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Phonology is the study of sounds in a language (Reynolds et al., 2021).

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Morphology is how words are structured in a language (Reynolds et al., 2021).

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Phonology focuses on the smallest segments of language, individual sounds. These sounds are called phonemes and the way that they interact and form words changes based on where they are placed (Reynolds et al., 2021). It is important for ELLs to be able to distinguish between sounds in order to identify and use them in language. Phonemic awareness contributes to speaking and listening in language and lays the foundation for phonics which contributes to reading and writing.

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Morphology focuses on how parts of words are combined to make a word meaningful (Reynolds et al., 2021). Parts of speech like roots, prefixes, suffixes, etc. build on and add to the meaning of words and are all branches of morphology. Morphology is essential to ELLs and their learning because it is how they can learn the meaning of words. Understanding the meaning of words and how they are structured lays the foundation for speaking, listening, reading, and writing.

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1) Phoneme Identification

Students are given a word and asked to identify the beginning, ending, etc. sound. ELL students can first be asked to identify sounds that overlap in English and their native language, building their confidence and abilities. For example, shared sounds in Spanish and English could be used in this activity (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). As ELLs move throughout their English language development, the activity can be differentiated to provide scaffolded challenge. Small group instruction or one-on-one instruction can focus on targeting phonemes that students aren't familiar with from their native language.

2) Building A Word

Students can match letters with their sounds using letter tiles to build words (Espinosa, 2022). Lessons can be differentiated and target specific skills that ELLs are currently working on to build their knowledge.

3) Word Sorts

Students sort words into groups through rhyming and spelling patterns (Espinosa, 2022). This activity strengthens a student's understanding of phonemes and their grapheme representations. In this activity, ELLs can be given words that target skills they are working on and progress through a continuum that follows curriculum.

4) Sound Swap

In the sound swap activity, students are asked to change a beginning, ending, or medial sound to another (Espinosa, 2022). Beginning ELLs could focus on phonemic awareness by identifying the new word with the changed sound while ELLs that are further along in their learning could match the sound with letter tiles and spell the new word.

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This video can be practiced anywhere. Whether it is on a computer or a smart phone, ELLs can access the information and practice phonemes in English and engage their families in their learning. In the video, ELLs can head the sound and see how the sound is formed in their mouth through the visual example.

(Rollins Center for Language and Literacy, 2017).

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1) Sight Word Reading, Writing, and Meaning

Oftentimes, sight words do not change spelling in different contexts so it is beneficial for ELLs to have many opportunities with using sight words through reading, writing, speaking, etc. to solidify meaning (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). ELLs can be introduced to sight words or high frequency words through a progression with a school or district's grade level high frequency word lists.

2) Teaching Students' Morphemic Vocabulary

It is suggested that when teaching root or base families to ELLs, it is in best practice to base a "scope and sequence" on a students' own vocabulary (Shanahan, 2018). There may be overlapping or morphemes and families between a student's native language and English. This strategy specifically caters to each ELLs needs and prior knowledge.

3) Mapping Word Families

Using a specific base word, students can map different prefixes, suffixes, etc. and practice using them in different contexts (Shanahan, 2018). ELLs can solidify their understanding of base words through learning more about their roots, prefixes, suffixes, etc. Words can be geared towards base words that ELLs are learning.

4) Write for Sound

Students are given a spoken sentence that includes target words and have to write the words that they recognize and hear (Colorín Colorado, Robertson & Breiseth, n.d.). These sentences can be completely customizable to differentiate for ELLs.

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In this activity, students can use newspapers or news articles online with their family to practice phonics skills. A student could search for and find any words they know, cut and paste or write them on a piece of paper and practice reading them with their family (Reading Rockets, n.d.). This activity helps with phoneme and grapheme correlation as well as word recognition. Students get the chance to search for and produce their own vocabulary knowledge.

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Just a few pages from your newspaper can be turned into lots of early learning activities. Here you’ll find “letters and words” activities for the youngest, plus fun writing prompts and tips on how to read and analyze the news for older kids.

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Phonology is how words are ordered in a sentence (Reynolds et al., 2021).

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This is important because how words are arranged in a sentence determines the meaning it conveys (Reynolds et al., 2021). In order for there to be good communication, speakers need to be able to get their thoughts across in way that makes sense and will unlikely be misconstrued. This is an important part of linguistics for ELLs to develop so that they can communicate in a meaningful way and feel confident in their communication.

