelings
This section encourages the practitioner to explore any thoughts or feelings they had at the time of the event. Here the practitioner should explain feelings and give examples which directly reference the teaching experience. It is important the practitioner is honest with how they feel, even if these feelings might be negative. Only once the feelings have been identified can the practitioner implement strategies to overcome these barriers.

Evaluation
The evaluation section gives the opportunity for the practitioner to discuss what went well and analyse practice. It is also important to consider areas needed for development and things that did not work out as initially planned. This evaluation should consider both the practitioner's learning and the students' learning.

Analysis
This section is where the practitioner makes sense of the experience. They consider what might have helped the learning or hindered it. It is in this stage that the practitioner refers to any relevant literature or research to help make sense of the experience. For example, if you felt the instructions you gave were not clear, you could consult educational research on how to communicate effectively.

Conclusion
At this stage, the practitioner draws all the ideas together. They should now understand what they need to improve on and have some ideas on how to do this based on their wider research.

Action plan
During this final stage, the practitioner sums up all previous elements of this cycle. They create a step-by-step plan for the new learning experience. The practitioner identifies what they will keep, what they will develop and what they will do differently. The action plan might also outline the next steps needed to overcome any barriers, for example enrolling on a course or observing another colleague.

In Gibbs' model the first three sections are concerned with what happened. The final three sections relate to making sense of the experience and how you, as the teacher, can improve on the situation.

'Reflection-in-action' and 'reflection-on-action'

Another approach to reflection is the work by Schön. Schön (1991) distinguishes between reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action.

Reflection-in-action is reflection during the 'doing' stage (that is, reflecting on the incident while it can still benefit the learning). This is carried out during the lesson rather than reflecting on how you would do things differently in the future. This is an extremely efficient method of reflection as it allows you to react and change an event at the time it happens. For example, in the classroom you may be teaching a topic which you can see the students are not understanding. Your reflection-in-action allows you to understand why this has happened and how to respond to overcome this situation.

Reflection-in-action allows you to deal with surprising incidents that may happen in a learning environment. It allows you to be responsible and resourceful, drawing on your own knowledge and allowing you to apply it to new experiences. It also allows for personalised learning as, rather than using preconceived ideas about what you should do in a particular situation, you decide what works best at that time for that unique experience and student.

Reflection-on-action, on the other hand, involves reflecting on how practice can be developed after the lesson has been taught. Schön recognises the importance of reflecting back 'in order to discover how our knowing-in-action may have contributed to an unexpected outcome' (Schön, 1983).

Reflection-on-action means you reflect after the event on how your knowledge of previous teaching may have directed you to the experience you had.

Reflection-on-action should encourage ideas on what you need to change for the future. You carry out reflection-on-action outside the classroom, where you consider the situation again. This requires deeper thought, for example, as to why the students did not understand the topic. It encourages you to consider causes and options, which should be informed by a wider network of understanding from research.

By following any of the above models of reflection, you will have a questioning approach to teaching. You will consider why things are as they are, and how they could be. You will consider the strengths and areas of development in your own practice, questioning why learning experiences might be this way and considering how to develop them. As a result, what you do in the classroom will be carefully planned, informed by research and previous experience, and focused, with logical reasons. All of these models stress the importance of repeating the cycle to make sure knowledge is secure and progression is continued.

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Getting started with Reflective Practice

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Educational researchers have long promoted the importance of reflecting on practice to support student learning and staff development. There are many different models of reflective practice. However, they all share the same basic aim: to get the best results from the learning, for both the teacher and students.Each model of reflection aims to unpick learning to make links between the 'doing' and the 'thinking'.

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What are the benefits of mentoring?

Benefits for the school or institution
Mentoring shows a school's commitment to staff development.
Since mentoring promotes self-reflection and problem-solving in the mentee, it is an excellent form of professional development. The role of mentor is also a position of responsibility which develops leadership skills.

Mentoring helps a school to create a positive working environment.
Mentoring is goal-focused. The process of setting and achieving goals is empowering and builds confidence, which can transform the whole working environment.

Mentoring helps a school to keep staff and identify new talent.
Mentees have the opportunity to grow and develop in their practice. This makes it more likely that they will have job satisfaction, as well as being ready for career-development opportunities when they arise.

Mentoring helps a school to transform its teaching and learning.
Mentoring supports mentees in developing their classroom practice. This also means that students have the opportunity to learn more effectively and achieve better outcomes.

