# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of incorporating more than one subject or discipline into a lesson is to incorporate real-world situations and provide students the context to learn and practice certain skills.

https://www.edutopia.org/blog/a-cornucopia-of-multidisciplinary-teaching-vincent-mastro

# data[].attributes.headline
Optical Character Recognition Software (OCR)

# data[].attributes.subject
Optical Character Recognition Software (OCR)

# data[].attributes.body
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Software: OCR software can be used to scan printed text and convert it into digital text that can be read aloud by text-to-speech software. This can be helpful for students who struggle with reading printed text.

# data[].attributes.body
Electronic Braille Displays: Electronic braille displays can be used to help students who are blind or visually impaired to read and write. These displays allow students to read braille using an electronic device.

# data[].attributes.body
Word Prediction Software: Word prediction software suggests words as the student types. This can be helpful for students who struggle with spelling or vocabulary.

# data[].attributes.body
Speech Recognition Software: Speech recognition software can be used to help students who struggle with writing. By using this software, students can dictate their thoughts and ideas, which can be transcribed into text.

# data[].attributes.body
Text highlighting tools: Text highlighting tools can be used to help students with limited reading fluency to focus on key ideas and important details in a text. These tools can highlight important words or phrases and make it easier for the student to identify and understand the most critical information.

# data[].attributes.body
Screen readers: Screen readers are software programs that read the text displayed on a computer screen aloud. This can be useful for students who have difficulty reading small text or need to navigate complex websites.

# data[].attributes.body
Speech-to-Text (STT) Software: STT software can be used to help students with limited writing skills to produce written work. This software allows the student to dictate their ideas orally, and the software transcribes their words into written text.

# data[].attributes.body
Audiobooks: Audiobooks are recordings of books being read aloud. These can be a great option for students who have difficulty reading or comprehending written text.

# data[].attributes.body
Text-to-Speech (TTS) Software: Text-to-speech software reads text aloud to the student, which can help them to understand and process information more effectively. This is particularly helpful for students who struggle with decoding, fluency, or comprehension.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to help with vocabulary acquisition and to clarify the meaning of a word with examples.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of a mind map is to generate knowledge and link ideas together visually.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A mind map is a visual diagram used to organise data or information around a single concept or topic. It is a great memorisation tool and useful for revision.

Download FREE teacher-made resources covering 'Mind Map'

A mind map is hierarchical, which means that information is organised based on importance. The main topic is usually in the centre of the mind map, with links or branches to associated sub-topics and then further branches, or twigs, to ideas, themes, images and more. A completed mind map will show the relationships and connections between these sets of information and how they form part of a whole concept.

Mind maps are useful, as they can be drawn by hand and used as a more visual form of note-taking. A type of spider diagram, a mind map can be colour coordinated and include images, drawings and diagrams to help aid learning and memory. Mind maps are great for different types of learners and can be used across all subjects.

You can easily add information to your mind map without the need to worry about the order in which you add it. Simply add another branch or twig as necessary. You can organise information however you like and try out lots of different styles of mind map to find one that works best for you.

How to make a mind map

1. Write your topic or theme in the centre of the page

2. Think of the sub-topics you want to add and start adding branches to these from the central topic

3. Add twigs to sub-topics as you think of more ideas and relevant information

Some things to remember...

Use short phrases or single words where possible. This will help you to more easily recall information

Add colours, images, diagrams and more to help you remember and revise certain information

Get creative! Using a mind map can help you with note-taking, revision and learning new concepts

How can I use mind maps in the classroom?

Mind maps are a versatile learning tool that can be used across multiple subjects and topics. Take a look at some of these great mind map resources:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What is a Mind Map? - Answered - Twinkl Teaching Wiki

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A mind map is a visual diagram used to organise data or information around a single concept or topic. It is a great memorisation tool and useful for revision.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose: to teach vocabulary indirectly.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose: to teach vocabulary directly.

Step 1: Introduce the word

Step 2: Present a student-friendly definition

Step 3: Clarify the word's meaning

Step 4: Actively engage students in using the word

Step 5: Expand students' understanding of the word

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose: To increase fluency in reading and correct errors quickly and efficiently.

1. Error correction and an opportunity to practice the misread word

2. Peer mediation, in which students work together in pairs

3. Student goal setting in which students set a goal, such as a particular number of words read correctly per minute

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to create a structured phonics lesson.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to teach syllable types through research-based methods.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to provide students with text that they can decode using the new rule they have learned.

# data[].attributes.body
These activities are meant to increase students' interaction with and awareness of high frequency words.

-Write high frequency words in shaving cream or on whiteboards

-High frequency word bingo

# data[].attributes.body
Well crafted and scaffolded TDQs specifically support MLLs in being able to better understand the many layers of challenging texts that are on grade level.

TDQs for MLLs and AELs are constructed so that they can read for multiple purposes and successfully respond to TDQs.

# data[].attributes.body
Close reading is a way to place emphasis on readers figuring out a high-quality text and grappling with it.

By engaging in close readings throughout their education, students are poised to develop a rich body of knowledge about the world, and their reading practices will become ingrained habits of mind.

Close reading of texts can have various purposes including to determine what a text says and how a text works; in addition to evaluate the quality and value of the text.

# data[].attributes.body
Background knowledge is crucial for MLLs to access content and language instruction.

It is critical to provide targeted support to MLLs in linking background knowledge that they have and addressing gaps in their background knowledge that may exist for them to acquire new content.

Within a standards-based framework, teaching background knowledge to MLLs is an equity imperative.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to include an objective in the lesson specifically geared towards the language used in the lesson and the supports that will be used to help scaffold.

1. Language function (verb / the HOW) - the purpose of the language or linguistic processes required in conveying a message, which includes a verb or action that describes what a student should do (e.g., identify, interpret, evaluate, describe)

2. Support - identifies the support and scaffolds (sensory, graphic, interactive) that the students will need (e.g., vocabulary sheets, visuals, sentence frames etc.)

3. The vocabulary that students will use as they engage in the content of the lesson.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to test a student's proficiency in the English Language.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A suite of secure, large-scale, summative English language proficiency assessmentsACCESS for ELLs (ACCESS) is the collective name for WIDA's suite of summative English language proficiency assessments. ACCESS is taken annually by English learners in kindergarten through grade 12 in WIDA Consortium member states.

# data[].attributes.body
To give students freedom and choice to investigate and learn about their passions; this will increase motivation and engagement.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Five Steps to Enhance Learning in the Classroom

Every great teacher wants their students to find joy in the learning process. How do we as educators provide students an environment to discover who they are, help them unlock the passions they hold, and guide their journey of self-discovery while also teaching our mandated curriculum?

The answer is simpler than you might imagine: provide time for students to explore their passions.

"If you can't figure out your purpose, figure out your passion. For your passion will lead you right into your purpose." -- Bishop T. D. Jakes

Devoting a portion of work time to exploring passions is not a new concept. Almost 70 years ago, 3M encouraged their employees to devote 15% of their work time to research and create innovative projects that captured their interests and passions. Google did something similar when they encouraged their engineers to take 20% of their time to work on something company-related that interested them personally. Both companies valued a spirit of innovation and productivity; allowing employees to be creative resulted in the creation of such products as post-it notes.

This concept of intentional time spent on projects of interest is foundational to the Genius Hour movement in education, where students spend one hour a week researching their passions and sharing their insights. While an hour a week may seem like an impossible sacrifice in the face of packed pacing guides and scheduling constraints, creative teachers across the world are using this model to bring joy back into their classrooms.

Last year, a first grade teacher and I decided to jump in and try "Passion Projects" to help her students find joy by exploring topics that intrigued them. We mapped out a reasonable timeline to ensure we still had time for the required curriculum. We made sure we set reasonable expectations and planned for explicit time to help students narrow down the scope of their project. Since Passion Projects would be completed during the school day, we worked to anticipate any challenges, such as non-readers doing research, and plan for support before we began.

While we wanted students to show their learning in whichever ways they found most effective, we quickly discovered that six- and seven-year-olds need a bit more structure than older students. Since this was the first "project" many students had every attempted, we decided all students would make a multimedia project using Pixie, a software program installed on every computer which many students had used before. Each child would research their passion and use Pixie to create a digital background image, complete with voice narration, to share their learning.

Once our planning was done, it was set our students loose on their Passion Projects! Following are the five steps we used to guide our students' work.

Step 1: Brainstorm

Before we introduced anything to the students, we brainstormed our own passions together, talking about things that made us happy, and exploring the "what-ifs" of being educators. "What if we could teach anything we wanted?" "What if we didn't have to worry about discipline problems?" "What if we could take time to read and learn about our OWN passions during the work day?"

The more we talked about our passions, the more excited we became! Rather than being inundated with logistical worries, we were empowered by the potential of "What if?" This is what we wanted our students to feel: excitement...passion...and the pure joy of learning simply for the sake of learning.

Students began their work by coming up with a list of things that made them happy, and we encouraged them to identify areas about which they wanted to learn more. We used pencils and paper to create our Wonder Wall, but you might prefer to incorporate technology by using a digital tool like Padlet.

Step 2: Question

To make the Passion Projects manageable, we asked students to narrow their focus to one question they wanted to explore. We added their questions to a shared spreadsheet on Google Drive to keep everything organized and worked together to add resource links and additional information as we guided students through the research process.

Step 3: Research

To provide support and guidance during this lengthy process, we used a once-a-week two-station rotation. Students either worked with classroom teacher support to read and take notes in their writing journals, or they worked with me, the instructional technology specialist, to design their project to share using Pixie. This approach also allowed time for content integration.

We encouraged students to use both low-tech and high-tech research options. Many students found the answers to their questions in library books. Others used alternate forms of informational text like tourism brochures. When Internet research was required, students used appropriate information resources, such as videos showing how to make books or steps to build a specific Lego figure. When online texts seemed to be too advanced for emerging readers, we used screencasting tools to record ourselves reading the articles and shared the recordings with students through our district's network and shared cloud storage.

Step 4: Create

As students transitioned from research to creation, we noticed a change in the classroom culture. We had fewer discipline problems and students were engaged with their research and putting more effort into their reading and writing. They were excited about their own digital creations and were helping their classmates who needed assistance...all with smiles, laughter, and joy!

We continued our weekly station rotations until the digital backgrounds were complete. Students then started individual recordings to share what they had learned about their passion. Students who were not busy recording kept working to edit their stories and worked on other tasks.

5. Share

Students showcased their work with an authentic audience of classmates, teachers, parents, and administrators at a Passion Project Share Fair. As guests walked from laptop to laptop, listening to the student presentations, they validated the time and effort students had put into their work and were able to clearly see how each student had come to realize the joy of learning through the exploration of their passions.

To extend the project beyond the concrete walls of our classrooms, we also created a Passion Project website and shared the links on Twitter and Facebook. When students realized their projects were being viewed by people all across the world, they took even more pride and care in their work and asked, "Can we do this again?"

How will you begin?

This year, I'm collaborating with a fourth grade teacher to engage students in Passion Projects devoted to kindness and making the world a better place. Following the same five steps, we are weaving "A Passion for Kindness" through language arts, no-break days, and rainy recess time. We are deliberately planning school time for students to embrace their passions and find ways to utilize their skills and learning to benefit others, giving the sharing portion even more purpose.

Passion Projects capture the joy of learning while integrating content areas of reading, writing, and oral communication and can change the climate of the classroom. Using technology to create, instead of merely consuming, gives students opportunities to showcase their creativity and celebrate their hard work.

If you are looking for a way to bring JOY - Jubilant Outcries of Yes - to your classroom, Passion Projects will do just that.

Popular Topics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Bring JOY to the Classroom with Passion Projects

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Passion Projects capture the joy of learning improving classroom climate and building essential literacy skills.

# data[].attributes.body
Choice Board:  A choice board is a graphic organizer that allows students to choose how they will learn a concept. Usually, a choice board consists of a 9-square grid. Each square offered a learning task or way of showing your understanding.   One common structure is to craft activities differentiated by product and/or process.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Giving students options for how they demonstrate their learning is a good way to ignite their curiosity.

How do you make learning effective, engaging, and student driven when students aren't physically in the classroom? That's been the question on our minds for quite some time now. One team of education leaders in North Carolina found a solution that drastically changed instruction throughout the state, and it's something you might already be familiar with.

As teachers and students transitioned to fully remote instruction, the English language arts (ELA) team created choice boards that teachers could copy and adjust to meet the needs of their students. The boards-which could be assigned virtually or printed out in packets-were organized by grade band and filled with standards-aligned activities as well as scaffolds that enabled children to be able to complete the work alone. Check out the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction's ELA choice boards here.

Choice boards improved remote learning in our virtual classrooms, increasing student engagement and ownership, and even making our students more eager to dig into their assessments and homework.

Here are some tips to get started with implementing choice boards-whether students are in person, learning remotely, or a mixture of both-as well as some lessons learned along the way.

Choice boards add a new dimension to your classroom, offering an alternative to standard assessments and empowering students to choose how they show their mastery of a topic. Additionally, they provide educators with a variety of ways to check for student understanding. If you've ever had your eyes glaze over as you regarded the night's looming stack of 120 freshmen essays to grade, this could be the refreshing twist you're looking for.

Imagine that you're working with your middle school English class on analyzing complex characters in The House on Mango Street. You can unpack the standard with your students and create a rubric with them (or we love this idea of success criteria), then brainstorm ideas for activities.

Keep in mind, some learners do prefer traditional assessments, so leave those as an option in the choice board.

You don't have to start from scratch; there are free choice board templates available online.

Try incorporating your students into the process and get their input on how they'd like to demonstrate what they've learned. For example, students might suggest developing a movie trailer to illustrate their mastery of the standard, drafting a series of diary entries from the main character, or creating a series of podcast episodes. Allowing for student involvement in the creation of the choice boards increases their ownership and follow-through.

Choice boards can be used in place of a homework packet-giving students the autonomy to choose how they practice skills they learned during the school day.

But choice boards can also serve as a way to engage with parents and caregivers. A family homework choice board can encourage education-centered family time at home, while simultaneously informing caregivers about topics and skills their child is learning at school.

Before sending home a homework choice board, allot time to guide your students through the process-practicing it in the classroom first. Think of it as a mini-lesson.

Evaluate limitations or access issues that may arise for some students when working at home. Things to consider include access to technology, access to materials, and time asked of the parents/caregivers in assisting.

What might this look like? Let's say you are teaching a third-grade class and a parent has asked you for the homework. Share the optional homework choice board-activities might include finding three examples of this week's syllable type in books from their book bin, reading high-frequency words to a family member, or practicing the high-frequency words on an online app.

Remote learning days are far from a thing of the past. Whether these days are scheduled ahead of time in the school's calendar or utilized as an alternative to closing the building for severe weather or recurring outbreaks of Covid, schools can be proactively prepared by creating district or schoolwide choice boards that teachers can easily access.

Move from fluff to rigor by being intentional with learning outcomes and alignment to state standards. (Find tips at Aligning Curricular Decisions with Student Voice). Make sure that you aren't just creating busywork but are truly creating assignments that are standards aligned.

Get a team involved to make the lift lighter. The North Carolina Department of Public Instruction had teams of educators work together to create a universal set of choice boards that could be accessed by teachers statewide-many hands make short work.

We've used choice boards not only with K-12 students but with our teachers in training as well. Offering people choice in assignments does equate to a lot more emails to answer from our graduate students. But that's something we were more than happy to take on.

Ideally, these can be tweaked by teachers themselves easily so that students can complete them over and over again. Educators can switch out the text and activities at their discretion to update them.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Using Choice Boards to Boost Student Engagement

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Giving students options for how they demonstrate their learning is a good way to ignite their curiosity.

# data[].attributes.body
To help teachers decide how to group students depending on the subject and activity.

# data[].attributes.body
To increase student interaction and develop SEL skills as well as to utilize each students' individual strengths and assets.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ways to Arrange Students for Group Work - TeachHUB

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students working in groups is one of the most effective and efficient teaching strategies for all classrooms. There is a multitude of benefits, and students engage in learning at a higher level. Students learn how to tackle more complex problems than they could on their own.

# data[].attributes.body
Instruction is provided in flexible groupings to maximize student performance. Students are grouped and regrouped according to specific goals, activities, and individual needs. When making grouping decisions, the dynamics and advantages inherent in each type of group must be considered. It is a data-driven teaching practice and puts students into temporary groups to work together for only as long as is needed for them to develop an identified skill or to complete a learning activity. The groups change often based on students’ needs, skill development, or knowledge. (Amanda Morin, Understood)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Flexible grouping is a data-driven teaching practice. With this practice, you put students into temporary groups to work together for only as long as is needed for them to develop an identified skill or to complete a learning activity. The groups can be heterogeneous (made up of varying skill levels) or homogeneous (made up of the same skill level). The groups change often based on the learning objective and students' needs or interests.

If you're like most teachers, putting students into groups is an important part of your day-to-day classroom life. That concept of grouping dates back to the days of the one-room schoolhouse, when teachers grouped students by age or ability.

In today's inclusive classrooms, we know age and ability don't correspond neatly across subjects. Students have different strengths, interests, and needs depending on the content area, specific lesson, or even the time of day. Few students engage at the exact same academic, social-emotional, or linguistic level every day. That's where flexible grouping comes in.

What is flexible grouping?

Flexible grouping uses a mix of heterogeneous groups (made up of students with varying skill levels) and homogeneous groups (made up of students with similar skill level) to help students achieve a learning goal. The size of the groups can vary - from two or three students in a small group to up to six students in a larger group.

Students work together, often with the guidance of a teacher, only for the length of time necessary for them to develop an identified skill or to complete a learning activity. That makes it different from static groups that don't change based on students' needs, acquisition of skills, or knowledge.

Flexible grouping is driven by data. You can use data you already have about students to group and regroup them to meet their evolving needs. The data doesn't have to be fancy. It can be as simple as observing students' work during a lesson. In doing so, you may see that some students could benefit from more practice in a small group before moving on.

A key component of flexible grouping is that while all students are working toward the same learning goal, the work addresses students' varying learning needs. The work is engaging and important for all students, but the task or how they show what they've learned may look different for each group.

Why use flexible grouping?

Flexible grouping is a powerful and effective practice for improving learning. It allows your students to get the right support, in the right way, at the right time.

When flexible grouping is part of the classroom routine, there's nothing out of the ordinary about one or more students working with the teacher on a specific project. Students who struggle don't feel singled out or embarrassed. Because groups change frequently and aren't based on ability level alone, all students have the chance to get to know and work with each other. In fact, according to research, all students in classrooms that use flexible grouping show academic gains.

Not being pigeonholed. Flexible grouping allows for regrouping for different content areas. That's beneficial to students who learn and think differently because they may have challenges in some content areas and not in others. For instance, a student who struggles with reading but not math can be grouped with other students who have similar support needs in reading. That student can then be regrouped for math.

Feeling valued. Students bring their own skills, talents, and life experiences to the group. In flexible groups, students see that everyone adds value to the learning community. This follows the culturally responsive teaching philosophy of identifying students' assets and using them to create student-centered instruction. Working in student-led groups means that non-academic strengths, like leadership skills, are important, too.

Language practice. Flexible grouping is particularly beneficial to English language learners. It gives them more chances to interact with classmates who speak English fluently and to practice both academic and interpersonal language. Students can also be placed in groups with other classmates who speak the same home language. In those groups, they can discuss content or concepts before sharing their ideas in English.

The opportunity to collect data. Because flexible grouping depends on data, it also gives you a routine for data collection. When students are working in groups, you can collect observational data, as well as more formalized data. For instance, you may ask students to take pictures of their work at the beginning, middle, and end of the lesson. Or you can have an exit ticket for all students, which asks students to do things like:

Summarize key points from the lesson

Show how they can use what they learned to solve a problem

Answer an essential question based on the lesson

Identify questions they may still have

All of this data can help you make adjustments to your instruction in the moment. It also helps you tailor your future instruction, which might include switching up your groups the next day.

What do flexible groups look like?