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1) Sentence Unscramblers.

Students can be given baggies of word strips and be asked to make a sentence using the words. You can include specific vocabulary they have been learning and practice sentence types, punctuation, capitalization, and many other branches of grammar.

2) Comprehension with wh- Questions.

To help solidify syntax understanding, teachers can preplan wh- questions, "Who did ________?", "What did ________?", "Where did ________?", etc. Because English is configuration, the position of the subject, action, etc. is essential to the meaning of the sentence (Reynolds et al., 2021). Asking these types of questions can solidify syntactical meaning for ELLs.

3) Read Alouds.

Read alouds provide a very natural for ELLs to interact with and better understand syntax. Through listening and viewing illustrations, they are able to create context and become familiar with the patterns of syntax in the English language (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.).

4) Preposition Illustration Books.

To aid in teaching about prepositions. ELLs can be supported in making an illustrated book or guide that represents the preposition with a visual image. You could ask students to draw a squirrel by a tree, a squirrel in a tree, a squirrel under a tree, and more (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.).

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In this activity, ELLs can practice using connector words like and, but, for, etc. in an easy way from home. Students can be sent home with a baggie of different connector words and paper clips. At home, students can create sentences orally or in writing and then practice combining them with the connector words (Reading Rockets, n.d.). If writing the sentences out, they can physically connect the two sentences to the connector word with the paper clips. The resource is detailed and provides visuals for parents to get ideas for practice.

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Some of the research done that involves sentence combining comes from a whole language perspective. We"ve listed some of that research here. Our instructions for using sentence combining encourage a more explicit approach to using the strategy than what is included in some of the research listed below.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools - A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC Alliance for Excellent Education.

Robinson, L. K., & Howell, K. W. (2008). Best practices in curriculum-based evaluation & written expression. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology V (pp. 439-452). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining: A sentence-level writing intervention. Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471.

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Combining sentences encourages students to take two or more short, choppy sentences and combine them into one effective sentence - to make their writing more readable and engaging. Sentence combining is a skill that develops over several short practice sessions.

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Semantics is the study of the meaning of mophemes, words, sentences, etc. (Reynolds et al., 2021).

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Semantics is important in language because a word, phrase or sentence can be grammatically correct but it can also hold no meaning (Magrath, 2017). It is important for ELLs to recognize that every part of English to a small morpheme to a big sentence, should contain meaning and if not put together correctly, can be meaningless.

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1) Idiom Code Phrases.

Idioms are a big part of English culture and can be challenging for ELLs to grasp (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). Teachers could use idioms as code phrases to get students' attention. An idiom phrase can be selected from a text that will be read that week or from a question a student asks about one. The idiom can be introduced, explained, and then revisited throughout the week.

2) Language Detectives.

Students can be given a word in English and a word in an ELLs native language and be asked to look for connections and similarities between the words to solidify meaning and context (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.).

3) Kinesthetic Movements.

Anytime movement can be incorporated with a word or phrase, it helps introduce and solidify meaning (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). For example, if you are teaching ELLs about questions, statements, and exclamatory sentences, you can come up with a physical movement for each sentence type/punctuation.

4) Cognates Matching.

Cognates are words that are similarly spelled in two languages (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). You can create a card game with cognates from English and an ELLs home language. Students can flip over a card and try to find the matching cognate by flipping other cards over and try remembering where they are at.

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ELLs can be taught how to use semantic maps in schools so that they can follow the steps at home when they come upon a word that they do not understand. Utilizing semantic maps can expand a students vocabulary and make meaning of words more accessible to them (Zorfass et al., n.d.). The steps are outlined in the article and should be pretaught and practiced at school before completing at home.

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You are welcome to print copies for non-commercial use, or a limited number for educational purposes, as long as credit is given to Reading Rockets and the author(s). For commercial use, please contact the author or publisher listed.

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Connecting Word Meanings Through Semantic Mapping

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Semantic maps (or graphic organizers) help students, especially struggling students and those with disabilities, to identify, understand, and recall the meaning of words they read in the text.

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Pragmatics is the context in which something is said which determines the meaning (Reynolds et al., 2021).