Benefits for the mentor
Mentoring develops the mentor's communication and interpersonal skills.
A successful mentoring relationship depends on strong communication and interpersonal skills, which are transferable to every aspect of life. Mentors become skilled in rapport building and active listening, which allows them to ask valuable questions and offer feedback. These, in turn, build trust.

Mentoring develops the mentor's leadership skills.
The key characteristics of good leadership are all fundamental to the mentoring process. These include: developing, enabling and influencing others, team work, communication skills and problem solving.

Mentoring allows the mentor to reflect on and develop their own practice.
Mentors draw on their own experience to give advice to mentees. This is a process which helps them to reflect on their own successes as they share them. Mentors may also develop new strategies as a result of helping a mentee to solve a problem that they are having.

Mentoring gives the mentors recognition as an expert
Mentors are valued by the mentee and by the school as a whole for the knowledge, skills and experience they possess.

Benefits for the mentee
Mentoring gives the mentee the opportunity to reflect and learn from the advice and experience of others.
Mentoring is a valuable way of sharing best practice.

Mentoring gives the mentee support to allow them to identify and achieve their goals.
The mentoring process is goal-oriented and solution-focused. Once goals are clearly defined, mentors can help mentees to break down their goals into manageable steps so that they can be achieved.

Mentoring gives the mentee encouragement to become more confident in their abilities and more involved in school life.
The mentoring relationship allows the mentee to reflect on what is going well and the ways in which they are moving towards their goals. Likewise, mentors are able to offer mentees exposure to aspects of school life that they would not otherwise gain experience of.

Mentoring gives the mentee tools and strategies to become a more independent, innovative and responsible learner.
Mentors direct mentees towards activities and practices which promote self-reflection. This means that over time, mentees become more empowered in making their own decisions and solving their own problems.

Listen to these educators giving their views on the benefits of mentoring. Which of the benefits are most relevant to you and your colleagues?

A number of adult learning theories contribute to a framework for mentoring in education.

Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning is useful when mentees encounter a new experience. This could be, for example, teaching a new lesson they have planned. From this point, they reflect on and review the experience of the lesson. This review leads to learning and an action plan for future activities, which can then be tried out. The circle continues in this way, with learning from a previous activity informing the next activity.

Daloz's Theory of Adult Learning demonstrates that the level of support and challenge provided by a mentor is critical. If the levels are too low, the mentee will not be challenged enough and they will receive so little support that the mentoring relationship may fail. If the level of challenge is too high, the mentee will not feel that they can achieve expectations and if the level of support is overbearing, it becomes impossible for the mentee to develop skills and knowledge of their own.

The Johari Window relates to how mentees become more aware of themselves and others. The mentor could use this tool to guide their mentee to consider different aspects of their personality and disposition, for example what they know about themselves and share with others ('open') and what they know about themselves but keep concealed ('hidden'). The mentor can bring a different perspective, revealing traits the mentee may not be aware of (which are in their 'blind spot'), and encouraging them to consider aspects of their personality that might be 'unknown', hidden in their subconscious or unconscious.

Brookfield's Four Lenses model gives mentees the opportunity to explore different viewpoints and perspectives. Brookfield suggests that the goal of the critically reflective teacher is to gain awareness of their practice from as many different viewpoints as possible − their own, their students', their peers' and through engagement with theoretical literature.

Six common misconceptions about mentoring

'Only mentees benefit from mentoring'
During the mentoring relationship, both the mentor and the mentee benefit and learn from each other. It is a great opportunity for both people to reflect and gain fresh perspectives. The mentor also gains personal and leadership skills which are valuable for their own career development, and they can gain a real sense of achievement in knowing they have made a difference to the mentee's professional development. It is also likely that the mentor's self-confidence will improve as they reflect on the experience they have to share.

'Mentors have to be older than mentees'
Although a mentor may be older than the mentee, this does not have to be the case. Mentors should not be chosen for their age but for their expertise and experience and their ability to build relationships, listen, and share what they know effectively.

'Having a mentor is a sign of weakness'
Colleagues at every stage of the learning process can benefit from mentoring and in many workplaces, mentoring will involve multiple relationships that span a mentee's whole career. Having a mentor shows that you are willing to learn. It also shows that you are open to new perspectives and eager to progress and develop professionally.