Flexible groups come in all types and sizes. They can:

Include partners, small groups of a couple of students, and large groups of up to six students

Be heterogeneous (made up of varying abilities) or homogeneous (made up of the same ability)

Be teacher-led or student-led

Be assigned or self-selected

Last for just one lesson or for a few weeks, depending on the purpose of the activity, learning goals, and data

In elementary grades, this might look like students rotating among different learning stations, working in guided reading groups that change from week to week, or engaging in a "turn and talk" with different partners each time.

In middle school and high school, this might look like collaborative learning groups in which students have clearly defined roles, like being the facilitator or timekeeper.

How do I put flexible grouping into practice?

1. Define the learning objective for your lesson to determine what type of groups you need.

Start with a clear idea of exactly what skills or concepts you want students to master. This will help you in two ways. First, the learning objective will help you be more intentional about what groups to create, including which students belong in the group and the size of the group. Second, with the end goal in mind, you can create checkpoints to monitor each student's progress and adjust groups when necessary.

Schedule time for group work in your lesson plans.

Plan how you and your co-teachers (or other support staff) will work together during a lesson. You can maximize flexible grouping instruction when you have more educators in the room to lead learning or circulate to support groups.

Plan to work with small groups and have work stations during independent practice times.

Try out flexible grouping with your students for short periods of time or to complete quick activities so they can practice. Give them feedback on what went well.

Incorporate Universal Design for Learning (UDL) practices into your flexible grouping lessons.

2. Review data to decide which students to group together.

Once you have your learning goal in mind, you can turn to student data to guide your decisions about how to group students. For instance, reviewing the exit tickets from a previous day can show you which students didn't fully master the learning objective. You can then group them together to practice that skill. Or the responses to an equation on the board can help you form groups for the day. The students who understood it can move on and those who didn't can be grouped to get more support and practice.

Review your students' learning profiles.

Know your students' interests.

Evaluate how previous groupings went.

Draw on several sources of data, including:

Formal assessment data, like information from the most recent standardized testingInformal observations of studentsStudent self-assessments or questionnaires, like exit tickets from the previous lessonPre- and post-testing around specific skillsUniversal screening data (such as DIBELS or other reading assessments) Data from response to intervention (RTI) programs Review of student writing

Start class with a Do Now and end with an exit ticket. They're great sources of data for future lessons.

Use data to identify student successes or misconceptions to address during upcoming lessons.

3. Set guidelines for how the groups will interact.

Use prompting and pre-correcting strategies to establish group behavior expectations and student roles.

Create a visual of the roles and expectations for each type of group.

Post directions.

Create visuals to support students with language needs.

Create a place for small group materials.

Color-code folders or baskets.

Determine set times for each group activity and provide time reminders for students to remain on task.

Assign a group member to be a materials manager.

Arrange furniture so that there is a whole group learning area and specific areas for small group work.

Teach routines for transitioning into small group work.

Teach students how to have meaningful conversations with each other (known as Accountable Talk®). Using these strategies provides a framework for interactions as well as prompts and precise language for how they are expected to speak with each other.

4. Prompt students to reflect.

Build in time at the end of a lesson for students to talk about what they learned. Did they meet the learning goal? What lingering questions do they have? How effectively did their group work together? What could they do better next time? Students can reflect in a whole group discussion, via an exit ticket, or as part of the group's assignment. This debriefing process can help you make decisions for the next groups you'll form, like which students may have the same unresolved questions or misunderstandings.

Use metacognitive strategies to ask students to reflect on their own learning. What advice would they give themselves for next time? What do they need to improve?

Ask students to tell you what they want more practice with.

Talk through how and from whom students got help when they needed it, and whether they feel they needed more support.

Ask targeted questions to gauge how well your students achieved the learning goal.

Ask students to give you specific feedback about what they may need in the future to be more successful learners.

Use the principles of UDL to give students multiple ways of sharing feedback. For example, students who need more time to process their thoughts can provide feedback later through a Google Doc or paper feedback form.

How can families support this at home?

Families may be more familiar with the idea of ability grouping than flexible grouping. If that's the case, they may be confused when their child comes home talking about moving from group to group.

To head off confusion, you can explain at back-to-school night or in a class email or newsletter that you'll be using flexible grouping. Emphasize that students will not change groups just when they need extra help - they'll switch groups as they make progress, too. Let families know that you'll keep an eye on how students are doing academically and with whom they work well. That will help you put them in groups and in turn, help students grow.

Now that you know more about flexible grouping, how do you plan on using grouping differently in your classroom? Try it out and see how flexible grouping helps you meet the needs of all learners.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Flexible grouping: What you need to know

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Flexible grouping is a teaching practice that allows you to use data to group and regroup students for learning activities as their abilities change.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to provide support for students to help them access content.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article on scaffolding learning for ELLs is Part 15 of WIDA's Essential Actions Series. Click here to read the first article in the series .

In education, scaffolding doesn't mean literally constructing planks and poles against the side of a building. It's a metaphor for providing students with temporary, supportive structures that, just like in constructing a structure, are "gradually removed as the building nears completion." (Riddett, 2015). When a student demonstrates proficient independence, the scaffold is no longer needed (Gibbons, 2002).

Our ELs' achievement is directly related to my ability to scaffold learning experiences.

Scaffolding is the focus of Action 12 in E ssential Actions: A Handbook for Implementing WIDA's Framework for English Language Development Standards (Gottlieb, 2013). Categorized under three groups - sensory, graphic, or interactive - scaffolding can be incorporated during the lesson cycle or within an assessment task. Without scaffolding, ELs often struggle needlessly to access grade-level content and are less able to perform well academically.

In this article, we'll examine three core kinds of scaffolding and explain how they're best applied.

Research Says

There's a significant body of research around the practice of using scaffolds to support instruction. Here are some key findings found in WIDA's Essential Actions :

Instructional supports empower ELs to achieve academically and access grade-level material (Gottlieb, 2013).

Using a range and variety of instructional support tools enables ELs to engage with grade-level objectives and content (Gottlieb, Katz, & Ernst-Slavit, 2009; Himmele & Himmele, 2009).

Instructional supports can also be built into assessments to empower ELs to express their understanding and demonstrate their skills (Gottlieb, 2006).

The research highlights the need to provide various forms of scaffolding to support instruction and performance on assessments. Learning new content that is often abstract is difficult enough; learning it in an unfamiliar language adds a level of difficulty that native speakers do not experience. Scaffolding provides ELs with greater access to content and facilitates the demonstration of their learning.

Sensory Scaffolding

Sensory scaffolds allow ELs to use their senses to understand abstract concepts or learn new ideas. For most students, using visuals and manipulatives are effective forms of sensory scaffolding because images and gestures contain meaning without a dependence on language. Additionally, for Entering ELs, it's the most effective kind of scaffolding in general because there are fewer language barriers to understanding.

For example, the tactile nature of conducting a science lab invites ELs to manipulate objects in order to construct the meaning of abstract concepts. Besides tactile scaffolds, educators can use visuals as another useful form of instructional aids. Humans are visual learners because, with our eyes, we can take a large amount of information in at once and use it to construct meaning. Like tactile scaffolds, visual aids help students understand abstract concepts easier than printed texts can.

When physical objects and visuals are combined together, they offer even more opportunities to access content. For example, Mr. A (a science teacher) wanted to teach his students the concept of food chains and food webs. He designed an activity where the students received strips of paper that each contained an animal. Students then moved the strips of paper around to reconstruct the food web.

The ELs benefited from physically moving the cards around to internalize how food chains and food webs work. These concepts would have remained abstract for many ELs had they simply read the descriptions.

Interactive Scaffolding

As much as human beings are visual learners, they're also social learners too. This is why in addition to sensory and tactile support, educators should integrate social interaction into the lesson design. For ELs, social scaffolding is an excellent opportunity to use language for meaningful purposes. ELs have to use language and content to discuss ideas, offer observations, and form opinions. In the process, they synthesize content knowledge and internalize language.

Interactive scaffolds are essentially a kind of learning through collaboration, and are best used with ELs who like socializing. My ELs collaborate in these three specific categories: synthesizing knowledge, planning actions, and creating products. There are many easy ways to design student interaction in the lesson cycle. This Edutopia article from Sarah Wike Loyola entitled " In language classrooms, students should be talking " explains why interactive scaffolds are effective and provides a list of five structures we can implement.

Another fantastic interactive scaffold is the jigsaw because it makes students internalize one aspect of the new content, learn to listen carefully when peers present their aspect, and work collaboratively to piece all the things they've learned to create new understanding.

Mr. J's 7th grade history class provides an perfect example of a jigsaw. Wanting students to learn the different parts of a river, he assigned each table group to study a specific part of the river (top, middle, end). Students researched their assigned parts (Researching phase). After a period of researching, he had them form a new groups. This new group had students who were experts from the top, middle, and end groups.

They then shared their research with each other (Presenting phase). Finally, students returned back to their original grouping, and they worked in their groups to formulate a thorough understanding of all the parts of the river (Co-constructing phase). Here is an image to help you visualize Mr. J's jigsaw.

Mr. J could have taken the traditional route to deliver the content, but instead he empowered his students to collaboratively learn content while developing communication and interpersonal skills. I recommend using jigsaw when a unit has a lot of content. This way, the content can be segmented and reinforces learning through inquiry. If you'd like to learn more about the practice, I encourage going directly to Jigsaw Classroom , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r creating the jigsaw itself.

Of all the interactive scaffolds that I use, I prefer Think-Pair-Share (TPS) the most because of how easy it is to implement. To foster comprehensible input , ELs often need to pause during instruction and synthesize the content that was just presented before learning new content. This is when TPS is an effective tool. During Visible Reading , I might ask, "What did you learn from reading the last few paragraphs? Let's do a TPS to synthesize what we learned". I let them think for about a minute. Then they turn to a partner, whom I assign, and share their thinking.

TPS is like a verbal Quick Write . Students are given a prompt, given time to think about it, and then orally share their understanding of it. Their responses are not graded, but they do provide a wealth of formative data on their understanding.

Jennifer Gonzalez, a highly-regarded education blogger, wrote an extensive article about TPS on her blog, Cult of Pedagogy . She consistently produces valuable content that can be easily implemented by the busy teacher.

The most important principle that I want to share about interactive scaffolds is that if something is important for students to internalize, use an interactive scaffold (mainly TPS) to have them verbalize it. If they can correctly articulate it, they've owned it.

Graphic Scaffolding

Scaffolding using graphic supports means teaching through charts, tables, and graphic organizers that morph numbers and data into visual representations. Graphic scaffolds are particularly effective when teachers want to communicate highly abstract concepts or show the relationships between things in a phenomenon.

Because graphic supports are texts with visuals, they should be treated as texts. It's vital that teachers demonstrate close reading skills when explaining charts, graphs, tables, and timelines because it usually takes multiple readings for a student to fully comprehend the graphic's ideas.

Since graphic supports usually lack the storytelling element inherent in visuals, we need to provide more guided support in reading them. The title is often the most important place to start when reading graphs, tables, and charts because it provides the main purpose of the graphic. For example, the table below from a scaffolded science lab report contains a title that orients ELs to the table.

When reading graphs, remind your students to pay careful attention to the "X" and "Y" axis on a graph or read the individual slices of a pie chart. Moreover, because they are highly abstract, I prefer to reserve using them only with ELs who have highly developed cognitive abilities.

Interactive tables - where the teacher designs a table with items the students are to fill in - are the most frequently used form of graphic support employed by content teachers. While charts, graphs, and timelines scaffold ELs' understanding of content knowledge, interactive tables empower ELs to communicate it.

Because tables are a form of writing, they should be treated like an act of reading. Educators have to directly teach ELs how to interact with a table and how to fill the empty spaces. Make sure that students must not be overwhelmed by a number of things the table is asking them to produce. Keep it simple.

The following table was co-created with Mr. Arno to help ELs produce a lab report. Notice how it helps ELs provide the necessary information for the "Materials" section and only asks for two things at a time.

Takeaways

Scaffolding is used to erect stunning buildings. Though we're not in the construction business, we are trying to impart knowledge, skills, and mindsets will serve students long after they've left our classrooms.

Scaffolding helps students develop the skills that they can later call on and build upon in their future endeavors.

Gottlieb, M. (2006). Assessing English language learners: Bridges from language proficiency to academic achievement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Gottlieb, M., Katz, A., & Ernst-Slavit, G. (2009). Paper to practice: Using the English language proficiency standards in PreK-12 classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Gottlieb, M. (2013). Essential Actions: A Handbook for Implementing WIDA's Framework for English Language Development Standards . Madison: Board of Regents of the U of Wisconsin System.

Himmele, P., & Himmele, W. (2009). The language-rich classroom: A research-based framework for teaching English language learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Riddett, C. (2015, April 2). The teaching learning cycle. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/teaching-learning-cycle-christopher-riddett

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
#34. Three Types of Scaffolding: There's a Scaffold for That - ELL Strategies | TanKHuynh

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
How three types of scaffolding instruction (sensory, graphic, interactive) can empower ELLs to access content and develop academic language skills.

# data[].attributes.body
Breaks down challenging content into bite-sized, less overwhelming "chunks".

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Chunking helps students approach challenging texts by breaking down content into manageable pieces.

English & Language Arts

History

Social Studies

Most teachers are willing to tackle the difficult topics, but we need the tools.

- Gabriela Calderon-Espinal, Bay Shore, NY

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Chunking helps students approach challenging texts by breaking down content into manageable pieces.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to prevent challenging behaviors in children by helping them learn what to expect.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
At pickup time, Teresa approaches her daughter's preschool teacher, Ms. Ann. Teresa would like some advice on how she can get her daughter, Lily, to transition more easily between daily activities. The previous evening, Lily had a tantrum at the end of library story time; she wanted to stay at the library longer, looking at picture books, but it was time to go home for dinner. Ms. Ann listens to Teresa and struggles to come up with concrete ideas for making outings such as these smoother for everyone.

Transitions are when children move from one activity to another. Everyday transitions include arriving at an educational setting from home, moving from dinner to playtime, finishing playtime and cleaning up, brushing teeth and then taking a bath, and going from bath time to bedtime. Transitions can be difficult for some parents, particularly when taking their young children out into the community (such as Teresa's struggles with Lily at the library), picking them up from educational settings, or moving between activities and routines at home. For some children, transitions may be frustrating or may provoke anxiety, and they may lead to challenging behaviors. In this article, we adopt the definition of "challenging behavior" provided by the Center on Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (2013):

Any repeated pattern of behavior that interferes with learning or engagement in pro-social interactions with peers and adults.

Behaviors that are not responsive to the use of developmentally appropriate guidance procedures.

Prolonged tantrums, physical and verbal aggression, disruptive vocal and motor behavior (e.g., screaming, stereotypy), property destruction, self-injury, noncompliance, and withdrawal.

When young children engage in persistent challenging behavior, parents might look to their children's teachers for advice. The purpose of this article is to highlight strategies that early childhood educators can share with families in an effort to prevent challenging behavior during routine activities both inside and outside the home. We start with a discussion of why transitions may be difficult and when frustrations are most likely to occur. We then focus on the importance of early childhood professionals being knowledgeable about transition issues and offer suggestions and guidance for family members. Finally, we share strategies parents can use prior to and during transitions to prevent challenging behaviors, as well as skills children can be taught to help make transitions easier.

Understanding the difficulty of transitions

Difficulty with transitions can occur for a number of reasons, such as when children are tired, hungry, confused, or not ready to end an activity. Difficulty with transitions is also common when children have communication delays, limited social and emotional skills, or intellectual disabilities (Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Corso 2012). By considering children's needs and abilities and planning accordingly, parents can avoid problems at transition times. For example, instead of racing from one errand to another on a Saturday morning, parents might plan a 20-minute break to play with their children between stops. Early childhood educators can encourage parents to put themselves in their children's shoes and look at the world from their vantage points as they consider how to show their children what to do ("Leo, put the washcloth like this to scrub your legs."); how to keep their children busy ("Alex, while we wait for the server to bring our food, why don't we look at these books we brought along?"); and how to prepare their children for what comes next ("Jade, after we go to the bank, we will stop by the park for some crackers and juice and play on the slide for a bit.").

Ideally, educators will customize these strategies as they get to know each family. Many parents struggle with transitions throughout a child's early years, so sharing strategies that might prevent challenging behaviors during these times is an important task for early childhood educators. While some beginning educators report that they do not view parents as equal partners in family-centered practices and that working with parents can be difficult (Bezdek, Summers, & Turnbull 2010), parents often look to professionals for suggestions about how to address particular issues. Additionally, recommended practices in early childhood special education highlight the important role that parents play as partners in their children's learning and development (Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children 2014).

To be supportive-and to improve transitions at the beginning and end of each school day-early childhood educators should devote time to developing strategies to share with parents on successfully navigating transitions at home and in the community. "Given that challenging behavior has an impact on children as well as families, understanding challenging behavior in the context of families is critical" (Tyrrell, Freeman, & Chambers 2006, 30). For example, educators might collaborate with parents in deciding what strategy to try first to tackle a difficult transition. A teacher might say to a parent, "It seems Jack does better during long periods of waiting when he knows what will happen next and when he has something to play with. You mentioned that he often has a tantrum when you are both waiting at the bus stop for your third grader to come home. How do you think Jack would react if you brought a toy along, played a guessing game with him, or sang some songs?"

Transform wait time into fun learning time. For example, when standing in line, play I Spy to find objects that are a particular color.

Helping with transitions

There are several things that can be done to make potentially difficult transition times easier for parents and children. First, preventative strategies reduce the likelihood that transitions will be difficult or that challenging behaviors will occur. Second, early childhood educators and parents can work together to determine how to teach children the skills needed to make transition times successful. Finally, there are specific individualized strategies that can be used when a transition becomes difficult or when a child's behavior escalates. These topics are discussed in the following sections.

Preventative strategies

Early childhood educators may share ideas with parents about how to create smooth transitions at home, thereby decreasing the likelihood of challenging behaviors occurring. While these ideas should be adapted to meet the needs of individual children, general strategies (Artman-Meeker & Kinder 2014) to share with family members include

Looking carefully at a family's schedule, routines, and transitions. Help families think about (1) whether there are transitions or parts of routines that may not be necessary or that could be changed; (2) if their daily schedule could be more consistent, making it easier for children to predict the day; and (3) what strategies they could use to signal to their children that a transition is coming. For example, some families put a child-friendly schedule (with pictures to represent activities) on the refrigerator.

Planning ahead. Have materials and activities on hand to transform wait time into fun learning time. For example, when standing in a long line at a store or when driving in the car, play I Spy to find objects that are a particular color or begin with a specific sound. Have quiet toys to use while waiting, such as word puzzles, books, or crayons and a coloring book.

Having materials ready. Gather all necessary items for the next activity before signaling a transition to your child. For example, have the bath ready, shoes gathered, or apples out for snack time prior to calling a child to the activity.

Using music, songs, or predictable noises to signal transitions. A routine cleanup song can be used when it is time to pick up toys. Set a timer to indicate that playtime is ending and soon it will be time to clean up for dinner.

Using visual cues. Mini-schedules posted near transition locations provide visual prompts for the next transition or schedule change. For instance, picture cues near the front door might contain photos of a coat, hat, and boots to prompt a child to get ready to go outside.

Turning transition times into games. Create a song and dance or engage in pretend play about what a child is going to do next. For example, children can be encouraged to "fly" to the sink like superheroes to brush their teeth.

The main goal of preventative strategies is to help children understand adults' expectations for transitions so that challenging behavior is less likely to occur (Hemmeter et al. 2008).

Skills to teach

While preventative strategies are helpful, over time children need to learn to regulate their emotions and behaviors so that transitions are no longer difficult. Educators can provide parents with suggestions for specific skills to teach children. Even if parents have consistent, predictable routines in place and children know what is expected during transitions, challenging behavior may occur when a child does not have the necessary skills to complete the tasks someone is asking of her. It is important to collaborate with parents so that children develop specific skills needed during problematic transitions. Consider the following:

Ask parents to think about difficult transitions throughout the day, and encourage them to consider if their children have the necessary skills for understanding directions and moving to the next activity when a transition is signaled. For example, a parent may ask, "Does my child know how to brush his teeth independently, or does he need assistance?" "What might I do, or what skills might I teach my child, to assist her in getting dressed? In cleaning up before bedtime?"