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This is important because context can effect the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence in any given situation (Reynolds et al., 2021). An ELL might learn or even master the meaning of a word and then may be confused when hearing the word used in a different context. This could lead them to believe that the information they received before is wrong or that the person speaking is using the word in the wrong way.

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1) Pragmatics Charades.

Students can participate in a game of charades where they are given a word, phrase, or sentence and then act it out using it in different contexts. Through this activity, ELLs will have the opportunity to see them used in different ways.

2) Sentence Frames.

Sentence frames can support pragmatics instruction by helping ELLs practice greeting others and communicate their needs and feelings (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). This provides scaffolding to help support the students with the right context while they provide the content.

3) Looks Like/Sounds Like.

This can be helpful in helping ELLs learn classroom rules and routines (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.). By helping them understand what they should look like and sound like, you are helping them understand the context of the rule or routine and how they should respond accordingly.

4) Think-Pair-Share.

This activity can be easily incorporated into most lessons and topics. Students are given a chance to think about a question, pair up with a partner or partners, and then share with each other. This can help support pragmatics by receiving different contexts, ideas, and responses from their peers to broaden their understanding and thinking (Linguistics for Teachers of ELLs, n.d.).

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This resource includes multiple activities that can be used at home. The materials needed at either free, already at home, or can be borrowed from school or a local library. These activities support ELLs, pragmatics, and the level they are at in the language learning because they can be changed and adapted to fit any age or level.

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Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 As Grade 12 students prepare to embark on their final year of high school, it's important to recognize the significance of social...

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Fun and Engaging Pragmatic Skills Activities for Kindergarten Children | Everyday Speech

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Fun and Engaging Pragmatic Skills Activities for Kindergarten Children Fun and Engaging Pragmatic Skills Activities for Kindergarten Children Welcome to my blog post on fun and engaging pragmatic skills activities for kindergarten children! In this post, I will share with you some exciting activities that can help develop pragmatic skills in young learners.

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RSA. (2011, February 10). RSA animate: Language as a window into human nature [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-son3EJTrU

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RSA ANIMATE: Language as a Window into Human Nature

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Colorín Colorado. (n.d.). Vocabulary development with ELLs. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/english-language-learners/articles/vocabulary-development-ells

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August, D., Calderón M., & Carlo M. (2002) The Transfer of Skills from Spanish to English: A Study of Young Learners. Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C.

Biemiller, A. (2001). "Teaching Vocabulary: Early, direct, and sequential." American Educator. Spring 2001.(25)(1): 24-28, 47.

Calderón, M., August, D., R. Slavin, A. Cheung, D. Durán & N. Madden (2005). Bringing words to life in classrooms with English language learners. In Hiebert, A & M. Kamil (eds.) Research and development on vocabulary. Nahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hiebert, A & M. Kamil (eds.) (2005) Research and development on vocabulary. Nahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Knowing vocabulary words is key to reading comprehension. The more words a child knows, the better he or she will understand the text. Using a variety of effective teaching methods will increase the student's ability to learn new words.

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Macmillan Education ELT. (2019, March 12). Teaching discourse and pragmatics a.k.a. What on earth did he mean? [Advancing learning webinar] [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAGQfpzHhNY

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Teaching discourse and pragmatics a.k.a. What on earth did he mean? [Advancing Learning Webinar]

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Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms

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Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms

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Nassaji, H. (2011). Teaching grammar in second language classrooms: Integrating form-focused instruction in communicative context. Routledge.

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Contents

The Changing View Of Grammar Instruction -- Input-Based Option In Focus On Grammar -- Focus On Grammar Through Processing Instruction -- Focus On Grammar Through Textual Enhancement -- Focus On Grammar Through Discourse -- Interaction- And Output-Based Options In Focus On Grammar -- Focus On Grammar Through Interactional Feedback -- Focus On Grammar Through Structured Grammar Focused Tasks -- Focus On Grammar Through Collaborative Output Tasks -- Instructional Contexts And Focus On Grammar -- The Role Of Context In Focus On Grammar -- Conclusion : Focus On Grammar In L2 Classrooms.

Summary

This text identifies and explores the various options for integrating a focus on grammar and a focus on communication in classroom contexts and offers concrete examples of teaching activities for each option.