'Any experienced colleague can be a mentor'
Having the right experience and expertise to pass on to mentees is important, but it is not the only factor to consider when deciding who should be a mentor. Mentors also need to have excellent social skills so that they can build effective relationships with their mentees. The mentoring relationship can only be successful if understanding and trust are built between the mentor and mentee.

'Effective mentors need to have all of the answers'
Mentors are role models, but the most effective mentors are those who understand and demonstrate that we are all still learning. A mentor does pass on experience and expertise which can benefit the mentee, but they also help by providing an opportunity for the mentee to talk through their problems and be listened to. Through their skills in listening and questioning, mentors can also help mentees to find their own answers.

'Mentoring requires a greater time commitment than teachers can afford'
Mentoring is a great way to invest a small amount of time and achieve great results. As well as observing lessons, mentoring involves mentors meeting regularly with their mentees, but these meetings do not have to be long and can involve as little time as 30 minutes every week or fortnight. Mentors can make sure that the time they commit is manageable by setting clear boundaries around the times when they are available. Also, mentoring sessions are a great opportunity to gain new perspectives on work and to re-establish priorities, which can mean that both the mentor and the mentee work more effectively.

Mentoring in practice

The mentoring relationship is based around regular communication in the form of mentor meetings, as well as informal communication between meetings. 'Mentoring moments', which are moments where the mentor's input and support make a significant difference to the mentee, can happen in formal, planned moments or more informally. However, in order to make these moments more likely to happen, it is important that mentor relationships and meetings are successful. Here, two main areas need to be considered: the mentoring process, and mentoring tools and strategies.

The mentoring process

Mentor meetings
Regular mentor meetings are the foundation of the mentoring relationship. Before the mentoring process begins, it is important that the details of the meetings are organised.

Where?
It is important to consider where the meetings will be, making sure that the location will always be available, and that it is private and contributes to a positive mutual relationship being built. For example, a neutral setting may be best, with the furniture laid out so that the mentor and mentee can sit together rather than on opposite sides of a desk.

How often and for how long?
Meetings could take place every one or two weeks, and last for 30 minutes or an hour. It is important to leave enough time between meetings for the mentee to be able to carry out their action plan. In some mentoring relationships, arrangements may not be as formal as having set times for meetings, but it is important that the level of structure is established at the beginning of the relationship so that both the mentor and the mentee are clear about the expectations.

The first meeting
The first meeting is an opportunity for the mentor and the mentee to get to know each other better and build a relationship. It is also an important time to establish 'ground rules' for future meetings. There are a number of things to consider here:
* What level of challenge is the mentee comfortable with?
* Would the mentee prefer more guidance or more of a coaching style?
* Are the mentor and the mentee expected to take notes?
* What is the system for reviewing the meetings?
* Is the mentor available between sessions?
* What are the expectations relating to the mentee completing follow-up tasks after a meeting?

The more the mentor and mentee understand about each other's expectations at the beginning of the relationship, the more likely it is to be successful.

It is also important at this point to establish the boundaries of the relationship, such as how personal issues will be dealt with and discussed if they are affecting the mentee's performance at work, as well as situations where others, such as the mentee's line manager, may be involved in the process. Setting boundaries also relates to the confidential nature of the relationship and any arrangements necessary to establish this.

Building the relationship
Once the mentoring relationship is established, the typical agenda for a mentor meeting is based on the mentee's goals. It could include the following:
1. Greeting
2. Confirming the agenda
3. Reviewing the previous meeting and action taken
4. Feedback and discussion
5. Setting a new action plan and targets
6. Reviewing the meeting
7. Agreeing the details of the next meeting

Contact between meetings
While it is important that contact is maintained between meetings, the nature of that contact should be decided beforehand. For some mentoring pairs, the mentor may feel comfortable inviting the mentee to contact them at any time. Others may establish a system of meeting more informally between meetings or being available via email if the mentee has any problems or concerns.

Reviewing progress
As well as reviewing what has been achieved after each meeting, it is also important to establish routines for providing scheduled feedback during the mentoring process. This might be after a specific number of sessions or when the mentee has reached a particular milestone. This will provide a record of the progress the mentee has made towards achieving their goals and draw out key learning from their experiences. It is also a valuable way of highlighting the effectiveness of the mentoring relationship and anything that can be improved as the relationship progresses.