Suggest that parents practice skills with their children, and provide descriptive feedback on how their children use those skills. For example, a child may be able to put his coat on but might not know how to zip or button it. Parents can (1) provide descriptive feedback once the child puts on his coat ("You put your coat on all by yourself!"); (2) show the child how to zip or button the coat and encourage him to help ("I know the zipper can be hard, so how about I hold the bottom of your coat and then help you zip it?" [Meadan et al. 2013]);
(3) provide praise or descriptive feedback once essential tasks have been completed and add a cue for the transition to begin ("I like that you put on your hat and gloves all by yourself after we zipped your coat! I can tell you are ready to go to the store now!"); and (4) give feedback once the child makes the transition ("You did a great job getting into your car seat. Now we can go to the pet store.").

Encourage parents to teach their children a variety of emotion words so they can express their feelings. Sometimes children have an easier time making difficult transitions when they are able to communicate their desires and emotions. For example, when a child is upset about leaving the park, an adult can label this emotion by saying, "It looks like you are upset about leaving the park. Are you upset? Would you like to tell me why you are upset about leaving?" After pausing to see if the child responds, the parent could continue, "I am upset about leaving the park. I like playing here with you. We need to go now because it's dinnertime. If the weather is nice tomorrow, we can come back."

Brainstorm with parents some strategies for teaching children problem solving skills so they learn to come up with alternative solutions to situations that arise. For example, a parent might ask a child, "What do you want to quietly play with while we take grandpa to the doctor's office?" Such questions help children consider variables like, "This toy makes music, so I can't bring it." Another useful strategy is a four-step problem solving process (CSEFEL 2013), in which parents ask their children to consider the following: (1) What is the problem?; (2) Think, think, think of some solutions; (3) What would happen if we tried the solution? Would it be fair? Would it be safe? How would everyone feel?; and (4) Give the solution a try! Through this process, children learn to problem solve with guidance and support.

Encourage parents to use "First . . ., then . . ." statements to communicate their expectations and to help children learn to wait patiently for preferred activities. For instance, a parent might say, "First you need to put the books on the shelf, and then you can play outside."

Individualized strategies

Even with preventative strategies in place and efforts made to teach new skills, there will still be times when transitions are challenging for some children. By learning about the specific situations that remain difficult, early childhood educators can provide parents with individualized suggestions. For example, if a child regularly has trouble with the transition from school to the car during pickup time, a teacher might give the child clear directions in the presence of the parent, describing to the child exactly what behaviors she expects to see as they walk to the car ("Shannon, I need to see walking feet and gentle hands as we walk to the car with Mom."). Early childhood educators also might model transition behaviors for the child while the parent is present ("Shannon, watch me walk to the cubbies, take out your backpack, and help you put it on to go home.").

Preventative strategies and new skills might not work well if parents have a hard time remaining warm and supportive when their children act out. The importance of remaining calm during difficult transitions cannot be overemphasized. Educators can offer suggestions to parents about how to develop their own cooldown strategies during stressful times (such as counting to 10 and visualizing a calming place). Educators can also help parents learn to redirect their children as a way to defuse a difficult transition. For example, as Cameron begins fussing about not wanting to take off his new snow boots, Ms. Annette might say, "We got some new fish in the fish tank today; we'll go check them out as soon as your boots are off."

Supporting parents

Some parents may seek support from educators or ask questions about a particular incident or transition, while other parents may have difficulty with multiple transitions. It is critical that educators consider which strategies best meet parents' unique needs. While educators should model for parents when opportunities arise, educators should also plan for less stressful learning opportunities during which they problem solve with parents. Some suggestions for sharing ideas with parents follow.

Parent workshops

Parent workshops can provide wonderful learning opportunities on creating successful transitions, while also allowing parents to see that they are not alone. During group workshops, early educators can cover topics such as preventative strategies, how to teach children the necessary skills to be successful during transitions, and how to manage challenging behavior during transitions (for example, see CSEFEL Parent Training Modules at http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/training_modules.html). During parent workshops, educators can demonstrate strategies for parents, role-play, and share information regarding how school transitions are structured. Videos of difficult transitions could be used as a foundation for collaboratively developing solutions. (For example, a video showing a transition using a timer can be found at vimeo.com/194715303, while a video depicting transition cues can be viewed at vimeo.com/194715224. For even more video examples, visit https://bit.ly/2JDYBz2.)

The importance of remaining calm during difficult transitions cannot be overemphasized.

Home communication

Proactively communicating with parents about transitions is another strategy that early childhood educators can use to maintain positive connections between school and home. For example, a monthly newsletter with transition tips can be sent home to parents, or weekly transition ideas can be inserted into a classroom newsletter. Additionally, communication logs can be created for individual children. These logs go between home and school as a method of sharing information with parents who would like support or suggestions for specific transitions. This provides an opportunity for educators and parents to learn about which strategies are successful at school and home, generate ideas for individual children, and examine challenges that continue to occur.

Observations and modeling

If children are struggling with transition times, parents can observe educators modeling strategies during classroom transitions. Some parents may benefit from paying attention to the expectations and directions teachers provide and then watching how their children react during the transition. This sort of modeling could be done while a parent is volunteering in the classroom, on a field trip with the class, or attending a parent night. Additionally, some parents might benefit from educators coaching them as they learn new strategies for supporting their children during difficult transitions. This might involve educators sharing detailed information on steps to follow when preparing for a transition, as well as performance-based feedback on what worked well and what a parent might do differently next time.

Conclusion

When early childhood educators and family members collaborate to support children who struggle with transitions, everyone benefits. Teachers and parents should communicate about their difficulties with transitions to determine possible solutions, like Ms. Ann does with Teresa in this closing vignette.

A few days after Teresa asks Ms. Ann for help making transitions easier for Lily, Ms. Ann shares a few strategies she uses in the classroom when challenging behaviors arise. She suggests three strategies: trying "First ..., then ..." statements to establish expectations, modeling emotion words so Lily can talk about her feelings, and helping Lily think about what might make her feel better.

Teresa thanks Ms. Ann and decides to try these strategies at the library that evening. "First we will go to story time at the library, then we will drive home to eat dinner," Teresa says to Lily as they get ready to go to the library. After story time, Teresa reminds Lily that it is time to go home for dinner. Lily starts to become upset, and Teresa worries that she's going to have another tantrum. Remembering Ms. Ann's advice, she asks, "Are you sad we have to leave the library? Can you tell me why you're sad?" Lily says she wants more story time. Teresa asks her if she would like to do story time at home. She explains that they can borrow the same book that they just heard during story time and read it over and over at home. Lily nods enthusiastically. Together, they take the book to the library checkout desk, calm and happy.

Transition Resources

Routines and schedules

From the TACSEI Backpack Connection Series:

From ZERO TO THREE:

Encouragement for successful transitions

From The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning:

References

Artman-Meeker, K., & K. Kinder. 2014. "Moving Right Along: Planning Transitions to Prevent Challenging Behavior." Front Porch Series Broadcast Calls. Head Start Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center, The National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning. Video. https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/video/planning-transitions-prevent-challen....

Bezdek, J., J.A. Summers, & A. Turnbull. 2010. "Professionals' Attitudes on Partnering with Families of Children and Youth with Disabilities." Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities 45 (3): 356-65.

Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. 2013. "Module 3a, Individualized Intensive Interventions: Determining the Meaning of Challenging Behavior." http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/training_preschool.html.

Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children. 2014. "DEC Recommended Practices in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education." www.dec-sped.org/recommendedpractices.

Hemmeter, M.L., M.M. Ostrosky, K.M. Artman, & K.A. Kinder. 2008. "Moving Right Along . . . Planning Transitions to Prevent Challenging Behavior." Young Children 63 (3): 18-25.

Hemmeter, M.L., M.M. Ostrosky, & R.M. Corso. 2012. "Preventing and Addressing Challenging Behavior: Common Questions and Practical Strategies." Young Exceptional Children 15 (2): 32-46.

Meadan H., M.M. Ostrosky, R.M. Santos, & M.R. Snodgrass. 2013. "How Can I Help? Prompting Procedures to Support Children's Learning." Young Exceptional Children 16 (4): 31-39.

Tyrrell A.L., R. Freeman, & C.R. Chambers. 2006. "Family Perceptions of Challenging Behavior: Strategies for Providing Effective Supports." In Young Exceptional Children Monograph Series No. 8: Supporting Social Emotional Development in Young Children, eds. E.M. Horn & H. Jones, 29-41. Missoula, MT: Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Reducing Challenging Behaviors during Transitions: Strategies for Early Childhood Educators to Share with Parents

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The purpose of this article is to highlight strategies that early childhood educators can share with families in an effort to prevent challenging behavior during transitions both inside and outside the home.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to frame students' thinking in terms of what they already knew, what they want to know, and afterwards, what they did learn.

# data[].attributes.body
This is an effort to move our students from dependent to independent learners, a common struggle with our at-risk populations

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Building Rapport & Trust

Establishing a level of rapport with individual students and the classroom community as a whole creates a positive learning environment and begins to build trust so that students do not feel the need to be guarded or defensive. This is especially important for struggling students who try to cover up their skill gaps by acting out or trying to disengage during class or at school. One of the most important ways to build trust across differences of identity (race, gender, class, family background, life experience, values, etc.) is working toward cultural synchronization. Cultural synchronization refers to a shared, implicit understanding of communication and interaction styles, both verbal and nonverbal, between students and teachers of different cultural backgrounds that can lead to increased trust, decreased frustration and improved learning opportunities.

Creating an Alliance

When some foundational trust has been established, it is important to move toward creating an alliance with the student - explicitly identifying a growth goal or "skill-based learning target" that is crucial for future success, and making a pact to work together in the service of improving identified skills (academic or "non-cognitive"), decision-making, or shifting a mindset. In order for an alliance to lead to results, a positive academic mindset needs to be fostered so that the student will stay engaged in the learning, believe and see evidence that growth is possible, and persevere through challenges. The alliance stage is critical for fostering student agency and personal investment.

Formative Assessment

Positive rapport and a strong alliance pave the way for the educator to gain a deep and holistic understanding of how a particular student is learning, thinking, and making decisions as they learn through multiple types of formative assessments. It is at this stage that the deep work of "intervening" takes place. The educator is able to help the student assess their own thinking and progress, and use new or pre-existing strategies effectively so that he or she is able to practice, self-correct and learn more independently. Through understanding a student's multiple aspects of their identify, their perception of self, and how they understand their context, the educator can also support the student to better understand the needs underneath any unproductive displays of behavior, and take responsibility for choices in their best interest.

Additional Resources

References

Boiarsky, G. Editor (2003). Academic Literacy in the English Classroom: Helping Underprepared and Working Class Students Succeed in College. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.

Covington, M. (1999). The Will to Learn: A Guide for Motivating Young People. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Cushman, K. (2010). Fires In the Mind: What Kids Can Tell Us About Motivation and Mastery. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Dweck, C. (2007). Mindsets: The New Psychology of Success. New York: Ballatine Books.

Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Teachers College Press.

Glick, M. (2011). The Instructional Leader and the Brain: Using Neuroscience to Inform Practice. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin.

Hammond, Z. (2014). Culturally Responsive Teaching and The Brain: Promoting Authentic Engagement and Rigor Among Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. Newbury Park: Corwin.

Howard, G. (1999). We Can't Teach What We Don't Know: White Teachers, Multiracial Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Irvine, J. J. (1990). Black students and school failure: Policies, practices, and prescriptions. New York: Greenwood Press.

Kohl, H. (1995). 'I Won't Learn from You': And Other Thoughts on Creative Maladjustment. New York: New Press.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2001). Crossing Over to Canaan: The Journey of New Teachers in Diverse Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ladson-Billings, G. (Summer, 1995). "But That's Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy." Theory into Practice, Vol. 34, No.3, pp.159-165.

Obidah, J. and Teel K. (2001). Because of the Kids: Facing Racial and Cultural Differences in Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

Olsen, L. (2008). Made in America: Immigrant Students in Our Public Schools. New York: New Press.

Pollack, M. (2008). Everyday Antiracism: Getting Real About Race in School. New York: New Press.

Popham, W. (2008). Transformative Assessment. Washington, D.C.: ASCD.

Pressley, M. (1999). Cognitive Strategy Instruction that Really Improves Children's Academic Performance. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.

Sheets, R. H. (1999b). Relating competence in an urban classroom to ethnic identity development. In R. H. Sheets & E. R. Hollins (Eds.), Racial and ethnic identity in school practices: Aspects of human development (pp. 157-178). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Steele, C. (2009). Whistling Vivaldi: And Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us (Issues of Our Time). New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

Trumbull, E., Carrie Rothstein-Fisch, Patricia M. Greenfield, Blanca Quiroz, (2001). Bridging Cultures between Home and School: A Guide for Teachers. San Francisco: West Ed.

Weissglass, Julian. (1998). Ripples of Hope: Building Relationships for educational change. Santa Barbara: Center for Educational Change in Mathematics and Science, University of California.

Wood, E., Woloshyn, V., and Willoughby, T. (1995). Cognitive Strategy Instruction For Middle and High Schools. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Learning Partnerships - National Equity Project

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learning Partnerships ensure that students have access to all the social, emotional, and educational opportunities they deserve. This framework guides classroom practices and routines that benefit every student. Learning partnerships are beyond rapport: they require the educator to deeply learn abou

# data[].attributes.body
This can support all students, particularly those with ASD, by giving them a visual representation as a positive behavioral support.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Browse this collection of visual supports and other resources to help your students with ASD be successful socially and academically in school. You'll find templates for social rules, classroom rules, emotional support, schedules, and more.

# data[].attributes.headline
Differentiation by Readiness, Interests, Learning Profiles

# data[].attributes.subject
Differentiation by Readiness, Interests, Learning Profiles

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to engage each student in learning by focusing on their assetts.

# data[].attributes.headline
Differentiating through Content, Process, Product, or Environment

# data[].attributes.subject
Differentiating through Content, Process, Product, or Environment

# data[].attributes.body
Content: the curriculum students access and how they access it

Process: How teachers sequence the learning and the ways in which students learn

Product: How students demonstrate what they've learned

Environment: How learning is structured

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to provide scaffolded instruction in note taking to provide guidance in how to complete the task.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Guided Notes are teacher-prepared handouts that outline lectures, audiovisual presentations, or readings, but leave blank space for students to fill in key concepts, facts, definitions, etc. Guided Notes promote active engagement during lecture or independent reading, provide full and accurate notes for use as a study guide, and help students to identify the most important information covered.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to show students what is expected of them and how to execute a task.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teaching Strategies: Modeling - The Digital Demo

# data[].attributes.headline
Key Elements of Differentiated Instruction

# data[].attributes.subject
Key Elements of Differentiated Instruction

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to provide differentiation through content, process, product, environment, readiness, interest, learning profile, and positive learning environment.

# data[].attributes.body
Breaking up learning into chunks and providing a tool within each chunk in order to provide a safety net for students.

Stages of scaffolding: https://www.educationcorner.com/scaffolding-education-guide/

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of this resource is to offer strategies in working with twice-exceptional students.

https://www.davidsongifted.org/gifted-blog/2e-students-who-they-are-and-what-they-need/

Nurture the student’s strengths and interests

Foster their social/emotional development

Enhance their capacity to cope with mixed abilities

Identify learning gaps and provide explicit, remediative instruction

Support the development of compensatory strategies (Reis & McCoach, 2000, and Smutny, 2001).

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to provide an enriching and challenging education for gifted/talented and advanced students.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to provide specific differentiation strategies for those in SpEd.

https://www.cde.state.co.us/cdesped/topic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Fall 2023 Canvas Copy of SPED Needs and Intervention Resources 

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of formative assessments is to monitor student understanding as the concept is still being taught so the teacher can adjust based on the data and address misconceptions that are coming up.

The purpose of summative assessments is to observe student understanding in terms of attainment of the learning target and success criteria.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to ensure students understand the content being taught.

More strategies: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/dipsticks-to-check-for-understanding-todd-finley

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Formative assessment is a proven technique for improving student learning, and the strategies shared here by Jay McTighe work both in the classroom and remotely.

Bob Daemmrich / Alamy Stock Photo

Using formative assessments designed to check for understanding and provide students with feedback and support is one of the most effective ways to improve and enhance student learning. Yet because of the need to cover large amounts of information and develop many skills, teachers may not take time checking to make sure students understand a concept or can effectively apply a skill, and, if they don't, figuring out ways to improve their learning.

Thankfully, there are practical, proven formative assessment techniques that teachers can use as a quick "pulse check" to gauge students' understanding. The eight techniques here can be applied across grades and subject areas in virtual, hybrid, and in-person learning environments.

The results of these checks should not be graded since the purpose of formative assessment techniques is to obtain feedback to use in improving teaching and learning, not to evaluate learning. It's important that students understand the purposes of these techniques, that mistakes are OK-and even expected-and that they will not be graded on their responses.

Thumbs up: I understand _____ and can explain it in my own words.

Wave hand: I'm not completely sure about _____ and doubt I could explain it.

Thumbs down: I don't yet understand _____ and cannot explain it.

Ask students to display a designated hand signal to indicate their degree of confidence in their understanding of a concept, principle, or process. For example:

Self-assessment and self-reporting can be unreliable, so use a random calling technique to periodically select students with their thumbs up (e.g., pull names out of a bowl) and ask them to explain.

In virtual learning environments, students can signal on camera or post designated emojis to signal their understanding levels.

Present students with a few binary-choice statements or questions containing an understanding or a common misconception and have them select a response (e.g., True or False, Agree or Disagree) and share it via a whiteboard, cell phone app, or hand signal (e.g., thumbs up or down). This efficient technique is particularly effective to use in checking students' prior knowledge or potential misconceptions before beginning new instruction.

True/False: When dropped from the same height, a bowling ball will land before a marble.

Agree/Disagree: Is this an example of alliteration?

Here are a couple of "choosing" formats with examples:

In virtual learning environments, students can use the chat box feature to record their choices, or respond to a poll.

3. Picture It

Draw a visual web of factors affecting plant growth.

Develop a concept map to illustrate how a bill becomes a law.

Create a story map or sequence diagram showing the major events in the story.

Visual representations, such as graphic organizers and concept maps, are widely used to enhance learning, and can also be used as formative assessments. Have students create a visual or symbolic representation (e.g., a graphic organizer, web, or concept map) of information and abstract concepts and then be prepared to explain their graphic. Picturing techniques are especially useful to see if students understand how various concepts or elements of a process are related.

In virtual learning environments, students can post their visuals on a Google slide or Pinterest board, or in Nearpod or Jamboard.

4. Troubleshoot It

1. Identify the flaw or error, and (even better)

2. Correct it.

One of the most efficient and effective quick checks for understanding involves troubleshooting. Present students with a common misconception or a frequent procedural error. See if they can:

Present a rough draft of writing and ask students to serve as an editor to mark compositional and grammatical errors.

Have students review work on a multistep word problem to identify computational mistakes and reasoning errors, and correct them.

In a photography class, show photos reflecting common compositional errors or flawed exposure or lighting, and have students recommend needed corrections using photo editing software.

Their responses will provide a quick check of the depth of their understanding.

5. Summarize It

Compose a tweet in 280 characters or less answering the question: What is the big idea that you have learned about _____?

Record a one-minute podcast or vodcast using an app on a smartphone or tablet to summarize the key concepts from one or more lessons.

Prepare a weekly letter to your teacher (or parents) summarizing something that you now understand as a result of your learning during the past week.

Here are a few examples of this technique:

Create a "real life" word problem to see if other students understand how to calculate surface area.

Locate a news article or blog post that presents an example of the tension between individual rights and the common good.

Find examples of symmetry somewhere in our school or on the playground.

Understanding is revealed when students can transfer their learning to new situations. Accordingly, one of the best checks for understanding is to see if students can apply material in a somewhat novel context. This technique includes asking students to find or create new and novel examples to illustrate a newly learned concept.

Develop a five-minute lesson to teach a younger student about how supply and demand can affect the price of things. Use one or more specific examples that we have not discussed.

Your friend has been absent and missed the last two lessons where you learned about community helpers. Draw a picture of at least five helpers in our community to help them understand the concept of a community helper.