Added Author

Other Form:

Print version: Nassaji, Hossein. Teaching grammar in second language classrooms. New York : Routledge, ©2011 9780415802048 (DLC) 2010022099 (OCoLC)495781616

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Encore -- Teaching grammar in second language classrooms : integrating form-focused instruction in communicative context / Hossein Nassaji and Sandra Fotos.

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Contents The Changing View Of Grammar Instruction -- Input-Based Option In Focus On Grammar -- Focus On Grammar Through Processing Instruction -- Focus On Grammar Through Textual Enhancement -- Focus On Grammar Through Discourse -- Interaction- And Output-Based Options In Focus On Grammar -- Focus On Grammar Through Interactional Feedback

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Victoria State Government Department of Education. (2020, March 18). Literacy teaching toolkit: Pragmatics. https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/speakinglistening/Pages/litfocuspragmatics.aspx

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There are socially constructed rules that guide how individuals interact with each other. The rules guide turn taking, greetings, eye-contact, body language and the way individuals are referenced in conversations.

These rules can be described as the pragmatics of oral language and they are often implicitly learnt. However, not all children develop an understanding of pragmatics by simply being immersed in social situations.

For some children, the explicit teaching of social language and the way language varies according to its contexts is needed. Raban (2014) suggests, "consolidating implicit awareness with explicit understanding" (p. 6). Pragmatics can be thought of in terms of both expressive and receptive language, that is, the social conventions of both speaking and listening, in an Australian context. It is important to remember that cultural differences could result in pragmatic differences.

Teaching pragmatics is important for EAL/D learners

Research in pragmatics in language learning shows 'lower-proficiency listeners have greater difficulty processing both contextual and linguistic information and, therefore, are less able to activate their pragmatic knowledge' (Vandergrift & Goh, 2018, p. 137). Therefore, explicit teaching of pragmatics is important for supporting EAL/D students in developing their listening and speaking skills.

The following demonstrates how pragmatic knowledge is important and where misunderstandings can occur for EAL/D learners.

A: Do you have a ruler?
B: Yes, it's right here.
A: I mean, can I borrow it?

For EAL/D learners, the goal of teaching pragmatics is that students learn:

what can be said in English

how something can be said in English in different situations

to also express what they want to say and how they want to say it.

Cultural information is often inferred in speaking and listening exchanges and may need to be explicitly taught or explained to EAL/D learners. Similarities and differences between English and the linguistic practices of students' home languages can form the basis for discussion, role plays or text creation.

Some examples include:

indirect references to 'soften' requests (e.g. Could you tell me where the park is?)

modifying speech when speaking with a peer or with a teacher, or during a class presentation

who can or cannot be addressed by their first name (e.g. in some Australian schools students address teachers by first names)

forms of address (e.g. addressing strangers as 'sir' instead of 'uncle' as in some other cultures)

when the speaker should express thanks

when and how a person should apologise. In some cultures apologies can be non-verbal, and students may need to learn how to verbalise an apology

appropriate greetings or topics of conversations for a new acquaintance.

EAL/D learners need to learn about the possible social impact of their linguistic choices in different contexts, for example, greeting a friend or the principal. Support EAL/D students to investigate spoken texts by considering the tenor (the relationship between the language users), mode (oral, written or visual) and field (the topic).

For more information see: Teaching EAL/D learners about the pragmatics of language

It is worth considering the tacit factors, related to pragmatics, which promote or prevent effective classroom talk. The grouping of students is one such factor. Teachers need to decide when students self-select their talk partners and when talk partners are selected for the student. Talk that presents a challenge, such as an ethical discussion may be more suited to self-selected groupings, in the initial stages, to help build confidence.

Another factor to consider is the class seating arrangement. A group of students seated on the floor, facing the teacher who is seated on a chair sets up the traditional social structure of the classroom, which may be more conducive to an IRF (initiation, response, feedback) talk pattern, rather than a dialogic one. Seating students in a horseshoe or square pattern with the teacher included in the seating pattern, allows all participants to see each other and sets up a different pedagogical relationship (Alexander, 2008).

A third factor to consider is the amount of time a teacher provides for student responses. Some points in the lesson demand an instant response from students, but opportunities for more thoughtful extended answers might also be provided if students are given time to think before replying (Mercer and Dawes, 2008). The inclusion of think time makes explicit the link between speaking and listening and thinking and learning.