The end of the programme
As the mentee reaches the end of the programme, they may already have become more independent. In this case, it might be appropriate to have meetings less often or reduce the time each meeting lasts. At the end of the programme it is helpful to have a final conversation. This may not be as formal as the other meetings, but it is important to make sure that the mentee's success is celebrated and that the mentor passes on any final feedback. It is also a good opportunity to establish the future contact the mentor and mentee will have.

Mentoring tools and strategies

Here are five ways that mentors can build rapport with their mentees and ensure they get the most out of meetings:

1. Active Listening
In effective mentor meetings, listening goes beyond simple conversational listening to active listening. Here, the mentor switches off both internal and external distractions to allow them to focus more carefully on what the mentee is saying. This also means it is more likely that the mentor will be listening for much more time than they are talking. During active listening, the mentor pays close attention to what is being said, but also considers the mentee's tone, body language and facial expressions, and is aware of what is not being said.

Active listening takes lots of practice, but it is very rewarding. Before a mentoring session, it is important that the mentor removes any potential barriers to listening, distractions and sources of stress, and makes sure that the meeting area is physically comfortable so that they can practise active listening.

2. Giving feedback
Feedback is most effective when it follows active listening. In fact, feedback is a useful way that mentors can demonstrate they have been listening and check they have understood what the mentee is saying by either summarising (which is where the mentor repeats a shortened version of what has been said using the mentee's own words) or paraphrasing (which is where the mentor uses their own words to convey the sense of what the mentee has said).

It is important that feedback is balanced and constructive. Feedback is particularly effective when it is based on
evidence and linked to the mentee's strengths. Beginning with evidence makes the feedback more believable and linking the evidence to strengths builds a mentee's confidence. For example, 'The way you explained the seating plan in your classroom shows that you really consider every student's learning needs.' From this point, the mentee is more empowered to move forward with how they might develop or improve.

3. Questioning
Effective questioning is a very important part of mentoring. There are two main types of questions − open and closed. Closed questions are generally not helpful in mentoring as they restrict a mentee's responses, often to simple 'yes' or 'no' answers, and do not require a mentee to think deeply about their response. Closed questions begin with phrases such as 'Do you...?', 'Have you...?', 'Is there...?' Mentors should avoid closed questions (along with leading questions) as they restrict a mentee's ability to speak freely.

Open questions are powerful tools for mentors. They begin 'What...?', 'Where...?', 'When...?' and 'How...?' Open questions help a mentor to be non-judgemental and understand their mentee, to gather information, and to raise the mentee's awareness of their situation so that they can find new ways forward.

There are different types of open questions, and the power of a good mentor lies in being able to ask the right question at the right time. Here are some examples of different kinds of open questions.
* Wisdom-accessing questions establish motivation. For example, 'What are you hoping to gain from this?'
* Probing questions find out more or dig deeper. For example, 'How do you know this is right for you?', 'How will you look back on this?'
* Hypothetical questions temporarily remove barriers to success to find new ways forward. For example, 'If there were no limits to resources, what would you do?'

Reflective questions draw on knowledge a mentee already has. For example, 'Knowing what you know now, how could you have done things differently?'

4. Problem solving techniques
As well as effective questioning strategies, there are a number of problem-solving techniques that can help a mentee to consider their situation from different perspectives, making a discussion more productive and focused.

One example of this is de Bono's Six Thinking Hats. Each different-coloured hat represents a different viewpoint about the situation. By mentally 'switching hats', a mentee can gain new perspective.

Other popular problem-solving techniques include: SWOT analysis, fishbone analysis, force field analysis and simple brainstorming or lists of pros and cons.

5. The 'GROW' Model
The GROW model is a useful coaching model which can be used to structure mentoring meetings, in order to make them effective and purposeful.

The model is based on a four-stage cycle.

(i) Goal: What do you want?
The topic for discussion is established and the mentee explores their ideal outcome and what they want to achieve by the end of the session in relation to this outcome.

(ii) Reality: What is happening?
The mentee explores where they currently are in relation to their goal, including the positive things that can help them to move towards it and any potential barriers.

(iii) Options: What could you do?
The mentee considers all the different options available to them. The aim is to create a variety of possible alternatives which have not previously been considered.

(iv) Will: What will you do?
The mentee establishes the specific actions they will take to put their options into practice and take the next step towards their goal.

Watch the video of the GROW model in practice. Could you try any of these approaches in your school?

