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similar to molarity but depends on the mass of solvent

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useful for relating the volume of a solution to the quantity of solute contained in that volume

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useful when dealing with gases, have no units, sum of the mole fractions of all components of a solution must equal 1

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Parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb)

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Parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb)

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Here, we express the concentration of very dilute solutions, similar to mass percentage but we use 10⁶ (a million) or 10⁹ (a billion), respectively, in place of 100 as a multiplier for the ratio of the mass of solute to the mass of solution

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simplest quantitative expressions of concentration

percent means “per hundred”

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Expression of Concentrations and their Formulas

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Expression of Concentrations and their Formulas

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the predominant attractive force is a dipole-dipole interaction

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atoms of gold are positive ions held together by a surrounding 'sea' of their delocalized electrons.

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The entire solid is an "endless" repetition of carbon atoms bonded to each other by covalent bonds

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Structurally, each ion in sodium chloride is surrounded and held in tension by six neighboring ions of opposite charge

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atoms are held together in an extensive three-dimensional network entirely by covalent bonds

Relatively low to high melting point

Hard, poor conductor of heat and electricity

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simplest because every lattice point in a crystal is occupied by an atom of the same metal.

Soft to hard, low to high melting point, good conductor of heat and electricity

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composed of charged species (anions and cations)

most have high melting points

the higher the lattice energy, the more stable the compound.

do not conduct electricity because the ions are fixed in position.

But when molten or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move and the resulting liquid is electrically conducting.

hard and brittle

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molecules occupy lattice points

Attractive forces between them are van der Waals forces and/or hydrogen bonding.

more easily broken apart than ionic and covalent crystals

Soft, low melting point, poor conductor of heat and electricity

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Na+ (sodium ion) and H2O (water molecule)

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Na+ (sodium ion) and H2O (water molecule)

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Na⁺: a cation

Partially positive end of H₂O: from H atoms

Partially negative end of H₂O: from O atom

Sodium attracts the oxygen atom of the water molecule, while it repels the hydrogen atom.

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The prerequisite for this type of attraction to exist is partially charged ions

for example, the case of polar covalent bonds such as hydrogen chloride

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The partially positive end of hydrogen is attracted to the partially negative end of the oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine of another molecule.

The water molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms covalently bound to an oxygen (O) atom.

Since it is more electronegative than hydrogen, oxygen pulls the shared electrons more closely to itself. This sharing gives the oxygen atom a slightly more negative charge, and the two hydrogens a slightly positive charge;

This imbalance causes the water molecule to have a positive and negative side, and hence, water is a polar molecule.

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Factors that affect strength of van der Waals Forces

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Factors that affect strength of van der Waals Forces

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Surface Area

- total area of the surface of a 3D object

- related to molecular shape

Polarizability

- ability to form instantaneous dipoles
- related to Molecular Weight

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Nonpolar CH₄

At any one instant its electron density varies thus creating a temporary dipole.

All compounds exhibit van der Waals forces, but the only IMFA present in nonpolar compounds

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exists between an ion and a polar molecule

Cations are attracted to the negative end of a dipole, and anions are attracted to the positive end.

increases as the ionic charge increases.

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London Dispersion Forces or  van der Waal Forces 

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London Dispersion Forces or  van der Waal Forces 

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weakest of the intermolecular forces

caused by the momentary changes in electron density in a molecule.

exist between all types of molecules

The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London dispersion forces are.

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occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to F, O, or N is attracted to a lone pair of electrons on an F, O, or N atom in another molecule.

the strongest of the three types of intermolecular forces

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attractive forces between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules

much stronger than van der Waals forces

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expresses the relationship between the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a fixed amount of gas. For a combined gas law problem, only the amount of gas is held constant.

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An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose pressure, volume, and temperature relationships are described completely by the ideal-gas equation.

R = universal gas constant. The value and units of R depend on the units of P, V, n, and T.
T = absolute temperature (in kelvins instead of degrees Celsius).
n = quantity of gas (normally expressed in moles)

The units chosen for pressure and volume are most often atmospheres and liters, respectively. However, other units can be used. You must choose the form of R in which the units agree with the units of P, V, n, and T given in the problem.

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\(￣︶￣*\)) (づ￣ 3￣)づ (∩^o^)⊃━☆

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Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)

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Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMFA)

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Forces that exist between molecules. They determine the physical properties of molecules like their boiling point, melting point, density, and enthalpies of fusion and vaporization. Electrical in nature

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states that the volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

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states that the volume of a gas maintained at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas.

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states that the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas, when the volume is kept constant

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states that the volume of a fixed quantity of gas maintained at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure.

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The gas laws discover the relationship of pressure, temperature, volume and amount of gas.