Teaching the pragmatics of language:

Role play. Act out a similar situation in a different context. For example, greeting different people at the airport; telling different people you are feeling unwell; explaining to different people that there is a fly in your meal.

Role play how to greet someone; explain something; complain, and request.

Supporting EAL/D learners

Before the role play, support EAL/D learners by providing a clear sense of audience using images to scaffold discussion about language choices, for example how much to say, how much technical language to use, or whether to use supporting resources such as images. Students can also consider paralinguistic components of communication, such as volume, pitch, intonation, facial expression and body language. Students might discuss and contribute to a dialogue for a scene. When different groups of children perform their own role play around a similar situation (e.g. making friends, stopping bullying, asking for help), comparing the different language choices in each role play draws EAL/D students' attention to language options available, and why a certain response may be appropriate or inappropriate.

Character hot seating.

Character interviews.

Make classroom displays highlighting how to ask for common classroom requests.

Use picture story books that focus on conflict and model what can be said and how it can be said, when solving the conflict.

Create classroom clines to illustrate the degree or intensity of vocabulary. For example: putrid, disgusting, unappetizing, unappealing. Discuss when it might be appropriate/inappropriate to use such vocabulary.

Create a set of classroom agreed rules for accountable talk (Mercer and Hodgkingson, 2008, see: Accountable talk.

Links to the Victorian Curriculum - English

Listen to and respond orally to texts and to the communication of others in informal and structured classroom situations using interaction skills, including listening, while others speak (VCELY174)

Explore how language is used differently at home and school depending on the relationships between people (VCELA165)

Deliver short oral presentations to peers, using appropriate voice levels, articulation, body language, gestures and eye contact (VCELY175)

Engage in conversations and discussions, using active listening, showing interest, and contributing ideas, information and questions, taking turns and recognising the contributions of others (VCELY210)

Listen for specific purposes and information, including instructions, and extend students' own and others' ideas in discussions through initiating topics, making positive statements, and voicing disagreement in an appropriate manner (VCELY244)

Listen to and contribute to conversations and discussions to share information and ideas and negotiate in collaborative situations and use interaction skills, including active listening and clear, coherent communications (VCELY275)

Participate in and contribute to discussions, clarifying and interrogating ideas, developing and supporting arguments, sharing and evaluating information, experiences and opinions, and use interaction skills, varying conventions of spoken interactions according to group size, formality of interaction and needs and expertise of the audience (VCELY366)

Participate in formal and informal debates and plan, rehearse and deliver presentations, selecting and sequencing appropriate content and multimodal elements for defined audiences and purposes, making appropriate choices for modality and emphasis (VCELY367)

Understand that patterns of language interaction vary across social contexts and types of texts and that they help to signal social roles and relationships (VCELA334)

Understand that successful cooperation with others depends on shared use of social conventions, including turn-taking patterns, and forms of address that vary according to the degree of formality in social situations (VCELA271)

Understand that language varies when people take on different roles in social and classroom interactions and how the use of key interpersonal language resources varies depending on context (VCELA235)

Links to the Victorian Curriculum - English as an Additional Language (EAL)

See the Communication and Cultural and Plurilingual Awareness strands under Speaking and Listening in the EAL curriculum.

References

Alexander, R. (2008). Culture, dialogue and learning. In N. Mercer and S. Hodgkinson. (Eds.) (2008). Exploring Talk in Schools. London: SAGE Publications.

Mercer, N. and Dawes, L. (2008). The value of exploratory talk. In N. Mercer and S. Hodgkinson. (Eds.) (2008). Exploring Talk in Schools. London: SAGE Publications.

Mercer, N. and Hodgkinson, S. (2008) (eds.). Exploring talk in schools. London: Sage Publications.

Raban, B. (2014). Talk to think, learn, and teach. Journal of Reading Recovery. Spring, 2014.

Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. (2018). How listening comprehension works. In J.M. Newton, D.R. Ferris, C.C.M. Goh, W. Grabe, F.L. Stoller & L. Vandergrift (Eds.), Teaching English to second language learners in academic contexts: Reading, writing, listening, and speaking (pp. 125-144). New York: Routledge.

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There are socially constructed rules that guide how individuals interact with each other. The rules guide turn taking, greetings, eye-contact, body language and the way individuals are referenced in conversations. These rules can be described as the pragmatics of oral language and they are often implicitly learnt.