Checklist for the programme

When considering a mentoring programme it is important that you consider how you will make sure a culture of mentoring is at the heart of your institution. To do this it is vital that senior leaders support and even contribute to the programme, otherwise it will be harder to make it stick and to feel the long-term benefits of mentoring. The following checklist will encourage you to think about the questions you should ask as you set up your programme.

How will I make sure that the mentoring scheme is supported by school leadership and the organisation as a whole?
It is important to begin by establishing mentoring within the leadership team of the school or institution. This involves making sure the whole leadership team has a shared understanding about what mentoring is and a commitment to developing mentoring. The leadership team can then make sure that the mentoring programme is in line with the school's strategic vision.

How will I promote the mentoring scheme and attract teachers who have the potential to be mentors?
How will you raise staff awareness about mentoring? Who is in the best position to be able to give this information? What criteria will you use to identify potential mentors? Are there any members of staff who have previous experience of mentoring? Will there be a formal application process?

Qualities of a good mentor that you may want to consider include the following:
* Someone who is credible in their role and able to act as a role model.
* Someone who is genuinely interested in developing themselves and others.
* Someone who is open and willing to share their experiences, both good and bad.
* Someone who has effective listening and questioning skills.
* Someone who is able to offer encouragement as well as provide useful feedback in a non-judgemental way.
* Someone who will respect the boundaries of confidentiality in the mentoring relationship.

3. What protocols and procedures will need to be put in place to support the mentoring programme?
* Who will be responsible for managing and co-ordinating the mentoring scheme, and developing the protocols and procedures in your school or institution?
* Will there be a formal mentoring agreement? Will this include a statement about confidentiality? What other paperwork will be necessary to keep a record of discussions?
* What are the timetabling requirements of the mentoring programme? Are there suitable places to meet? When will meetings take place? Will time be provided for meetings during the working day or will they be expected to take place outside working hours? How often will mentor meetings take place and how long will they be? What arrangements need to be made to allow lesson observations to take place?
* What training and ongoing support will mentors need and how will this be provided?

4. How will mentoring partnerships be established?
When matching mentors and mentees, it is important that it is relatively easy for the mentee to be able to make contact with the mentor. It is also important that the mentor does not have any line-management responsibilities for the mentee, as this would make it more difficult to build an atmosphere of openness and trust.
* Who will be responsible for creating mentoring partnerships?
* How will this person check that mentors and mentees are compatible in terms of styles and personalities?

5. How will the effects of the mentoring scheme be monitored and evaluated?
It is important to consider how far the mentoring programme is fulfilling its intended outcomes, while making sure that the evaluation process does not become an opportunity to assess and report on a mentor's performance or reveal the content of discussions in the mentoring meetings.
There are different aspects of a mentoring programme which can be monitored and evaluated.

Programme processes
This might include evidence of a pattern of regular contact over the agreed term, commitment of mentors and mentees to the programme and levels of satisfaction with the programme.

Participant experiences
This might include evidence of the perceived value of the programme by both the mentor and the mentee, levels of trust felt by the mentor and the mentee, job satisfaction and career progression over time.

Organisational outcomes
This might include evidence of work performance of the mentor and the mentee (this could be both in terms of classroom practice and student outcomes), recognition of the programme within the organisation and how mentoring helps you to keep staff.

What outcomes will you measure the mentoring programme against? How will you measure the effects of your mentoring programme? Will the information you collect relate to the quality or the amount of mentoring provided, or a mixture of both? At what point (or points) in the programme will you ask for feedback? Will the feedback be provided at the end of the programme, during the programme or a mixture of both?

Checklist for mentors

If you are new to being a mentor and want to decide if it is right for you, it will help to ask yourself the following questions.

1. Do I have the time and space to meet regularly with my mentee?
Working lives can be very busy, so it is important to be sure that you will be able to provide time and space away from distractions so that your mentee feels appropriately supported and listened to.

2. Do I have a high level of knowledge and experience in my role?
As well as being able to be a role model and demonstrate good practice to mentees, it is also important that you have an understanding of things the mentee would like to achieve so that you can pass on appropriate advice. If the mentee is being mentored because they want to achieve a professional qualification, it is also important that you have an understanding of the qualification and the programme of study.