This is a more involved, but valuable, formative assessment technique. Ask students to teach a new concept or skill to someone else-a new student, a student who has just returned from absence, or a younger child. You'll be able to gauge their degree of understanding as you review or observe their lesson. Here are two examples:

In virtual learning environments, students can record a lesson using a laptop, tablet, or cell phone camera.

8. Analogize It

A more sophisticated technique invites students to develop an analogy or metaphor to illustrate a newly learned concept or skill. The effectiveness of their explanatory analogy or metaphor can give you insight into their understanding. However, be cautious when interpreting student responses to this technique-a student may very well understand a concept but be unable to generate an appropriate analogy. Asking students to explain their analogies will give you further insight into their understanding.

A fraction is a part of a whole like a wheel is a part of a bicycle.

Formative assessment is like tasting a meal while you're cooking because it provides feedback that a cook can use to make adjustments to improve the meal.

Here's a prompt for students: A _____ is like a _____ because _____.

Students can also create visual analogies (combining techniques 3 and 8). In virtual learning environments, students can post their analogies and metaphors in a chat box or on a Google slide or Pinterest board.

Note: Several of these techniques (especially 1, 2, 5, and 8) can be naturally used in conjunction with another popular formative assessment technique-an exit card-given to students at the end of a class period or end of the school day.

While these techniques can provide valuable information about the effectiveness of teaching and the quality of students' learning, they're not ends in themselves. Instead, they should be seen as the first step in a " feedback cycle." The next step is to act on that feedback-reteaching something that many students failed to learn; correcting misconceptions that may be revealed; and/or providing scaffolded support to students who need it. Moreover, when students are given feedback, they must also be given opportunities to use it, such as revising their work, practicing the skill, or correcting errors. (Getting feedback without a chance to use it is like eating without digesting!) Then, the formative assessment cycle reboots as revisions can be assessed again, with progress noted and new learning goals set.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Formative assessment is a proven technique for improving student learning, and the strategies shared here by Jay McTighe work both in the classroom and remotely.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of learning targets and success criteria is to show students what the learning target is and how they can show proficiency or mastery in meeting those learning targets.

# data[].attributes.headline
Holistic, Analytic, and Single-Point Rubrics 

# data[].attributes.subject
Holistic, Analytic, and Single-Point Rubrics 

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of this resource is to give advantages and disadvantages on three different types of rubrics.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Whether you're new to rubrics, or you just don't know their formal names, it may be time for a primer on rubric terminology.
So let's talk about rubrics for a few minutes. What we're going to do here is describe two frequently used kinds of rubrics, holistic and analytic, plus a less common one called the single-point rubric (my favorite, for the record). For each one, we'll look at an example and explore its pros and cons.

Off we go!

A holistic rubric is the most general kind. It lists three to five levels of performance, along with a broad description of the characteristics that define each level. The levels can be labeled with numbers (such as 1 through 4), letters (such as A through F) or words (such as Beginning through Exemplary). What each level is called isn't what makes the rubric holistic - it's the way the characteristics are all lumped together.

Suppose you're an unusually demanding person. You want your loved ones to know what you expect if they should ever make you breakfast in bed. So you give them this holistic rubric:

When your breakfast is done, you simply gather your loved ones and say, "I'm sorry my darlings, but that breakfast was just a 2. Try harder next time."

The main advantage of a holistic rubric is that it's easy on the teacher - in the short run, anyway. Creating a holistic rubric takes less time than the others, and grading with one is faster, too. You just look over an assignment and give one holistic score to the whole thing.

The main disadvantage of a holistic rubric is that it doesn't provide targeted feedback to students, which means they're unlikely to learn much from the assignment. Although many holistic rubrics list specific characteristics for each level, the teacher gives only one score, without breaking it down into separate qualities. This often leads the student to approach the teacher and ask, "Why did you give me a 2?" If the teacher is the explaining kind, he will spend a few minutes breaking down the score. If not, he'll say something like, "Read the rubric." Then the student has to guess which factors had the biggest influence on her score. For a student who really tries hard, it can be heartbreaking to have no idea what she's doing wrong.

Holistic rubrics are most useful in cases when there's no time (or need, though that's hard to imagine) for specific feedback. You see them in standardized testing - the essay portion of the SAT is scored with a 0-6 holistic rubric. When hundreds of thousands of essays have to be graded quickly, and by total strangers who have no time to provide feedback, a holistic rubric comes in handy.

An analytic rubric breaks down the characteristics of an assignment into parts, allowing the scorer to itemize and define exactly what aspects are strong, and which ones need improvement.

So for the breakfast in bed example, an analytic rubric would look like this:

In this case, you'd give your loved ones a separate score for each category. They might get a 3 on Presentation, but a 2 on Food and just a 1 on Comfort. To make feedback even more targeted, you could also highlight specific phrases in the rubric, like, "the recipient is crowded during the meal" to indicate exactly what went wrong.

This is where we see the main advantage of the analytic rubric: It gives students a clearer picture of why they got the score they got. It is also good for the teacher, because it gives her the ability to justify a score on paper, without having to explain everything in a later conversation.

Analytic rubrics have two significant disadvantages, however: (1) Creating them takes a lot of time. Writing up descriptors of satisfactory work - completing the "3" column in this rubric, for example - is enough of a challenge on its own. But to have to define all the ways the work could go wrong, and all the ways it could exceed expectations, is a big, big task. And once all that work is done, (2) students won't necessarily read the whole thing. Facing a 36-cell table crammed with 8-point font is enough to send most students straight into a nap. And that means they won't clearly understand what's expected of them.

Still, analytic rubrics are useful when you want to cover all your bases, and you're willing to put in the time to really get clear on exactly what every level of performance looks like.

A single-point rubric is a lot like an analytic rubric, because it breaks down the components of an assignment into different criteria. What makes it different is that it only describes the criteria for proficiency; it does not attempt to list all the ways a student could fall short, nor does it specify how a student could exceed expectations.

A single-point rubric for breakfast in bed would look like this:

Notice that the language in the "Criteria" column is exactly the same as the "3" column in the analytic rubric. When your loved ones receive this rubric, it will include your written comments on one or both sides of each category, telling them exactly how they fell short ("runny eggs," for example) and how they excelled ("vase of flowers"). Just like with the analytic rubric, if a target was simply met, you can just highlight the appropriate phrase in the center column.

If you've never used a single-point rubric, it's worth a try. In 2010, Jarene Fluckiger studied a collection of teacher action research studies on the use of single-point rubrics. She found that student achievement increased with the use of these rubrics, especially when students helped create them and used them to self-assess their work.

The single-point rubric has several advantages: (1) It contains far less language than the analytic rubric, which means students are more likely to read it and it will take less time to create, while still providing rich detail about what's expected. (2) Areas of concern and excellence are open-ended. When using full analytic rubrics, I often find that students do things that are not described on the rubric, but still depart from expectations. Because I can't find the right language to highlight, I find myself hand-writing justifications for a score in whatever space I can find. This is frustrating, time-consuming and messy. With a single-point rubric, there's no attempt to predict all the ways a student might go wrong. Similarly, the undefined "Advanced" column places no limits on how students might stretch themselves. "If the highest level is already prescribed then creativity may be limited to that pre-determined level," says Fluckiger. "Students may surprise us if we leave quality open-ended."

The main disadvantage of single-point rubrics is that using them requires more writing on the teacher's part. If a student has fallen short in many areas, completing that left-hand column will take more time than simply highlighting a pre-written analytic rubric.

Need Ready-Made Rubrics?

My Rubric Pack gives you four different designs in Microsoft Word and Google Docs formats. It also comes with video tutorials to show you how to customize them for any need, plus a Teacher's Manual to help you understand the pros and cons of each style. Check it out here:

Sources:

Fluckiger, J. (2010). Single point rubric: A tool for responsible student self-assessment. Teacher Education Faculty Publications. Paper 5. Retrieved April 25, 2014 from http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/tedfacpub/5.

Mertler, C. A. (2001). Designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7(25). Retrieved April 30, 2014 from http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=25.
Know Your Terms is my effort to build a user-friendly knowledge base of terms every educator should know. New items will be added on an ongoing basis. If you heard some term at a PD and didn't want to admit you didn't know what it meant, send it to me via the contact form and I'll research it for you.

Keep in touch.
Join the Cult of Pedagogy mailing list and get weekly tips, tools, and inspiration-in quick, bite-sized packages-all geared toward making your teaching more effective and fun. You'll get access to my members-only library of free downloadable resources, including my e-booklet, 20 Ways to Cut Your Grading Time in Half, which has helped thousands of teachers spend less time grading!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Know Your Terms: Holistic, Analytic, and Single-Point Rubrics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Whether you're new to rubrics, or you've used them for years without knowing their formal names, it may be time for a primer on rubric terminology.

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to clarify expectations before a student begins and hands in an assignment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Listen to my interview with Mark Wise (transcript):
Sponsored by Pear Deck and Microsoft Teams for Education

In my 20-year career as an administrator, I've had the opportunity to be a fly on the wall in hundreds of classrooms across grade levels and content areas. While much has changed in education over those years, one element has remained constant: the well-intentioned use of rubrics with varying levels of success.

Starting with their use as early as kindergarten and continuing through high school, rubrics are meant to clarify expectations, but poor design can make the experience anything but clear. Rows of criteria describe, often in 10-point font, how students will be graded for an upcoming project. Students attempt to decipher the details, review the exemplars provided, and note the corresponding due dates, but the information doesn't always translate into action.

This is unfortunate because a well-designed rubric can be more than just an evaluation tool. For the teacher, it can clarify expectations, which increases the likelihood that these traits will be attended to during instruction and as a result, can provide more targeted feedback. For the learner, knowing what is expected from the start along with clear indicators of progress provides an effective means to self-assess, make adjustments, and improve the quality of performance.

So how do we get there? How do we take our current rubrics and fine-tune them so they deliver on those promises? These five guidelines will help.

1. Measure What Really Matters

Teachers often include multiple criteria in their rubrics without adding the primary learning outcome they are most interested in: Did it persuade? Did it create an emotional connection? Did you win your argument? We tend to construct our rubrics with important but sometimes peripheral components of performance because they are easy to see, count, or score ( Wiggins and McTighe, p. 34). For example, if your students are writing an editorial, it could be stylistically sophisticated, well-organized, and meet the length requirement. However, an editorial, regardless of how well written, is wholly ineffective if it fails to persuade the reader.

Moreover, since students can become overwhelmed by the sheer number of criteria they are required to meet, less can be more. One way to accomplish this is to utilize a single-point rubric, which allows the student to focus on the stated expectations while receiving feedback on the degree to which they are meeting them. If you are using a more traditional 4-6 point rubric that details the continuum of performance, it is even more incumbent upon you to identify the main reason students are engaged in the task in the first place and edit down the criteria so it incentivizes students to focus on the most important aspects of the performance.

The "before" example below shows a rubric that measures a lot of things that don't have anything to do with whether a student understands the lunar phases: things like creativity, attractiveness, and whether the task is completed on time. If the purpose of the assignment is to assess whether students have really learned the lunar phases, the rubric should focus primarily on whether the content in the model is accurate and effective.

In the revised version below, all of the criteria is focused on the quality and accuracy of the information in the model and measures the desired scientific thinking from building the model in the first place.

2. Weigh the Criteria Appropriately

As designers of rubrics, we can signal to students that certain criteria matter more than others. Just because a rubric has four criteria, doesn't mean that each needs to be worth 25 percent of the score. With the weight of each criterion adjusted, the rubric itself guides students to focus on what is most important.

In the example below-which is the same revised rubric from above, but where the teacher wanted to include some accountability for mechanics-all four criteria are weighted exactly the same. This means a student who demonstrates a perfect understanding of the science behind lunar phases, but who struggles with spelling and punctuation, could end up with a C on the project. That would not be a true reflection of mastery.

By contrast, in the revised rubric below, "Mechanics" is only assigned 10 percent of the overall grade, while the other three criteria make up 90 percent combined. This way, the final grade will be a much more reliable measure of student understanding of lunar phases.

Another thing to keep in mind is that each criterion doesn't have to be graded every time or the same way. Within the structure of the rubric, teachers have a great deal of flexibility. Although all of the criteria are important, we can use our discretion by grading only certain items, then attending to the others when those skills or concepts are formally taught and practiced. Likewise, since our expectations of what students can accomplish at the beginning of the year are quite different from what we expect at the end of the year, we can continue to adjust the grade or point values we assign to each column.

3. Check Your Math

Your point values for each column need to yield an accurate reflection of the student's performance. For example, if on a 4-point rubric the "3" is "meets expectations" most teachers believe the point value should reflect a range from A- to B+. This stands in contrast to a C (3 out of 4 points) which is what would be earned if a student met expectations for the criteria within that column. This can result in either the teacher giving an unfair grade or altering the feedback in order to generate the desired grade.Either result isn't helpful for the student.

A design tip is to look at each column vertically and choose a number or range that would be appropriate for a student scoring exclusively within that column. The corresponding grades don't have to reflect a neat 4, 3, 2 progression. Often using decimals or a range of numbers is necessary to align each column vertically to a grade that matches the column's descriptors.

4. Can Do Rubrics, Not Can't Do Rubrics

We need to consider the language we choose so that our rubrics encourage students to improve. Without realizing it, when teachers detail the levels of performance, we tend to use degrees of deficiency (e.g. mostly, somewhat, lacking) rather than affirmative non-judgmental statements as to what the students are capable of at each point along the continuum. If we are going to truly use the rubric as a tool to enhance students' ability to self-assess and thus enhance their performance, we must provide clear markers along the way for how students can improve and not unintentionally send the message that their ongoing work is insufficient rather than on a path of progress.

The examples below show two rows in a rubric for a research project. The first uses deficit language to describe the lower levels of performance, while the second describes each level in terms of what the student CAN do.

A real-world model that clearly illustrates a learner's progression toward achieving proficiency is the traditional swim chart which indicates where the swimmer is in on the path toward achieving independence in the deep end of the pool. The language of the swim chart describes traits-from treading water to extended front crawl-that are required for the learner to move from Tadpole (beginner) to Seal (advanced). The expectations are clear, measurable, and non-judgemental; it describes what swimmers can do rather than what they can't. We can view the transparency and progression of the swim chart as an aspirational goal for our rubric design, being mindful to choose language that states the desired outcome, rather than anticipated problems.

Educators are already working toward this in the area of world languages. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) has performance descriptors that describe the learner's degree of communication fluency. ACTFL has also developed "Can Do" statements that describe what language learners can do consistently and independently. Like the swim chart, these indicators allow learners to use the statements for self-evaluation so they are more aware of what they know and can do in the target language. In turn, world language educators have developed rubrics that match those desired outcomes.

5. Models, Models, Models!

When we design rubrics, we tend to pore over their construction. We perseverate over the language we use ("should I say 'clearly.'.. or 'distinctly'?"), repeatedly delete rows or columns, and painstakingly choose fonts.

From the student perspective, they experience the rubric differently. After being introduced to the rubric at the start of the project, the next time students typically see it is when it is returned, replete with circled boxes, teacher comments, and a final grade attached. Understandably, many students suffer from "rubric fatigue," a condition caused by encountering a series of disconnected rubrics across subject areas on any given day.

What students really benefit from are actual models (both exemplars and non-exemplars) that link to descriptors on the rubric that illustrate the quality of work expected. For example, in the real world we typically have many models of the performance or product we are trying to create or implement-whether it is for how a game should be played, a song should be sung, or an editorial should be written. Similarly, when launching a project, showing students multiple examples of prior student work or appropriate real-world examples makes the rubric meaningful and brings these descriptors to life.

Another strategy is to have students sort the various models in order to determine the specific qualities that make some examples stronger than others. The teacher can then incorporate the students' language in their draft version of the rubric or highlight aspects the teacher may have initially overlooked before distributing the final rubric. This process allows the students themselves to generate the criteria and descriptive language of the desired performance which deepens their understanding and creates shared ownership of the expectations for quality work.

Similarly, the rubric can become more user-friendly if we make the criteria more visible to students. This can be done by adding hyperlinks of models tied to the descriptors so students can access a range of examples to inform where they are along the continuum and show them exactly how they can improve.

Better Rubrics Support Student-Centered Learning

As educators, we are rightfully drawn to the goal of establishing a classroom where students have opportunities to engage in complex problem solving, participate more actively in dialogue and debate, design their own experiments, or research topics that interest them. These types of experiences-ones that do not result in a single "correct" answer or follow a formulaic procedure-require more of an open-ended assessment tool with clear guidelines for success that students can use to guide, self-assess, and ultimately improve their learning. Hopefully by following these five suggestions, your rubrics will help clarify what you really want students to take away from the experience, provide your learners with the means to get there, and allow you to fairly and honestly assess their performance. ♦

Reference

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2012). The understanding by design guide to advanced concepts in creating and reviewing units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Come back for more.
Join our mailing list and get weekly tips, tools, and inspiration that will make your teaching more effective and fun. You'll get access to our members-only library of free downloads, including 20 Ways to Cut Your Grading Time in Half, the e-booklet that has helped thousands of teachers save time on grading. Over 50,000 teachers have already joined-come on in.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Rubric Repair: 5 Changes that Get Results

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Rubrics are meant to clarify expectations, but poor design can make the experience anything but clear. These five guidelines will help.

# data[].attributes.body
Schools, districts, states, and others can use CASEL’s Framework to:

Foster knowledge, skills, and attitudes across five areas of social and emotional competence;

Establish equitable learning environments and coordinate practices across four key settings that support students’ social, emotional, and academic development.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Foster knowledge, skills, and attitudes across five areas of social and emotional competence;

Establish equitable learning environments and coordinate practices across four key settings that support students' social, emotional, and academic development.

Download more information on the framework (available in and Spanish).

Use our reflection protocol to facilitate a discussion on implementation efforts in your school, district, or other setting.

Read more about the 2020 update to our framework, which highlighted the potential of SEL in promoting educational equity and excellence.

Back to top

Communities

Communities. Community partners often provide safe and developmentally rich settings for learning and development, have deep understanding of community needs and assets, are seen as trusted partners by families and students, and have connections to additional supports and services that school and families need. Community programs also offer opportunities for young people to practice their social and emotional skills in settings that are both personally relevant and can open opportunities for their future. To integrate SEL efforts across the school day and out-of-school time, school staff and community partners should align on common language and coordinate strategies and communication around SEL-related efforts and initiatives.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL - Community Partnerships

Families & Caregivers

Families & Caregivers. When schools and families form authentic partnerships, they can build strong connections that reinforce students' social and emotional development. Families and caregivers are children's first teachers, and bring deep expertise about their development, experiences, culture, and learning needs. These insights and perspectives are critical to informing, supporting, and sustaining SEL efforts. Research suggests that evidence-based SEL programs are more effective when they extend into the home, and families are far more likely to form partnerships with schools when their schools' norms, values, and cultural representations reflect their own experiences. Schools need inclusive decision-making processes that ensure that families-particularly those from historically marginalized groups-are part of planning, implementing, and continuously improving SEL.

Schools can also create other avenues for family partnership that may include creating ongoing two-way communication with families, helping caregivers understand child development, helping teachers understand family backgrounds and cultures, providing opportunities for families to volunteer in schools, extending learning activities and discussions into homes, and coordinating family services with community partners. These efforts should engage families in understanding, experiencing, informing, and supporting the social and emotional development of their students.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL - Family Partnerships

Schools

Schools. Effectively integrating SEL schoolwide involves ongoing planning, implementation, evaluation, and continuous improvement by all members of the school community. SEL efforts both contribute to and depend upon a school climate where all students and adults feel respected, supported, and engaged.

Because the school setting includes many contexts-classrooms, hallways, cafeteria, playground, bus-fostering a healthy school climate and culture requires active engagement from all adults and students. A strong school culture is rooted in students' sense of belonging, with evidence that suggests that it plays a crucial role in students' engagement. SEL also offers an opportunity to enhance existing systems of student support by integrating SEL goals and practices with universal, targeted, and intensive academic and behavioral supports. By coordinating and building upon SEL practices and programs, schools can create an environment that infuses SEL into every part of students' educational experience and promotes positive social, emotional, and academic outcomes for all students.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Schoolwide SEL

Classrooms

Classrooms. Research has shown that social and emotional competence can be enhanced using a variety of classroom-based approaches such as: (a) explicit instruction through which social and emotional skills and attitudes are taught and practiced in developmentally, contextually, and culturally responsive ways; (b) teaching practices such as cooperative learning and project-based learning; and (c) integration of SEL and academic curriculum such as language arts, math, science, social studies, health, and performing arts. High-quality SEL instruction has four elements represented by the acronym SAFE: Sequenced - following a coordinated set of training approaches to foster the development of competencies; Active - emphasizing active forms of learning to help students practice and master new skills; Focused - implementing curriculum that intentionally emphasizes the development of SEL competencies; and Explicit - defining and targeting specific skills, attitudes, and knowledge.