3. Do I have a genuine interest in developing others?
The ability to develop others so that they can reach their potential is an important skill in leadership as well as in mentoring. Mentors must recognise that we are all still learning and be able to look at a mentee's potential problems as opportunities to grow and learn.

4. Do I have evidence of having strong social and listening skills?
Strong social skills are essential in order to be an effective mentor. However, you do not necessarily need formal training in these skills, as the process of being a mentor helps to develop them.

5. Am I trustworthy and can I respect confidentiality boundaries?
Effective mentoring relationships are built on trust. This is important so that the mentee feels that they can be open and share concerns or difficulties with you that they may feel less comfortable sharing with other people or their managers. It is also important that you are able to keep the content of the discussions you have with your mentee confidential.

Here are some practical things you can do to begin the process of setting up a mentoring programme in your school.

1. Establish the aims and outcomes of mentoring in your school or institution
Aims are the overall intentions for the mentoring programme and outcomes are what will happen as a result of it. Write down the aims that you have for your mentoring programme in terms of what you want it to achieve.
The Standard for Teachers' Professional Development also provides a useful framework to measure the outcomes of a mentoring programme. The standard states that professional development should:
* improve and evaluate student outcomes;
* be supported by strong evidence and expertise;
* include working with others and expert challenge;
* be maintained over time; and
* be prioritised by school leadership.

For each for these five points, outline how your school's mentoring programme will fulfil the standard.

2. Establish your school's or institution's ability for mentoring
It is important to decide how mentoring will meet staff needs and so who mentoring will be offered to in the first year. For example, it could be for new teachers, staff completing professional development programmes, or all staff. It is also important to decide whether staff will be recommended for mentoring or whether they can volunteer to be mentored.

3. Write an action plan for introducing mentoring in the school or institution
In order for the mentoring programme to become part of the school's or institution's strategic vision, it is important to create an action plan. For each part of the programme this should include aims and objectives, actions, dates, support and resources needed, success criteria and the person responsible.

Here is an example of one part of an action plan for a mentoring programme.

Here are some practical things you can do if you are going to begin mentoring.

1. Talk to the mentor co-ordinator
Find out from the mentor co-ordinator what their expectations are for the mentoring relationship. You could also ask for some initial background information about your mentee, why they have been selected for mentoring and what the intended outcomes of mentoring are for the mentee.

2. Exchange details with your mentee and find out what they want to achieve from mentoring
Depending on whether you already know your mentee, and how well, it will be useful to find out some information from them. This should include personal information such as contact details, as well as professional information such as their career background and what role they currently have. At this point, it is also useful to find out what the mentee wants to gain from the mentoring experience and the key areas which you can provide support in. Make sure you share information about yourself with your mentee, as getting to know each other will help to build the relationship.

3. Arrange the practical details and structure of the sessions
Decide when and where you will meet, and also how often meetings will be held and how long they will last. Also, establish the principles of how you will work together and your expectations of each other. This may include things such as whether the mentor and the mentee are expected to take notes, follow-up tasks and feedback, as well as more formal contracts such as confidentiality agreements.

Want to know more?
Here is a printable list of interesting books, articles and websites on the topics that we have looked at.

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What are the benefits of mentoring? Benefits for the school or institution Mentoring shows a school's commitment to staff development. Since mentoring promotes self-reflection and problem-solving in the mentee, it is an excellent form of professional development. The role of mentor is also a position of responsibility which develops leadership skills.

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Watch this video and answer the questions as you go. Tip: you can rewatch sections if you need to before answering a question. This is a great app to use as a teacher and thought I would try share an app a week!

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Carol Dweck - A Study on Praise and Mindsets

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Easily create beautiful interactive video lessons for your students you can integrate right into your LMS. Track students' progress with hassle-free analytics as you flip your classroom!

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1. Describe your personal understanding of the concept of learning and how people learn.

2. Identify the teaching methods and learning activities you use in your current practice that engage and motivate your students to learn.

3. Briefly explain why you chose these teaching methods and learning activities.

4. Explain the differences between formative and summative assessment and their main purposes.

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1. Analyse the key features that you think make a lesson effective

2. evaluate the impact your new learning and experiences from Unit 1 have had on your practice and how this will help you to prepare for Unit 2

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Some tips for Active Learning Methods of Teaching...

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Ways of Teaching without Talking - The Teachers Toolbox

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Teaching falls into three phases, Present, Apply, and Review, each requiring appropriate methods ( PAR model).