SEL instruction is carried out most effectively in nurturing, safe environments characterized by positive, caring relationships among students and teachers. To facilitate age-appropriate and culturally responsive instruction, adults must understand and appreciate the unique strengths and needs of each student and support students' identities. When adults incorporate students' personal experiences and cultural backgrounds and seek their input, they create an inclusive classroom environment where students are partners in the educational process, elevating their own agency. Strong relationships between adults and students can facilitate co-learning, foster student and adult growth, and generate collaborative solutions to shared concerns.
Learn more: CASEL Guide to Effective SEL Programs

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness: The abilities to understand one's own emotions, thoughts, and values and how they influence behavior across contexts. This includes capacities to recognize one's strengths and limitations with a well-grounded sense of confidence and purpose.

Such as:

Integrating personal and social identities

Identifying personal, cultural, and linguistic assets

Identifying one's emotions

Demonstrating honesty and integrity

Linking feelings, values, and thoughts

Examining prejudices and biases

Experiencing self-efficacy

Having a growth mindset

Developing interests and a sense of purpose

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Self-Management

Self-management: The abilities to manage one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors effectively in different situations and to achieve goals and aspirations. This includes the capacities to delay gratification, manage stress, and feel motivation and agency to accomplish personal and collective goals.

Such as:

Managing one's emotions

Identifying and using stress management strategies

Exhibiting self-discipline and self-motivation

Setting personal and collective goals

Using planning and organizational skills

Showing the courage to take initiative

Demonstrating personal and collective agency

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Social Awareness

Social awareness: The abilities to understand the perspectives of and empathize with others, including those from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and contexts. This includes the capacities to feel compassion for others, understand broader historical and social norms for behavior in different settings, and recognize family, school, and community resources and supports.

Such as:

Taking others' perspectives

Recognizing strengths in others

Demonstrating empathy and compassion

Showing concern for the feelings of others

Understanding and expressing gratitude

Identifying diverse social norms, including unjust ones

Recognizing situational demands and opportunities

Understanding the influences of organizations and systems on behavior

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Responsible Decision-Making

Responsible decision-making: The abilities to make caring and constructive choices about personal behavior and social interactions across diverse situations. This includes the capacities to consider ethical standards and safety concerns, and to evaluate the benefits and consequences of various actions for personal, social, and collective well-being.

Such as:

Demonstrating curiosity and open-mindedness

Learning how to make a reasoned judgment after analyzing information, data, and facts

Identifying solutions for personal and social problems

Anticipating and evaluating the consequences of one's actions

Recognizing how critical thinking skills are useful both inside and outside of school

Reflecting on one's role to promote personal, family, and community well-being

Evaluating personal, interpersonal, community, and institutional impacts

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Relationship Skills

Relationship skills: The abilities to establish and maintain healthy and supportive relationships and to effectively navigate settings with diverse individuals and groups. This includes the capacities to communicate clearly, listen actively, cooperate, work collaboratively to problem solve and negotiate conflict constructively, navigate settings with differing social and cultural demands and opportunities, provide leadership, and seek or offer help when needed.

Such as:

Communicating effectively

Developing positive relationships

Demonstrating cultural competency

Practicing teamwork and collaborative problem-solving

Resolving conflicts constructively

Resisting negative social pressure

Showing leadership in groups

Seeking or offering support and help when needed

Standing up for the rights of others

Check out this video from PBS Learning Media for more information.

Social & Emotional Learning

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is an integral part of education and human development. SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions.

SEL advances educational equity and excellence through authentic school-family-community partnerships to establish learning environments and experiences that feature trusting and collaborative relationships, rigorous and meaningful curriculum and instruction, and ongoing evaluation. SEL can help address various forms of inequity and empower young people and adults to co-create thriving schools and contribute to safe, healthy, and just communities.

Back to top Back to top Back to top

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Our SEL framework, known to many as the "CASEL wheel," helps cultivate skills and environments that advance students' learning and development.

# data[].attributes.body
To create psychological, emotional, and physical safety for students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
There's a lot more that goes into learning than what's in the curriculum. Decades of research going back to psychologists like Piaget and Maslow show that a safe environment is essential for student success. Creating a welcoming, inclusive space where students feel free to express themselves in service to their academic goals begins with how students are treated by teachers and peers-in interactions big and small.

Good teachers already know that "building the right kind of climate and culture is crucial to a successful classroom," writes Jal Mehta, a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Fortunately there are "ample opportunities for this kind of integration."

When schools and teachers focus on honing complex skills like tone of voice and co-regulation, while generating connection and belonging between children, they help deliver the "physiological and psychological conditions for productive learning," note researchers Linda Darling-Hammond and Channa M. Cook-Harvey in a 2018 report. "Without secure relationships and supports for development, student engagement and learning are undermined."

We examined the research and combed through our archives to see how teachers keep their classrooms safe, open, and inviting learning spaces focused on collaboration, effective communication, and strong two-way relationships between students and teachers. Read on to see an assortment of ways teachers create these conditions in their classrooms.

3. Sit with Students: Teachers should circulate in the classroom, of course, but it's also important to occasionally sit beside them. "We might ask a strategic question, inquire about the group's project, or simply listen," writes Rebecca Alber, who instructs preservice teachers at UCLA's Graduate School of Education. It can be a uniquely powerful way to build connection, empathy, and ultimately trust.

4. Check In Daily: Each day at Rhode Island's Highlander Charter School begins with a morning meeting to help get students centered, connected to teachers and peers, and ready to learn. Former high school teacher Ronen Habib began class with a brief gratitude circle, a warm-up game, and a moment of mindful breathing. Such exercises build emotional intelligence skills such as self-awareness and self-management, says teacher Aukeem Ballard, and give students space to quiet down and reflect before learning.

8. Develop Your Tone of Voice: Using your voice to manage a classroom is a powerful tool-and it can take years to get right. A tone that's too strict or demanding can cause students, especially older ones, to disengage; too soft and you'll invite them to test boundaries. The best mix is somewhere in the middle, writes middle school teacher Kristine Napper. "Neither high expectations nor kind hearts can do the job alone," says Napper. Instead, aim for a warm demander tone that "focuses on building strong relationships with students, then draws on that wellspring of trust to hold students to high standards of deep engagement with course content," Napper writes.

9. Confront Language: Holding students accountable for the ways they talk and joke about topics like gender identity, body image, and race are key parts of building safe classroom communities and schools. "You can interrupt negative events when they happen in school-homophobic remarks, transphobic remarks, racist remarks-because when those things are not interrupted, that can be interpreted as teachers 'giving permission,'" says Dr. Joseph Kosciw, director of the Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network Research Institute. "But it's also about creating an environment that embraces difference and diversity-and teaching an inclusive curriculum so kids connect to their learning." In the classroom, says educational consultant Becky Cohn-Vargas, consider introducing students to the concept of identity safety and invite them to help "formulate norms for respect, acceptance, and inclusion."

10. Make Time for Reflection: Research shows that giving students opportunities to reflect on the goals, relationships, and interests most important to them can boost achievement. Try regular low-stakes writing exercises like journal jots or quick writes, Alber suggests, with prompts such as: "What is your life's motto and why?" Also, make time for academic reflection, writes educator Andrew Miller, by asking straightforward questions about what students learned and what they think they need to learn more about.

12. Occasionally, Go Deeper: Quick check-ins like Roses and Thorns and cold opens allow students to express themselves before learning starts. But when time allows, a slightly more elaborate check-in can give students space to share more deeply and explore whether they're feeling supported in their learning, getting enough sleep, or feeling overwhelmed.

13. Be Trauma-Informed: Examining the impact on students of factors such as racism, poverty, and community violence comes with many misconceptions, writes Matthew Portell, executive principal at Fall-Hamilton Elementary in Nashville. A big one is that it's not teachers' jobs to be therapists. But being a trauma-informed educator doesn't mean that teachers need to "do the work of professional therapists," Portell argues. Instead, it's about taking a trauma-informed lens to how you approach all children. Research shows, for example, that building strong, nurturing relationships fosters a feeling of belonging that's important for all students-but for students who've experienced trauma, it's "absolutely imperative for healing," says Portell.

14. Don't Forget the Shy Kids: Shy or introverted students may be less likely to raise their hands in class-but they need opportunities to contribute in meaningful ways, writes special education expert Rachel Fuhrman. In lieu of cold calls, she practices warm calls, where she lets the student know ahead of time she'll be calling on them, and often lets students present at the front of the room in pairs. Also consider a modified Think-Pair-Share activity that gives students time to write down their thoughts instead of silent thinking time.

16. Audit Books and Classroom Materials: Review your classroom and lessons for blind spots, suggests elementary teacher Talya Edlund, especially in light of research indicating that up to 80 percent of characters in childrens' books are White. Include posters and wall art featuring people from a variety of cultural backgrounds and identities, and expose students to books and materials that address frequently overlooked stigmas around incarceration, body size, and homelessness, for example.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
16 Tips for Creating a Safe Place to Learn

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
These teacher-tested strategies help students feel respected and connected in class-and primed for learning.

# data[].attributes.headline
Responding to Stressful Student Comments 

# data[].attributes.subject
Responding to Stressful Student Comments 

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to calm the teacher's nervous system and reduce reactions based on fight or flight.

1. Ask students as a whole what they think of the comment

2. Write down the comment or question on the board

3. Ask, "what do we need to know to answer that question?"

# data[].attributes.body
Purpose is to proactively manage behaviors by preventing them rather than allowing them to continue and grow larger.

1. Greet students at the door

2. Establish, maintain, and restore relationships

3. Reminders and nonverbal cues

4. Optimized seating

5. Behavior-specific praise

6. Set clear expectations

7. Actively supervise

8. Be consistent in applying rules

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
New teachers—and experienced ones too—can find ideas here on how to stop disruptive behavior before it begins.

# data[].attributes.body
A skill that teachers know what's going on in the classroom at all times; the purpose is to create a safe environment where order is established and behaviors are addressed when they're small and manageable.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
As I ruminate on my weaknesses as a teacher, I thought I would share some of the information on the Internet about teacher withitness (with-it-ness).

What is teacher withitness? It's a skill that teachers have that allows them to know what is going on in the classroom at all times.

Parents of multiple children, former camp counselors, former babysitters, and others with similar experiences have already learned this skill. Since I am the parent of an only child, however, I tend to miss out on some of the activities going on in the classroom. That's when I usually hear something like, "Mrs. E.! She's mean to me!"

It is at moments like this that I wish my best friend's mother (a mother of seven children) were with me. She has eyes in the back of her head, as the saying goes, and can manage her brood of 21 grandchildren with ease. Fortunately, I will become better at this over time, especially since I am aware of my limitations in this area and I know I need to learn more to improve. I have already noticed improvement in the short time I have been a substitute teacher.

This paragraph sums up the skill well.

How can we improve our withitness skills?

Create the opportunity to practice in your classroom.

Look at your classroom layout. Are you able to see what is going on everywhere in the room from your position? If not, rearrange the room so you have a clear line of sight to each child at all times. A quick search on Google turned up a page of classroom tours created by Angela Watson (Watson, 2011).

Evaluate the rules you have established in the classroom. Are there any you need to change? Are there any you aren't following, though you said you would? Human beings have this tendency to find the flaws in a plan and use those flaws to their advantage. If you are not following the rules you have created, the students will think they do not have to either.

Observe the students when they enter the classroom and note how well you relate to them. Are there things you should change about your behavior to create better relationships with your students? Teacher withitness and student - teacher relationships are closely related. The better the relationships, the better the learning environment.

Evaluate your current skill set.

Videotape yourself teaching. One teacher on WikEd ("Withitness - WikEd," 2008) videotaped himself teaching and found that his ability to manage the classroom dwindled as the day progressed. His last class of the day was the most difficult to manage. Some teachers might think it is because of the group of students in the class or just because it is the end of the day. However, this teacher found out that his withitness skills were not as sharp during that period as they had been in previous classes. He made some adjustments to his classroom-management strategy for that class.

Ask a colleague to observe. Since many of us will not be allowed to video our classes, having a colleague observe is a good alternative.

Use the resources on the Internet.

Google Scholar. Without this site from Google, I don't think I would have made it through my graduate school programs. Scholar should give you quite a few references to pick from for further study on teacher withitness. If you did not know this already, you can also set up Scholar to find links to the articles in the USC library and to export article citations to your favorite citation manager, such as EndNote. Click on this link to go to the article that explains this feature.

Teaching Channel. You must bookmark this site! There are numerous videos on this site that will help you with everything teaching-related. For articles and videos related to withitness, search for "classroom management."

Teacher Vision. This site has a plethora of teacher time-savers. It also has a number of resources for classroom management.

Education World. I love this site, too, for the bounty of resources available. Here's a link to their classroom management articles. Here's a link to their classroom management articles.

I hope you found this post helpful. I would love to read about some of the resources you found!
References Cited in the Article without Links to the Website
Watson, A. (2011). Classroom Tours | The Cornerstone. The Cornerstone. Retrieved November 28, 2011, from http://thecornerstoneforteachers.com/free-resources/classroom-tours

Withitness - WikEd. (2008, March 8). WikEd. Retrieved November 28, 2011, from http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Withitness

-
Image used above is from the December 15, 2008 issue of the New Yorker, via The One Who's With It Par Excellence - artwork © Joost Swarte

If you'd like to know about MAT@USC and our Master of Arts in Teaching program, contact our Admissions office at 888-628-1872 or email us.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As I ruminate on my weaknesses as a teacher, I thought I would share some of the information on the Internet about teacher withitness (with-it-ness)...

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to engage with students and prevent challenging behaviors.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to provide measurable and specific feedback to students so they know the criteria for success.

# data[].attributes.body
Focus on what students are doing correctly and verbally narrate this in order to help motivate students and create a positive classroom culture.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Positive Narration is the act of focusing on what students are doing correctly and openly saying those things aloud to help motivate students and provide a more positive classroom culture.

Don't underestimate the role of positive narration and its range of influence on establishing, developing, and maintaining positive and productive classroom culture and climate. Below I offer just a few of the numerous roles and benefits associated with this simple but complex and compelling teacher practice:
Highlights the Importance of Expectations:
By narrating immediately following your directions and continuing to narrate throughout your lesson, you are sending the message that your directions are important enough to take the time to notice, monitor and acknowledge students' efforts to meet set expectations. This is not lost on students who quickly recognize that you are continuously scanning the room and monitoring for behavior and performance that meets established expectations.
Respects Student Autonomy and Builds Self Control:
All too often teachers rely on consequences as the primary step in addressing off-task behavior. This misstep serves to undermine students' efforts to build self-control and their sense of autonomy. When utilized effectively, consistently and equitably, students grow to recognize narration as the way in which the teacher thoughtfully and respectfully offers support, encourages excellence and extends opportunities to self-correct.
Reminds and Redirects in a Positive and Productive Way:
I cannot think of a better analogy for the role of narrating desired behaviors as a means of reminding students of expectations and/or redirecting their behaviors than one offered by a Real Time Teacher Coach, who often refers to positive narration as the "teacher's GPS for students." Positive narration serves as a "GPS" for those students who may not have heard directions when delivered, have forgotten the expectations, or, perhaps, have simply been swept up in the excitement of a particular activity.
Enhances Our Own Well-Being:
Focusing on the positive over the negative is beneficial to both our students and our own well-being as educators. By noticing and verbally acknowledging the positive over the negative, our thoughts become more positive, our actions more caring, and our presence more joyous.

WHAT TEACHERS SAY:
Positive Narration is one of four important steps of the No-Nonsense Nurturer ® model, used in hundreds of classrooms across the country. We asked some educators what they think of positive narration. This is what they said:
Positive narration really changed the way my classroom ran. So if I say or I'll - when I say "go" all hands are folded and all eyes are on me and then I'm narrating. All the children whose hands are folded and eyes are on me, for that one kid that might not have heard it the first time around, if they're looking around and hearing what I'm saying, they're going to catch on to what to do before I need to give them a consequence. (Positive) narration really helps me in my practice because it helps me focus on what's going right in my class. One of the big trip-ups in being a teacher is focusing on what's not happening in the class or what's going wrong in the class. And positive narration really is that key to here is what's happening in my class, it's great and here is what I want the other children to be doing too. For the kids, they can hear me saying again what those precise directions are, they can hear what they need to do to be successful and they can help themselves get back on track. So it's another reminder to the kids to what their job is that they need to do. I think positive narration is just a powerful tool for teachers because it is used not only to shine light on the students who are doing what they are supposed to be doing, to say this person is doing exactly what they are supposed to be doing and it kind of builds a sense of leadership amongst students, but it also gives other students an opportunity to get together. So when they hear that this person is doing whatever the behavior is they know, I'm supposed to be doing that behavior. So it gives them that second chance to get there.
What other roles and benefits of positive narration have you found support your efforts to establish, develop, and maintain a positive and productive classroom culture and climate? Leave a comment below!

by Dr. Richard Frank, CT3 Managing Associate and Partnership Manager

For further reading, click the posts below.

Did you know that you can take our No-Nonsense Nurturer training online, at your own pace, at any time during the year? Sign up today and get access to hundreds of video examples, a comprehensive resource section, and a self-implementation guide to support your learning.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Positive Narration - Examples of Positive Narration in the Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Don't underestimate the role of positive narration and its range of influence on establishing a productive classroom culture and climate.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to differentiate between "teacher presence" and mere "volume." Use a confident, energetic voice that is warm but students know they can approach you. Nonverbally, move around the classroom and fill the space up; use body language and eye contact to keep students engaged. This presence conveys that learning is the top priority, so the students follow suit. You don't have to be loud to have a great teacher presence, but you can project with confidence. Confidence is not always loud, it just needs to convey order and safety to the students. To develop and practice: practice in a mirror, with a colleague, or with a family member or friend. Things to practice: pacing, projection, and making eye contact with different desks.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teacher Presence for Classroom Management - Ask An Educator

# data[].attributes.headline
Support Students in Refocusing Themselves

# data[].attributes.subject
Support Students in Refocusing Themselves

# data[].attributes.body
Practice academic inquiry: Can you talk to us about your thinking for number 4?

Use “Enforce Like a Robot”: Don't engage in arguments about behavior expectations during class time. Calmly restate your expectation.

Discourse: build in more content talk time so students get time to talk.

Ask individuals: What parts of this [the content] make sense?.

Be extremely selective about engaging in arguments or back-and-forths with students.

# data[].attributes.body
Offer a quiet transition for a minute or two (when returning from lunch, fire drills, or specials)

Provide a calm space for upset students

Express care for an individual check-in when a student is "mis-behaving": Are you doing okay?

In one-on-one individual check-ins, name the emotions you are seeing.  You appear frustrated. Is something hard happening in your life right now?

Start by asking: What can I do to support you right now?

Take a social-emotional lens:  What need(s) might the student be trying to get met with their behavior?

# data[].attributes.body
State what you want students to do, not what you want them not to do

Use inquiry instead of statements to redirect behavior; For example, ask: What should you be doing now?

Have a strong teacher presence. Speak with friendly confidence.

Regularly practice positive narration and behavior-specific praise.

Use your language to separate a student's behavior from their value as a person:  “This behavior isn’t okay” instead of “You never focus!”

# data[].attributes.body
Quick, structured break in order to refocus.

Monitor energy and provide whole group brain breaks.

Allow more movement that serves a learning or classroom support purpose

Have a clear path to reach each student.

Provide acceptable fidgets.

Offer flexibility in seating such as allowing learners to stand at desk.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
When you're creating a lesson plan or reviewing student work, do you often need a break? Do you take a walk or listen to your favorite song to get your mind refocused? Your students need these "brain breaks," too.

In the classroom, brain breaks are quick, structured breaks using physical movement, mindfulness exercises, or sensory activities. Brain breaks can be done individually (like deep breathing) or as a whole class (like a round of Simon Says). No matter what the form, brain breaks take only a few minutes of instructional time. They give your students a brief rest from what they're doing to help their brains shift focus and return ready to work and learn.

You can use different types of brain breaks depending on what a student needs at a given time. Remember that different brains need different kinds of breaks. For example, although it may seem counterintuitive, students who struggle with focus, attention, and hyperactivity may need more energizing breaks. Other students may need to quiet their minds. Here's a look at three examples of brain breaks.

Mindfulness brain break: Watch how students at the Momentous School take a break with "flower and candle" breathing. (If students are wearing masks in school, this brain break can be a good one to try at home.)

Sensory brain break: See the sensory path special education teacher Holly Barker Clay created to provide her students with a self-directed brain break.

Download: Brain breaks bank

Looking for brain break ideas? Check out this printable list of brain breaks organized by type and time of day. It was created by Understood Teacher Fellow TJ Thornton.

Create a list of brain breaks. Make sure to include independent, whole class, and self-directed breaks. Collect tools students can use for these breaks, like stress balls.

You may have planned for an energizing break. But if your students are overly energetic, you may switch to a calming break instead.

If a few students are having trouble with the brain break, use a prompt to get them back on track or model the activity by doing it near the students.

Some students will need modifications. For instance, students who have motor skills challenges may not be able to hop on one foot. Instead, have them jump on two feet, working their way toward hopping.

Some students might feel uncomfortable participating in group brain breaks. Decide on a nonverbal signal that students can use to subtly let you know they're opting out.

4. Talk about the experience. If this is the first time your students used a brain break, encourage them to talk about how the break helped. Explain that you'll introduce different kinds of brain breaks over time so they can learn the types of breaks that are most helpful for them. You can also talk about how students might take these breaks on their own, like when they're getting frustrated or distracted. Have self-directed activities available, such as sensory tools and a timer, so students can take individual breaks without disturbing others. You can even make self-directed brain break activity cards.

Understand: Why this strategy works

Students who learn and think differently sometimes get tired easily, have a low tolerance for frustration, or have trouble figuring out how to approach their work. Switching up what they're doing for a few minutes can help break those patterns. Research shows that brain breaks can serve that purpose and help refresh the mind.

For many students, movement is an ideal brain break. That's because exercise increases blood flow to the brain, which helps with focus and attention. In fact, research has shown that students learn more quickly after they've exercised. In one study, students learned vocabulary words 20 percent faster after exercising. Exercise also reduces stress and anxiety, making it easier to focus on important tasks.

Relaxing brain breaks have similar benefits. They help calm students and allow their minds to settle enough to shift focus. For students who get overexcited or who have a hard time self-regulating, relaxing brain breaks may be more beneficial than energizing ones. After these quieter breaks, students are able to return to work because they've given the overworked areas of the brain time to recharge.

Brain breaks benefit not only students but teachers, too. They help improve the pacing of your lesson while keeping you and your students refreshed, focused, and engaged.

Adapt: Use for distance learning

Build brain breaks into your distance learning lesson plans, including your synchronous online lessons. For example, breathing exercises may help students who are anxious about live video lessons.

Brain breaks can give students a chance to socialize during distance learning. You can use a fun discussion-based brain break in the middle of the lesson to get students engaged.

Encourage families to have their kids take breaks while they learn at home. To do this, you can add brain breaks to assignment directions. Give families the printable list of brain breaks or links to your students' favorite breaks on sites like GoNoodle.

Research behind this strategy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Brain breaks: An evidence-based behavior strategy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Brain breaks give students a chance to shift their focus and return ready to work and learn.

# data[].attributes.body
Practice "with-it-ness" Regularly scan the classroom to help you address behaviors when they are small and manageable.

Use teacher proximity; move closer to off-task students for engagement and behavior.

Have students move to a different seat.

Practice active supervision.

Intentionally move to all parts of room throughout class. Don’t stay at the front of the room.

Be strategic. Could the behavior be ignored?  Why or why not? Effective teachers strategically ignore some low-level behaviors to see if students can get themselves back on track.

# data[].attributes.body
This is from Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain by Zaretta Scott Hammond. It gives descriptors of the desirable "warm demander" teacher archetype, as well as the other archetypes.

# data[].attributes.body
This article includes 10 strategies to help teachers increase student motivation and engagement.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Listen to an extended version of this post as a podcast (transcript):
Sponsored by Peergrade and mysimpleshow

I first became aware that there might be a problem a few years ago, when one of my kids was studying weather systems: high- and low-pressure systems, cold fronts and warm fronts. We were trying to help her prepare for a test and also do some sort of homework, and she didn't get it at all.

We were really frustrated, my husband and I, because all we really had as a reference was the top half of this worksheet that explained the concept. So we were having trouble explaining it to her, and at one point I finally said to her, "You know, in your class, didn't your teacher ever draw a diagram on the board?"

She said, "No."

I said, "Did you guys ever do anything like where the teacher would grab a small group of kids and say, 'OK, you three, you're going to be a cold front, and then you three, you're going to be a warm front. Come up to the front of the room, OK. And I want this group here, I want you to wiggle around really fast because you are, I don't know, high pressure. And this group, I want you to move really, really slowly.'"

I was trying to figure out if there had ever been some kind of physical demonstration of these concepts. It seemed like even a three-minute re-enactment of how these systems work would help the kids get it right away.

"Did your teacher ever do anything like that?" I asked.

She looked at me like I was crazy and said no.

I said, "Well how did you learn this? How did you actually learn this for the first time?"

"Well," she said, "we just read the book."

"What do you mean 'we read the book'?" I asked. "Did everybody sit down quietly and read it and then the teacher talked to you?"

"No. We just opened it up to page 36, and then she would read a little bit to us, and then explain something, and then we would read a little bit more, and then she would say something else, and that was it."

"Is it like that all the time?" I asked, hoping for a no.

She shrugged and said, "Basically."

This was a couple of years ago, when my kids were all still in elementary school, but since that time, I've seen this pattern more and more as they've gotten older: Every day, for the most part, information is delivered to them in some really basic way-usually PowerPoint-and the kids copy down what the teacher tells them to from the slides. Then they have some sort of worksheet where they're basically regurgitating what was on those slides. After this cycle repeats four or five times, they have some kind of test. And that's it.

This is not good. If we want our students to actually learn the facts and concepts and ideas we're trying to teach them, they have to experience those things in some way that rises above abstract words on paper. They have to process them. Manipulate them.

To really learn in a way that will stick, they have to DO something.

I realize I'm probably preaching to the choir here-that people who read these posts are probably doing a lot more in class than this information-in, information-out model-and if that's true for you, then great. But I listen to teachers talk all the time: in schools, on social media, in private messages, and I know that things are not going well for you all of the time. I hear teachers talk about "covering" concepts in class and even reviewing them with games, only to end up with half the class failing an exam. This is incredibly frustrating; I know. But the truth is, just because you covered it, it doesn't mean they learned it.

And I know that this is going to upset some people, but if you have a lot of students failing your tests, and those students are in class and they're showing up, then the problem is not them. The problem is you. It's something you're doing, or maybe something you're not doing.

The Problem: A Gap in the Lesson Plan

First, let me say that authentic, project-based learning is probably the best way to have students experience meaningful learning. But many schools and classrooms aren't quite there yet: They deliver instruction in a more traditional way. That model can still result in solid learning, if it's implemented correctly. And that's where I'm seeing a problem. I think we're skipping over one of the most important steps in our lesson plans.

Let's consider the classic lesson plan format:

1. Anticipatory set: This is where we get students interested in the lesson and set objectives for the day.

2. Direct instruction: Facts, concepts, and skills are delivered via lecture, video, reading-some way of getting the information into students' heads.

3. Guided practice and application: With the support of the teacher, students apply what they have just been taught.

4. Independent practice and application: Students apply the learning on their own.

5. Assessment: The teacher measures how well students have met the objectives.

I think what's happening is that we're skipping over the third step. We're going right to independent practice (often at the lowest levels-basic regurgitation), but students aren't being given any kind of task to actually process or apply the material in a meaningful way. We go straight from direct instruction to independent practice to assessment.

In some cases, we may even be skipping both steps 3 and 4. Not too long ago I had to help another of my kids study for a social studies test. All we had to work with were notes copied from a PowerPoint. I didn't understand the meaning of half of them, because they were just bulleted phrases, so it was nearly impossible to review the material. When I pointed at individual items and asked my kid to tell me what they meant, that turned out to be too difficult. The teacher had just told them to write down that bullet point, but my kid left class that day not really knowing what it meant.

Because I was a teacher myself, I know there's got to be more to the story. I remember how students could misrepresent or oversimplify the things we did in class. I would bet that this teacher took time to explain these concepts before having students copy down bullet points. But it wasn't enough. My kid was in class, paying attention, writing down the notes, but still didn't learn a whole lot.

Apart from the poor quality learning, this gap in our teaching is a problem for two more reasons.

For one, it doesn't align with the standards. Look at any social studies standards for middle school, in pretty much any state. Do any of them say that kids need to be able to identify names of significant people in historical periods, or be able to regurgitate facts about certain cultures or regions?

No. They want students to be able to understand the relationships between social movements and changes and other influences. They want students to be able to explain and analyze things. I just randomly pulled up Wisconsin's standards for grade 7 social studies. Here's an example of what these students should be doing when they learn history (from page 10):

1. Use historical evidence for determining cause and effect.

2. Analyze, recognize, and evaluate patterns of continuity and change over time and contextualization of historical events.

3. Connect past events, people, and ideas to the present, use different perspectives to draw conclusions, and suggest current implications.

4. Evaluate a variety of primary and secondary sources to interpret the historical context, intended audience, purpose, and/or author's point of view.

These standards are GORGEOUS. If students are actually doing these things in Wisconsin middle schools, that would be amazing. But if Wisconsin is like a lot of other places, my guess is that students are sitting through PowerPoint lectures, copying notes from the PowerPoints, and transferring that information to worksheets and tests.

I know it seems like I'm picking on social studies here, but that's just because social studies is such an information-driven subject area. The same could be said for science, health, and other content-heavy classes. Even in English language arts, which really should be driven more by practicing reading and writing, there are some teachers who manage to run mostly lecture-worksheet-test-based classes.

The other problem with this kind of teaching is that it makes kids hate school. I already dealt with this extensively in this post about excessive use of worksheets, but it's worth repeating: When we do little more than have students copy down information or fill out worksheets, we are making school an awful place to be.

In a 2014 article, instructional coach Alexis Wiggins reported on her findings after shadowing two high school students through a typical school day. She was horrified by the amount of sitting and passive learning these students were subjected to. Friends of mine who work as instructional consultants and coaches, who visit hundreds of classrooms every year, say they see more low-level seatwork than anything else.

My own kids hate school more and more the older they get. And they rarely bring home anything lower than an A. The other parents I talk to-who live all around the country-report a similar pattern more often than not. This is not an isolated issue.

Why Is This Happening?

I think this epidemic of passive learning has come about for a couple of reasons:

High-Stakes Testing Mania

We're in an environment right now that is so driven by high-stakes testing and data that teachers have no choice but to only do things that produce data. Teachers say that they would like to be doing more engaging activities, but they end up in this cycle of information in, information out, assess, get a score, move to the next step again, repeat.

Death by Documentation

I'm hearing more and more from teachers who are required to document the crap out of their day -super detailed lesson plans, all the way down to having to indicate what font size they're using on something. When you have to do that much documentation, it squeezes teachers' time so much that they go to this default setting of get the content out there, cover it, test it, and move to the next thing.

Holes in Teacher Preparation

A friend who consults with schools tells me she believes teachers do not have sufficient tools in their toolbox for teaching. They literally don't know enough strategies for actively engaging students in the content, and that teacher prep programs may not be equipping teachers with enough strategies. Many teachers don't necessarily know how to go beyond direct instruction, worksheets, and tests, so they just go with the default. With teacher turnover at such a high rate and the number of emergency certifications growing in some states, it may be that teacher prep programs may not even be involved: There may not be much preparation at all.

The first two reasons need to be addressed at an administrative, policy level. But the last one we can deal with right now.

How Do We Fix It?

Now comes the good news. This problem can be solved in so many ways, and the solutions don't have to be complicated, time-consuming, or fancy. Simply add activities into your instruction that will help students build more pathways in their brains, see patterns, connect to previous knowledge, and experience some novelty so they remember the material better.

In between the direct instruction step and the assessment step of your planning, start adding in some of these activities:

1. Sorting

Organize the material by similarities and differences, categorize it, label it, do something that requires students to activate schema and create connections. An inductive learning lesson would be great for this.

2. Kinesthetic Work

Doing short role-plays and simulations can really help students visualize relationships and processes. This can also be done by creating models with Play-Doh or cardboard, or doing some kind of a maker project that connects to your standard.

3. Discussion

Even giving students a few minutes to discuss a topic-especially if they are taking some kind of a stance on the content and backing it up with evidence-can do so much to help them process and learn the content. But make sure all students are participating! Check out this big list of discussion strategies for tons of ideas.

4. Graphic Representations

Having students put the material into any kind of visual form will help them remember it better and understand how concepts are related. Graphic organizers and sketchnotes are two ways to accomplish this. Students can do these on their own or they can be constructed as a class with your support-for especially challenging concepts, this may be most effective.

5. Write to Learn

When students process ideas in writing, they are forced to synthesize the information that has only entered their brains passively, so stopping instruction every now and then to have students write short summaries or give their opinions on the things they're learning is a really effective, efficient way to cement their learning. This video from the Teaching Channel shows just how simple this can be to implement.

6. Mini-Projects

For learning to be active, it doesn't have to be a super complicated, long-term project. Students can do mini-projects that take just a day or two. This poster project, where students have to rank leaders of early America, then back up their choices with evidence, is a perfect example of a project that could be done in a short period of time.

7. Anticipation Guides

Anticipation guides are simple forms where students state their opinions on key statements before a learning activity. This primes them for the learning that is about to come. Once the direct instruction is done, they revisit the guides to see if their opinions have changed. This would be a really simple way to boost engagement and give students a bigger stake in a lesson.

8. Quality Note-taking

Although students seem to be taking a lot of "notes" in class, it's not clear that this is being done in a way that results in high-quality learning. If your classroom practices are aligned with the research on note-taking, this activity can be a powerful processing tool.

9. Retrieval Practice

Asking students to recall information is a great way to help them learn it better, but I'm not exactly talking about the kind of recall they do on worksheets. Whether it's stuff that just needs to be memorized or concepts that require more complex processing, building periods of retrieval practice into your instruction will boost learning.

Bonus: Collaboration

Most of these activities would be enhanced by some kind of collaboration: Have students share their write-to-learn responses with a partner. Do sorting tasks with small groups. Any time they work together, they're engaging with the content in a different way, which introduces more novelty and more opportunities to process it differently.

This is not an exact science, and no teacher designs instruction perfectly all the time. But if you're not getting the results you want, try to do more of this: When planning your lessons, ask yourself if students are doing anything with the material, or if you're just setting things up so it's information in, information out. If it's the latter, start adding in ways to have students engage with the stuff they're learning. There are a lot of different ways to do it. Even though it adds a little bit more time, you're going to see such big benefits. Not only are your students going to learn better, you will all-both your students and you-like coming to school a whole lot more. ♦

Come back for more.
Join my mailing list and get weekly tips, tools, and inspiration that will make your teaching more effective and fun. You'll get access to our members-only library of free downloads, including 20 Ways to Cut Your Grading Time in Half, the e-booklet that has helped thousands of teachers save time on grading. Over 50,000 teachers have already joined-come on in.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Too often, we're expecting students to learn material without asking them to do much of anything with it. Why is this a problem? Where did it come from? And how can we fix it?

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of this is to give teachers specific strategies to increase motivation and engagement in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Highly Engaged Classroom

Students' perceptions of acceptance is the third determiner of how they feel about themselves and the classroom environment.

Stated differently, if students sense that they are not welcome, accepted, or supported in the classroom, it is unlikely that they will engage in classroom activities. Certainly, the relationship teachers have with students is one of the most powerful determiners of how a student answers the question "How do I feel?" Carol Goodenow (1993) found teacher support was consistently the strongest predictor of motivation among students in sixth through eighth grades (p. 6).

A number of classroom activities have the potential to capture and hold students' attention.

Game like activities help trigger situational interest and provide a foundation for maintained situational interest because they tap into the psychological principle of clozentropy (see Broadhurst & Darnell, 1965; Darnell, 1970, 1972; Taylor, 1953; Weiner, 1967). Basically, the theory of clozentropy states that the human mind will naturally attend to situations that have missing details. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1987) addressed this point, noting that human beings tend to fill in the blanks when presented with incomplete information. (p. 9).

Effective questioning strategies can trigger situational interest and help foster maintained situational interest.

Specifically, it makes intuitive sense that when a student is answering a question, his or her working memory is fully attentive to the task at hand. Students' attention to questions is most likely due to the fact that a question, by definition, presents missing information. To this extent, questions are like games. Indeed, many games rely on questions. In the context of the classroom, questions can generate mild pressure that helps stimulate attention (pp. 11-12).

When given choice by teachers, students perceive classroom activities as more important.

Research has shown that providing choices to students of all age levels often increases their intrinsic motivation. Choice in the classroom has also been linked to increases in student effort, task performance, and subsequent learning. However, to reap these benefits, a teacher should create choices that are robust enough for students to feel that their decision has an impact on their learning. In order to incorporate choice into the classroom, we recommend teachers provide choice to students in four ways: (1) choice of tasks, (2) choice of reporting formats, (3) choice of learning goals, and (4) choice of behaviors (pp. 14, 101).

Providing students academic choices increases engagement.

Choices of task, reporting format, or learning goal allow students to take control of their learning and make decisions that ensure personal interest in their assignments. To provide a choice of task to students, a teacher can provide multiple task options on an assessment and ask students to respond to the one that interests them most. Similarly, a teacher can provide students with the option to choose their own reporting format. The two most common reporting formats are written and oral reports, as they can be used with most subjects. However, students may also choose to present information through debates, video reports, demonstrations, or dramatic presentations. To give students a particularly powerful choice, a teacher can ask students to create their own learning goals. When giving students the option to design their own learning goals, a teacher should hold students accountable for both their self-identified learning goal as well as teacher-identified learning goals for that unit (pp. 101-104).

Teachers can build choice into the process of designing standards for expected classroom behaviors.

Creating a classroom constitution at the beginning of the school year can provide students a chance to determine how the classroom functions as a unit. To infuse choice into this process, a teacher can ask small groups of students to describe their ideal classroom environments and isolate desirable and undesirable behaviors and attitudes. Groups can then give presentations on their lists of ideal behaviors and attitudes. Afterward, the class can come together and articulate specific behaviors and attitudes into concrete principles, eventually compromising as a class to decide which principles to incorporate into a set of classroom behavior standards. By following this process, individual students gain voices within the classroom and are less likely to feel that arbitrary rules are being imposed on them (pp. 104-105).

The most general influence on a student's emotional engagement is a teacher's positive demeanor.

A teacher can communicate a positive demeanor through demonstrating enthusiasm and intensity, both of which have been associated with student engagement and achievement. Clearly, relationships students have with the teacher have a profound effect on their perceptions of being welcomed, accepted, and supported, which helps establish an affective tone that promotes student encouragement (pp. 5-7).

To foster student engagement, classroom instruction decisions are based on four emblematic questions.

The first two questions focus on the attention of the student, while the last two questions gauge the engagement of the students' interest in the topic. The attention questions deal with whether information from the outside world gets into working memory. If the information presented is not considered interesting, the working memory will not process it. Engagement is defined by importance; if the information is not deemed important, the working memory will not maintain it for long. If students do not believe they can perform the tasks, the brain will eventually reject it (pp. 8-19).

Pacing is a basic teaching tool, but often an overlooked aspect of keeping students' energy levels high.

If pacing is too slow, energy in the classroom drops and attention wanes; however, if the pacing is too fast, students can be confused and frustrated. To help achieve a balance, focus on pacing when handling administrative tasks, transitions, assigning seatwork, and presenting new content (p. 21).

Wait time is one effective way to increase student response rate.

Waiting to call on students allows them to process the question and encourages them to think through their answers instead of impulsively responding. A teacher can use less wait time after asking a straightforward question with one correct response and more wait time after asking a complex or open-ended question that requires interpretation (p. 71).

The use of positive information can help grow communication with students.

One simple way to communicate respect and acceptance is to find something positive about students and then use that information to both plan instruction that addresses students'' interest and communicates concern for specific students. This is particularly true for students who may have discipline issues or who appear alienated from the rest of the class or teacher (p. 40).

Motivation can create a hierarchy of goals.

Students are always behaving in such a way as to accomplish one goal or another. For example, at the basic level, students (as well as everyone else) are always working to ensure that basic subsistence goals such as safety, food, and shelter are being met. Perhaps at the highest level are goals that address life ambitions. These goals typically deal with accomplishments that people perceive as defining their future lives. Fundamentally, classroom activities that make connections to the real world will help generate a positive response (p. 87).

Movement can be used to lift energy by associating it with rehearsal.

Rehearsal refers to repeating important information in a way that helps students remember it. For example, a teacher who has noticed his or her students are having difficulty recalling units of measurement might ask them to represent the largest of the units by standing straight up, the smaller measurements by bending over, and the smallest measurements by kneeling down (p. 25).

Teacher-student relationships are key to ensuring that students feel good about being in class and can respond positively to the question, "How do I feel?"

One of the most interesting aspects of powerful teacher-student relationships is that they are forged by behavior and words as opposed to thoughts and feelings. Stated differently, it is not what a teacher thinks and feels about a particular student that forges a positive relationship with the student. Rather, it is how the teacher speaks to and behaves with the student that communicates respect and acceptance (p. 36).

One simple way to invite simultaneous individual response is to use hand signals.

It is important to note that when hand signals are used, questions must employ a selected-response format, such as multiple choice or true/false. If four responses are provided in a multiple-choice item, students can signal the correct answer by holding up one finger for the first option, two for the second option, and so on. Using simultaneous individual response is one way to increase engagement and help them respond positively to the question, "Am I interested?" (p. 74).

Teachers can use stories from literature and history as examples of people whose lives have demonstrated the power of self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is quite possibly the most important factor affecting engagement. Even if students feel good, are interested in what is occurring, and believe it to be important, they will probably not fully engage if they believe the task is impossible. Clips from movies such as Rudy, Oliver Twist, and Apollo 13 can be used to helps students discern common traits among those who accomplish great things even in the face of significant obstacles (pp. 117, 128-129).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Stated differently, if students sense that they are not welcome, accepted, or supported in the classroom, it is unlikely that they will engage in classroom activities. Certainly, the relationship teachers have with students is one of the most powerful determiners of how a student answers the question "How do I feel?"

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of this is to give teachers strategies to improve students' motivation.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of this resource is to give teachers information on how to help increase motivation in their students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/.

Introduction

Fostering student motivation is a difficult but necessary aspect of teaching that instructors must consider. Many may have led classes where students are engaged, motivated, and excited to learn, but have also led classes where students are distracted, disinterested, and reluctant to engage-and, probably, have led classes that are a mix. What factors influence students' motivation? How can instructors promote students' engagement and motivation to learn? While there are nuances that change from student to student, there are also models of motivation that serve as tools for thinking through and enhancing motivation in our classrooms. This guide will look at three frameworks: the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation, the ARCS model of instructional design, and self-determination theory. These three models highlight some of the major factors that influence student motivation, often drawing from and demonstrating overlap among their frameworks. The aim of this guide is to explore some of the literature on motivation and offer practical solutions for understanding and enhancing student motivation.

Expectancy - Value - Cost Model

The purpose of the original expectancy-value model was to predict students' achievement behaviors within an educational context. The model has since been refined to include cost as one of the three major factors that influence student motivation. Below is a description of the three factors, according to the model, that influence motivation.

Expectancy refers to a student's expectation that they can actually succeed in the assigned task. It energizes students because they feel empowered to meet the learning objectives of the course.

Value involves a student's ability to perceive the importance of engaging in a particular task. This gives meaning to the assignment or activity because students are clear on why the task or behavior is valuable.

Cost points to the barriers that impede a student's ability to be successful on an assignment, activity and/or the course at large. Therefore, students might have success expectancies and perceive high task value, however, they might also be aware of obstacles to their engagement or a potential negative affect resulting in performance of the task, which could decrease their motivation.

Three important questions to consider from the student perspective:
1. Expectancy - Can I do the task?

2. Value - Do I want to do the task?

* Intrinsic or interest value: the inherent enjoyment that an individual experiences from engaging in the task for its own sake.

* Utility value: the usefulness of the task in helping achieve other short term or long-term goals.

* Attainment value: the task affirms a valued aspect of an individual's identity and meets a need that is important to the individual.

3. Cost - Am I free of barriers that prevent me from investing my time, energy, and resources into the activity?

It's important to note that expectancy, value and cost are not shaped only when a student enters your classroom. These have been shaped over time by both individual and contextual factors. Each of your students comes in with an initial response, however there are strategies for encouraging student success, clarifying subject meaning and finding ways to mitigate costs that will increase your students' motivation. Everyone may not end up at the same level of motivation, but if you can increase each student's motivation, it will help the overall atmosphere and productivity of the course that you are teaching.

Strategies to Enhance Expectancy, Value, and Cost

Hulleman et. al (2016) summarize research-based sources that positively impact students' expectancy beliefs, perceptions of task value, and perceptions of cost, which might point to useful strategies that instructors can employ.

Research-based sources of expectancy-related beliefs

Expectancy source

Definition

Research-based sources of value

Research-based sources of cost

Sources:

Barron K. E., & Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 503-509.

Hulleman, C. S., Barron, K. E., Kosovich, J. J., & Lazowski, R. A. (2016). Student motivation: Current theories, constructs, and interventions within an expectancy-value framework. In A. A. Lipnevich et al. (Eds.), Psychosocial Skills and School Systems in the 21st Century. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

ARCS Model of Instructional Design

The ARCS model of instructional design was created to improve the motivational appeal of instructional materials. The ARCS model is grounded in an expectancy-value framework, which assumes that people are motivated to engage in an activity if it's perceived to be linked to the satisfaction of personal needs and if there is a positive expectancy for success. The purpose of this model was to fill a gap in the motivation literature by providing a model that could more clearly allow instructors to identify strategies to help improve motivation levels within their students.

ARCS is an acronym that stands for four factors, according to the model, that influence student motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention refers to getting and sustaining student attention and directing attention to the appropriate stimuli.

Relevance involves making instruction applicable to present and future career opportunities, showing that learning in it of itself is enjoyable, and/or focusing on process over product by satisfying students' psychological needs (e.g., need for achievement, need for affiliation).

Confidence includes helping students believe that some level of success is possible if effort is exerted.

Satisfaction is attained by helping students feel good about their accomplishments and allowing them to exert some degree of control over the learning experience.

To use the ARCS instructional design model, these steps can be followed:

Define

Classify the problem

Analyze audience motivation

Prepare motivational objectives (i.e., identify which factor in the ARCS model to target based on the defined problem and audience analysis).

Design

Generate potential motivational strategies for each objective

Select strategies that a) don't take up too much instructional time; b) don't detract from instructional objectives; c) fall within time and money constraints; d) are acceptable to the audience; and e) are compatible with the instructor's personal style, preferences, and mode of instruction.

Develop

Prepare motivational elements

Integrate materials with instruction

Evaluate

Conduct a developmental try-out

Assess motivational outcomes

Strategies to Enhance Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction

Keller (1987) provides several suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' attention, perceived relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention Strategies
Incongruity, Conflict

Introduce a fact that seems to contradict the learner's past experience.

Present an example that does not seem to exemplify a given concept.

Introduce two equally plausible facts or principles, only one of which can be true.

Play devil's advocate.

Concreteness Variability

In stand up delivery, vary the tone of your voice, and use body movement, pauses, and props.

Vary the format of instruction (information presentation, practice, testing, etc.) according to the attention span of the audience.

Vary the medium of instruction (platform delivery, film, video, print, etc.).

Break up print materials by use of white space, visuals, tables, different typefaces, etc.

Change the style of presentation (humorous-serious, fast-slow, loud-soft, active-passive, etc.).

Shift between student-instructor interaction and student-student interaction.

Humor Inquiry Participation
Use games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation.

Relevance Strategies
Experience Present Worth
State explicitly the present intrinsic value of learning the content, as distinct from its value as a link to future goals.
Future Usefulness

State explicitly how the instruction relates to future activities of the learner.

Ask learners to relate the instruction to their own future goals (future wheel).

Need Matching Modeling Choice

Provide meaningful alternative methods for accomplishing a goal.

Provide personal choices for organizing one's work.

Confidence Strategies
Learning Requirements Difficulty
Organize materials on an increasing level of difficulty; that is, structure the learning material to provide a "conquerable" challenge.
Expectations Attributions

Attribute student success to effort rather than luck or ease of task when appropriate (i.e., when you know it's true!).

Encourage student efforts to verbalize appropriate attributions for both successes and failures.

Self-Confidence
Satisfaction Strategies
Natural Consequences Unexpected Rewards

Reward intrinsically interesting task performance with unexpected, non-contingent rewards.

Reward boring tasks with extrinsic, anticipated rewards.

Positive Outcomes

Give verbal praise for successful progress or accomplishment.

Give personal attention to students.

Provide informative, helpful feedback when it is immediately useful.

Provide motivating feedback (praise) immediately following task performance.

Negative Influences Scheduling
Source: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 2-10.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation, emotion, and development that is concerned with the social conditions that facilitate or hinder human flourishing. While applicable to many domains, the theory has been commonly used to understand what moves students to act and persist in educational settings. SDT focuses on the factors that influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which primarily involves the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.

Basic Psychological Needs

SDT posits that human motivation is guided by the need to fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy refers to having a choice in one's own individual behaviors and feeling that those behaviors stem from individual volition rather than from external pressure or control. In educational contexts, students feel autonomous when they are given options, within a structure, about how to perform or present their work.

Competence refers to perceiving one's own behaviors or actions as effective and efficient. Students feel competent when they are able to track their progress in developing skills or an understanding of course material. This is often fostered when students receive clear feedback regarding their progression in the class.

Relatedness refers to feeling a sense of belonging, closeness, and support from others. In educational settings, relatedness is fostered when students feel connected, both intellectually and emotionally, to their peers and instructors in the class. This can often be accomplished through interactions that allow members of the class to get to know each other on a deeper, more personal level.

Continuum of Self-Determination

SDT also posits that motivation exists on a continuum. When an environment provides enough support for the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, an individual may experience self-determined forms of motivation: intrinsic motivation, integration, and identification. Self-determined motivation occurs when there is an internal perceived locus of causality (i.e., internal factors are the main driving force for the behavior). Integration and identification are also grouped as autonomous extrinsic motivation as the behavior is driven by internal and volitional choice.

Intrinsic motivation, which is the most self-determined type of motivation, occurs when individuals naturally and spontaneously perform behaviors as a result of genuine interest and enjoyment.

Integrated regulation is when individuals identify the importance of a behavior, integrate this behavior into their self-concept, and pursue activities that align with this self-concept.

Identified regulation is where people identify and recognize the value of a behavior, which then drives their action.

When an environment does not provide enough support for the satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, an individual may experience non-self-determined forms of motivation: introjection and external regulation. Introjection and external regulation are grouped as controlled extrinsic motivation because people enact these behaviors due to external or internal pressures.

Introjected regulation occurs when individuals are controlled by internalized consequences administered by the individual themselves, such as pride, shame, or guilt.

External regulation is when people's behaviors are controlled exclusively by external factors, such as rewards or punishments.

Finally, at the bottom of the continuum is amotivation, which is lowest form of motivation.

Amotivation exists when there is a complete lack of intention to behave and there is no sense of achievement or purpose when the behavior is performed.

Below is a figure depicting the continuum of self-determination taken from Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose (2009).

Although having intrinsically motivated students would be the ultimate goal, it may not be a practical one within educational settings. That's because there are several tasks that are required of students to meet particular learning objectives that may not be inherently interesting or enjoyable. Instead, instructors can employ various strategies to satisfy students' basic psychological needs, which should move their level of motivation along the continuum, and hopefully lead to more self-determined forms of motivation, thus yielding the greatest rewards in terms of student academic outcomes.

Below are suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Strategies to Enhance Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness

Autonomy Strategies

Have students choose paper topics

Have students choose the medium with which they will present their work

Co-create rubrics with students (e.g., participation rubrics, assignment rubrics)

Have students choose the topics you will cover in a particular unit

Drop the lowest assessment or two (e.g., quizzes, exams, homework)

Have students identify preferred assignment deadlines

Gather mid-semester feedback and make changes based on student suggestions

Provide meaningful rationales for learning activities

Acknowledge students' feelings about the learning process or learning activities throughout the course

Competence Strategies

Set high but achievable learning objectives

Communicate to students that you believe they can meet your high expectations

Communicate clear expectations for each assignment (e.g., use rubrics)

Include multiple low-stakes assessments

Give students practice with feedback before assessments

Provide lots of early feedback to students

Have students provide peer feedback

Scaffold assignments

Praise student effort and hard work

Provide a safe environment for students to fail and then learn from their mistakes

Relatedness Strategies

Share personal anecdotes

Get to know students via small talk before/after class and during breaks

Require students to come to office hours (individually or in small groups)

Have students complete a survey where they share information about themselves

Use students' names (perhaps with the help of name tents)

Have students incorporate personal interests into their assignments

Share a meal with students or bring food to class

Incorporate group activities during class, and allow students to work with a variety of peers

Arrange formal study groups

Convey warmth, caring, and respect to students

Sources:

Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. (2009). Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 785-795.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford.

Additional Strategies for Motivating Students

Below are some additional research-based strategies for motivating students to learn.

Become a role model for student interest. Deliver your presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a display of your motivation, your passion motivates your students. Make the course personal, showing why you are interested in the material.

Get to know your students. You will be able to better tailor your instruction to the students' concerns and backgrounds, and your personal interest in them will inspire their personal loyalty to you. Display a strong interest in students' learning and a faith in their abilities.

Use examples freely. Many students want to be shown why a concept or technique is useful before they want to study it further. Inform students about how your course prepares students for future opportunities.

Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. These activities directly engage students in the material and give them opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.

Teach by discovery. Students find it satisfying to reason through a problem and discover the underlying principle on their own.

Cooperative learning activities are particularly effective as they also provide positive social pressure.

Set realistic performance goals and help students achieve them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable goals. Design assignments that are appropriately challenging in view of the experience and aptitude of the class.

Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests should be a means of showing what students have mastered, not what they have not. Avoid grading on the curve and give everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard and grades.

Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Negative comments should pertain to particular performances, not the performer. Offer nonjudgmental feedback on students' work, stress opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.

Give students as much control over their own education as possible. Let students choose paper and project topics that interest them. Assess them in a variety of ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations, etc.) to give students more control over how they show their understanding to you. Give students options for how these assignments are weighted.

Sources:

Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

DeLong, M., & Winter, D. (2002). Learning to teach and teaching to learn mathematics: Resources for professional development. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.

Nilson, L. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Chelsea Yarborough and Heather Fedesco Print Version Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/. Introduction Expectancy - Value - Cost Model ARCS Model of Instructional Design Self-Determination Theory Additional Strategies for Motivating Students Introduction Fostering student...

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of these resources are to aid in educating myself and giving me resources to ensure my teaching is equitable.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose is to activate schema to prime the brain when forming new schema.

# data[].attributes.body
A way of visually organizing learning by category, making connections between them, and building new schema.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to use concept mapping in the classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn all about concept mapping and how to use concept maps in the classroom to enhance your lessons. Try it on an interactive panel as well!

# data[].attributes.body
A thinking routine whose purpose is to allow silent reflection and collaboration with others' thoughts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A teacher describes how he modifies a thinking routine developed by Harvard's Project Zero to keep it from becoming too routine.

In my classroom, a giant piece of poster board showcases a conceptual question: "How does reading texts and works from diverse creators assist in finding common themes?"

Students' responses surround the inquiry. I identify some that use two quotations from Shakespeare's "The Phoenix and the Turtle" to support or refute an argument. I notice that a student who prefers not to voice their ideas in class has written six perceptive sentences showing immense engagement with the question.

These observations remind me of the numerous benefits that chalk talks can have in the classroom, especially when teachers build upon the strategy in novel ways.

DEFINING CHALK TALKS

Chalk talks-created by Project Zero, an educational research center at Harvard University-ask students to respond, in writing, to open-ended questions penned on large paper. The central inquiries should be conceptual or debatable-such as those often at the core of Institutional Baccalaureate (IB) and project-based learning (PBL).

To facilitate the activity, place large paper at different desks for student rotation and writing. Organize students in groups of three or four, then ask them to respond to the questions without talking. This technique encourages a silent conversation.

Remember: Chalk talk is a routine, not an activity. Routines can be used repeatedly in the classroom. Ron Ritchart, one of the creators of the chalk talk, describes it and other thinking routines as "tools for thinking [that] must be introduced as such, not as an activity. We want to make thinking a routine endeavor in our classrooms so that students become good at it."

Although chalk talks were originally designed for predictability, I've found that students can disengage with too much routine. By varying chalk talks, we can balance routine with learner investment.

REFLECT ON PREVIOUS PRACTICE

Ideally, mid-unit reflection provides students (and educators) sufficient time to make adjustments. An efficient, low-preparation reflection method may give educators even more encouragement to reflect in the midst of a unit-for example, using previous chalk talks as a launchpad for class reflection and discussion.

To do so, invite students to read previous chalk talk responses and reflect upon (and/or discuss) how their thinking altered in response to the activity. Ask students to justify their reflection by citing their original response(s) on a sticky note. When students cite themselves, they provide evidence of their changing thought processes, demonstrating a form of metacognition.

These reflective chalk talks can produce valuable bulletin board material, making thinking visible throughout the learning environment.

CHATGPT CHALK TALK

You can use a ChatGPT chalk talk variant to make the experience more dynamic. Before chalk talk commences, generate two different AI opinions in response to an open-ended question utilizing this AI "opinion request" framework. Print out the AI responses and paste them to the chalk talk paper alongside the central questions.

Next, ask students to read the question(s), look at ChatGPT's responses, and then respond to ChatGPT's opinions. After this variant of chalk talk is complete, students can defend ChatGPT's or their own responses in class using a pop-up debate.

MAKE INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS

Using an interdisciplinary approach, students can make connections between different subjects through chalk talks, deepening their understanding of interrelationships between academic content areas.

Collaboration among teaching staff is the first step to an interdisciplinary chalk talk; in a PBL context, educators can share their units' driving questions. In an IB curriculum framework, teachers can share conceptual and debatable questions to find commonalities between units. I've found that these conversations can often occur during the duration of a lunch break, meaning no extra meetings are required.
In science, you are currently learning... How does this concept/topic/driving question connect to... (something from your course)/subject? In our class, you are learning the following skills (list the skills here). Explain how these skills are supporting you in your _____ class, particularly with the _____ topic/conceptual question/debatable question/driving question. Our unit's driving question/inquiry question(s) is/are... Explain how this connects, or does not connect, to another subject for which you are learning.
Once you've kindled a professional collaboration and gathered information from other subject teachers, try using the following frames to make a chalk talk question interdisciplinary:

PUBLIC CHALK TALKS

Facilitating a chalk talk in a high-traffic school hallway invites students from multiple grade levels to respond. Prepare enough materials to support this increase in writers, and consider what questions might be general enough as to not require specific content knowledge, allowing students from all grade levels to participate and see connections to their lives.

Evaluate the use of artificial intelligence for learning. Do you believe it hinders or enhances learning? Cite your personal experience to explain why/why not.

What is the line between noise and music?

How do we know a theorem is valid?

To what extent does literature impact how we perceive love?

Does a scientist need to be a good writer?

Should someone have the same access to health care when they make poor health choices?

One example from my practice is "To what extent should teachers use games to educate you?" Students had a lot to write on the topic, and their opinions were, to my surprise, quite varied. Here are some other examples you might consider:

Whether at the classroom or schoolwide level, routines give students a sense of predictability and structure. However, too much routine can cause students to check out. By keeping some elements of the original chalk talk intact while introducing creativity through the above approaches, educators can tap into students' background knowledge while keeping learning and engagement fresh.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Adapting Chalk Talks to Promote Student Engagement

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A teacher describes how he modifies a thinking routine developed by Harvard's Project Zero to keep it from becoming too routine.

# data[].attributes.body
Have students relate their feelings that day by comparing them to weather (i.e. sad for rainy, happy for sunny, windy for confused or overwhelmed, etc.)

The purpose is to check in with students emotionally to be aware of how they're doing and to build bonds with students.

# data[].attributes.body
Ask students about a rose (positive), bud (something they're excited about), and a thorn (something they're struggling with).

The purpose is to check in with students emotionally to be aware of how they're doing and to build bonds with students.

# data[].attributes.body
To set the culture and hold students accountable with intrinsic motivation.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Classroom Contract serves as a collaboratively created framework for behavior expectations in the classroom. Students and teacher work together to design an agreement for classroom norms, rules and consequences. To achieve ultimate student ownership, contracts should be developed and agreed upon by all class members.

# data[].attributes.body
Resources for teachers for SEL

# data[].attributes.body
Resources for teaching social studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Civics for All of US Civics for All of US is the new education initiative from the National Archives that promotes civic literacy and engagement. DocsTeach Teach with documents using our online tool. Explore primary sources. Discover fun and engaging teaching activities. Create your own online or print activities for your students!

# data[].attributes.body
Resources for teaching social studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Search results from Digital Collections, Available Online

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for content and assessments in social studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
It's time to improve literacy skills during social studies instruction and ensure that readers of all abilities have what they need to access grade-level social studies concepts.

Join us on Thursday, December 7 for a look at scaffolded materials that provide extra literacy support while building key social studies concepts and skills.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Newsela | Content and assessment platform

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Content Aligned To National & State Standard, Flexible To Support Relevant Curriculum. Find the Perfect Piece Of Content For Lessons. Go beyond the book.

# data[].attributes.body
To encourage students to think critically about important issues.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Assignments that are bigger than a lesson and smaller than a unit are a good way to experiment with inquiry-based learning.

# data[].attributes.body
Resources for teachers in teaching Social Studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Social Studies Activities And Lessons | PBS LearningMedia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Discover thousands of social studies activities, lessons, and interactive resources for all grades, all aligned to state and national standards.

# data[].attributes.body
Resources for teaching US History.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Join us to explore our flexible curriculum collection featuring units, lesson plans, and C3-style inquiries for teaching middle and high school US history.

Single Session

Our single professional learning sessions are designed to easily fit into your day. Typically one hour or less, these sessions explore timely and relevant topics including teaching strategies, current events, and more.

Instructor-Led

This professional learning event will be led by Facing History staff. When you register, you will receive instructions for how to attend the event.

This event qualifies for Certificate of Completion.

At the conclusion of the event, participants will receive a Certificate of Completion for one hour of attendance. Certificates may be submitted for a school's or district's approval towards professional development credits. Requirements for professional development credits vary by state. It is the participant's responsibility to ensure that they are meeting the requirements of their school, organization, and/or state.

In this webinar, we'll explore our new US History Curriculum Collection: Democracy and Freedom that invites students to investigate the essential question, " What do democracy and freedom mean in US history and in our society today?"

Through this curated set of US history lesson plans, units, and C3-style inquiries, students explore how progress toward greater freedom, equality, and justice are not inevitable. We'll share how these materials, designed to be used throughout the year, introduce voices that are not often included in textbooks, examine historic and ongoing injustices, and engage students with the choices many Americans have faced throughout US history. Primary sources throughout the collection highlight the work of those in our country who have demanded greater freedom and expanded civil and human rights.

You will be eligible to receive one-hour of professional development credit for participation if you watch the webinar. You will be able to download a certificate of completion from your inbox within the week of the webinar. Check with your school or district in advance of the webinar to ensure that the professional development credit is accepted.

Make a 100% tax-deductible donation today and you'll help us reach even more teachers and students around the world, giving them the tools to fight back against hatred and bigotry.

Gift Amount

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Introducing Facing History's US History Collection: Democracy and Freedom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Join us to explore our flexible curriculum collection featuring units, lesson plans, and C3-style inquiries for teaching middle and high school US history.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of the simple view of reading is to focus on teaching word recognition and language comprehension simultaneously to increase reading skill.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The human brain is pre-wired for speech, but learning to read always involves explicit instruction.[1] "Learning to read requires several years of intentional instruction," explains

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Simple View of Reading: What You Need to Know - Waterford.org

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The human brain is pre-wired for speech, but learning to read always involves explicit instruction.[1] "Learning to read requires several years of intentional instruction," explains

# data[].attributes.headline
Teach History in the context of Reading 

# data[].attributes.subject
Teach History in the context of Reading 

# data[].attributes.body
Teaching background knowledge can help increase reading comprehension. Social studies and literacy can go hand in hand.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Kindergartners who got a literacy curriculum grounded in science topics had better reading comprehension than peers who got the standard approach focusing on general comprehension skills, according to new research.

Studies have repeatedly shown that readers who have knowledge of the topic they're reading about are better able to understand the text. There's also evidence that reading comprehension scores are highly correlated with general cultural knowledge, suggesting that the more knowledge you have, the better you can understand whatever you read.

Still, the typical approach to literacy instruction in elementary school rests on the notion that comprehension is best taught as a set of skills and strategies like "finding the main idea" and "making inferences." Students spend many hours every week practicing such supposed skills, often through middle school. Whether or not they're acquiring substantive knowledge is considered relatively unimportant to reading comprehension.

At the same time, reading scores have remained stubbornly low for decades, with only about a third of all students testing at the proficient level or above on national assessments. For students from low-income families, the proportion is even lower. Given the abundant evidence that knowledge helps with comprehension, it seems like it would be worth trying an approach that builds knowledge, especially for students less likely to pick up academic knowledge at home.

Yet some maintain there's no evidence to justify doing that. And there is evidence that instruction in certain reading strategies boosts comprehension. But that evidence also shows that students stop benefiting after only six sessions of instruction. We routinely teach "skills and strategies"-including many that have evidence behind them-day after day, for years, while marginalizing other subjects like social studies and science that could build academic knowledge.

It can be hard to gather evidence on the effects of knowledge-building. It may take years for students to acquire enough general academic knowledge and vocabulary to do well on standardized tests, where the reading passages rarely relate to topics covered in the curriculum. But new data is showing that content-focused literacy curricula can have a significant positive impact on kindergartners' comprehension after only a year or less.

Last year, researchers at Florida State University published preliminary results from a "randomized controlled trial"-the kind of study that compares two similar groups, with only one getting a "treatment," thus enabling researchers to infer that the treatment caused the results. The treatment in that study was a literacy curriculum called Core Knowledge Language Arts (CKLA), which covers topics in social studies and science. After just one semester, the kids who got CKLA did significantly better on some standardized measures of vocabulary and knowledge.

Now researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have published the results of another study of kindergartners, this time with a curriculum called ARC Core. At higher grade levels, that curriculum covers both science and social studies topics, but in kindergarten it focuses on science-specifically zoology, ecology, and entomology.

As with CKLA, teachers read aloud from a series of texts or books on each topic over several weeks and lead class discussions focused on understanding and analyzing the content. Unlike CKLA, ARC Core also has even beginning readers delve into books relating to the topic themselves, written at levels they can read and understand. (The curriculum also covers instruction in foundational reading skills like phonics.) The study, which took place during the 2016-17 school year, involved over 1500 students at 21 traditional public schools in Philadelphia.

The children who got ARC Core did significantly better on a standardized test of reading comprehension-0.17 of a standard deviation, in research-speak. That may not sound like much, but it's even larger than the effects found by the Florida researchers-0.06 and 0.12-and they were surprised by the magnitude of their results. According to the Florida study, "large-scale randomized controlled trials typically demonstrate an average effect size of 0.01 on kindergarten outcomes and 0.01 on language outcomes across grades." The ARC Core intervention lasted a year rather than only one semester, but it can take six months for teachers to get the hang of a new curriculum-so the time periods for both studies are similar.

The ARC Core researchers also measured children's motivation to read, finding a whopping effect size of 0.32. And they uncovered some intriguing gender-based effects: the likelihood of girls choosing books on "stereotypically female" topics was reduced by 26%, and boys benefited more than girls in reading comprehension. Given that the study was done with a high-poverty urban population, that last result may be significant: urban boys typically lag behind girls in literacy, the researchers say. Boys also generally demonstrate lower motivation to read, but in this study both genders got the same large boost.

Like other teachers who have switched to knowledge-building curricula, those using ARC Core-most of them veterans-were surprised at what their students proved capable of doing. "In past years, I would not have [seen] more than half my room reading," one teacher told researchers. "This year, it's 100% reading, down to my lowest reader." Another said that at the beginning of the year, she was skeptical that kindergartners could write at the level the curriculum expected: "I was the biggest doubter. I take it back. I definitely accept that they can do it." A third noticed the vocabulary children were using: "They can tell you about herbivores and carnivores, and adaptations, and things like that."

Interestingly, there was no significant impact on students' knowledge of science, leading researchers to speculate that the curriculum is best viewed as a way of boosting literacy. But the control group got much more science instruction than researchers anticipated-an average of 28 minutes a day. According to one estimate cited in the study, the typical kindergartner gets only 2.3 minutes a day. So both groups were acquiring science knowledge, possibly explaining why researchers saw little difference between them on that measure.

A. Brooks Bowden, one of the authors of the study, cautioned that while some of the effect sizes were large compared to studies of older students, there are few similar studies at the kindergarten level to provide a basis for comparison. Nor is it clear how long the effects of the intervention will last. In a follow-up survey, researchers found that kids who got ARC Core in kindergarten were significantly more likely to be categorized by their first-grade teachers as strong students on measures like reading independence, verbal expression, and interest in science. More such data will be collected as the students move to higher grades. But they won't be continuing with ARC Core or any other content-focused literacy curriculum, and knowledge-building is a cumulative process that should extend across years.

Still, the study is an important addition to the growing body of evidence suggesting that if we want to improve reading outcomes, combining literacy instruction with knowledge-building is the way to go. One of the Florida researchers, Sonia Cabell, recently co-authored an analysis of 35 different studies of that approach at the elementary level. Overall, the studies show moderate to large effects on standardized measures of vocabulary (0.91) and reading comprehension (0.40), as well as a large effect on content knowledge (0.89).

Cabell also made the important point that many teachers need professional support to do a good job of integrating literacy instruction with knowledge-the kind of support teachers in the ARC Core study received from ARC staff. Not only is the approach different from what teachers are used to, it also departs from what many learned about literacy instruction at schools of education. Integrating literacy and content instruction can be difficult, Cabell said-but it can also be powerful.
This post originally appeared on Forbes.com.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
New Data Shows Building Knowledge Can Boost Reading Comprehension

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Kindergartners who got a literacy curriculum grounded in science topics had better reading comprehension than peers who got the standard approach focusing on general comprehension skills, according to new research. Studies have repeatedly shown that readers who have knowledge of the topic they're reading about are better able to understand the text.

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of these sets are to incorporate lesson plans with primary sources for accurate historical information.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A Message from The Colorado Primary Sources for Elementary School Collaborative

Greetings,

We are very proud to present primary source sets for elementary teachers and students! This project came about as a result of requests from the field. Elementary teachers had expressed an interest in using primary sources in their classrooms but were not sure how to find sources that were appropriate for their grade level. As a result, a group of educators worked together to create primary source sets for grades K-6.

The primary source sets are comprised of three parts: Lesson Overview, Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas, and a Resource Set.

1. Lesson Overview: The lesson overview is a graphic organizer that gives a "snapshot" of the primary source set and lesson. The lesson overview graphic is based on the Document Based Lesson template developed by A. Reisman (2012).

2. Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas: The primary source set and lesson ideas includes a collection of primary sources on a specific topic and a variety of ideas for incorporating those sources into your classroom instruction

3. Resource Set: The resource set includes additional sources to accompany the Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas to help extend lessons and further student understanding.

What is a Primary Source?
Primary sources are the voices of the past. They are the raw materials of history - original documents and objects which were created at the time under study. They are different from secondary sources, accounts or interpretations of events created by someone without firsthand experience. Documents, letters, posters, film, artifacts, photographs, maps, etc. can be primary sources that tell the story of people, places, an events of the past.
Why Use Primary Sources in the Classroom?
Examining primary sources gives students a powerful sense of history and the complexity of the past. Helping students analyze primary sources can also guide them toward higher-order thinking and better critical thinking and analysis skills (from the Library of Congress).
Where Do I Find Primary Sources?
6th Grade

Aztec Codex Mendoza
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: Through the study of the Aztec Codex Mendoza, this primary source set focuses on the influence of art on the culture of a people.

The Chicano Movement

(This primary source set was developed by pre-service teachers at MSU: Aaron Christopher, Joshua Dosumu, and Hannah Miller)
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD)
Supplemental Materials (PDF) (NOTE: All materials have been combined into a single document)
Resource Set
Description: This set focuses on the Chicano Movement in Denver during the Civil Rights Movement (1960's and 1970's)

The Inca Empire
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This set explores the great skills of the Inca in engineering an empire.

To be developed:

Mayan Codices | Mexican Geography/Ecosystems | Mexican Economy | Central American Geography/Climate

5th Grade

The Boston Massacre
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set has students investigating the Boston Massacre through multiple perspectives in an attempt to discover "what really happened."

The Declaration of Independence
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This set is designed to help students understand the purpose and text of the Declaration of Independence

Building a New Nation
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Simplified Versions of the Founding Documents (PDF) Preamble Worksheet (PDF) Resource Set
To be developed

Exploration | Early Discovery | Thirteen Colonies | Migration

4th Grade

A History of the Impact of the Railroad in Colorado
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set looks at the importance of the railroad in Colorado from transporting goods to travel by train.

The Women of Camp Hale
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) 10th Mountain Division Timeline (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set focuses on Mary Elizabeth Davis who served during World War II at Camp Hale outside of Leadville, CO

A History of the American Bison
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set looks at the importance of the bison to Native Americans and then the subsequent decline of the bison population due to over hunting.

The Lives of Women and Children in Colorado's Mining Towns
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Supplemental Document (WORD): Sample Questions for Images Draw You In Resource Set
Description: This primary source set and lesson ideas focuses on life for women in children in Colorado's mining towns.

The Dearfield Community

(This primary source set was developed by pre-service teachers at MSU: Shailyn Fung-A-Fat, Mallory Werth, and Jessica Bacon-Taylor)
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set and lesson ideas explores life in Dearfield, Colorado. Today, what's left of this community is part of the Registered Historic Places in Colorado.

The Ute - Relations Between the Ute and the Anglo-American Settlers During the 1800's (Special Note: This primary source set should be used within a unit on the Ute in Colorado. It should not be used as a standalone to teach about the Ute).

(This primary source set was developed by pre-service teachers at MSU: Sarah Beckel, Maggie Karr, Sandra Roman)
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Supplemental Materials (PDF) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set focuses on the changes to Ute Territory as a result of the 1868 Treaty and the ensuing conflict of the Meeker Massacre.

Tuberculosis (TB) Patients Migrate to Denver
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This set of primary source documents helps students understand how tuberculosis contributed to growing the population of Denver and Colorado.

To be developed

Exploring Colorado - Trappers and Traders | Homesteaders | Colorado Cities & Towns | Colorado Government | Colorado Landmarks | Colorado Ghost Towns | Colorado Geography - The Land We Call Home | 20th Century Colorado

3rd Grade

A History of the San Luis Valley
Lesson Overview (PDF)
Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) - NOTE: This set may also be used in 4th grade.
Supplemental Material #1: Changes in the Valley (PDF)
Resource Set

Description: This primary source set focuses on the settlement of the San Luis Valley by the Hispanos. The "story" then focuses in on the Trujillo family.

Colorado Industries of the Past: Sugar Beets
Lesson Overview (PDF)
Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) - NOTE: This set may also be used in 4th grade.
Supplemental Document (WORD): What's the Story? Resource Set
Description: This primary source set and lesson ideas focuses on the importance of the sugar beet industry for immigrants coming to Colorado.

Characteristics of a Region
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set and lesson ideas focuses on the characteristics of Colorado's geographic regions.

2nd Grade

The Auraria Neighborhood: A Look at Changes Over Time
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas Resource Set
Description: This primary source set focuses on changes to the Auraria neighborhood in Denver over the past 100 years.

Your Community Long Ago & Today: Keota, A Case Study
Lesson Overview (PDF)
Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD)
Resource Set
Description: This primary source set introduces 2nd grade students to their community long ago through the Keota settlement.

Mapping Changes in Colorado Towns

(This primary source set was developed by pre-service teachers at MSU: Danielle DeSpain, Monique Sherred, and Julieann Sorrentino)
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Supplemental Materials (PDF) Resource Set
1st Grade

My History at School
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set gives students an opportunity to investigate the similarities and differences between school today and school in the past.

American Symbols
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set introduces students to the concept of symbols through the study of American symbols such as the American flag and the Statue of Liberty.

Notable Coloradans
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Biography Graphic Organizer Resource Set
Description: This primary source set looks at five notable Coloradans: Scott Carpenter, Missy Franklin, Ben Nighthorse Campbell, Rick "Goose" Gossage, and the Honorable Christine M. Arguello.

Kindergarten

Farming in Colorado Through Oral Histories
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set focuses on oral histories of families who immigrated to Colorado primarily to farm.

Schoolhouses & Classrooms of the Past
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set looks at one room schoolhouses, the school day, and how children in the past played.

Toys and Games of Yesteryear
Lesson Overview (PDF) Primary Source Set and Lesson Ideas (WORD) Resource Set
Description: This primary source set engages students in exploring the toys and games of the past.

Primary Source Set Partners

The team was comprised of the following people:

Stephanie Hartman, PhD
Social Studies Content Specialist

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Greetings, We are very proud to present primary source sets for elementary teachers and students! This project came about as a result of requests from the field. Elementary teachers had expressed an interest in using primary sources in their classrooms but were not sure how to find sources that were appropriate for their grade level.

# data[].attributes.body
Teaching students about point of view, learning both sides, and respectful debate is important for the real-life skills they need to be effective citizens.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The Canadian news is flooded with discussions about pipelines and where they should or shouldn't be built. So, how do we address the multiple perspectives of different issues in the classrooms? It's important to be impartial while presenting all the facts from both sides of the issue.

Many of our students have family members who work in the oil industry and many have parents who work closely with Indigenous People and environmentalists. When these issues are so hotly contested in the media, how do we teach students to listen to all perspectives and form opinions based on facts (especially in light of how many people are unable to look past bias)?

Talk About Point of View

A very simple activity that can be done in a classroom is teaching that people will see something from their point of view. Divide your students into two groups and have each group stand on a different side of the classroom.

In the middle of the room, hold up a piece of paper. On one side of the paper, write the number eight and a numerical symbol. On the other side of the paper, write the word eight. When you hold up the paper, each group of students should only be able to see one side of the paper. Make sure you use a piece of paper that is thick enough that students won't see the other side when it's held up to the light.

Ask students what they see. They will both say eight. Ask them questions to clarify the details. For example, do they see numbers or letters? It will be different.

Both sides are right because both sides see something different.

Most issues are like this; you can only see one side until you intentionally look for the facts on the other side of the matter.

Turn the paper over. Show students that both sides are right, but knowing what the other side sees is important, too.

Stick to the Facts

Collect information from a wide variety of sources, but show students how to figure out whether or not a source is reputable. There is a lot of information that can be found online today, but anyone can print anything online without having to show facts or accuracy.

Books often have to prove their sources are accurate through a vetting process, so when information is found in a book published through a mainstream publisher, the information can be viewed as facts. However, books are only as good as the most recent information on an issue. They don't get updated, so sometimes they can have false information just because they are out of date.

Issues that are being discussed in the media are a great way to talk about the two perspectives but stick to the facts of the case instead of the emotions they cause.

Show Both Sides

It would be irresponsible to talk about any issue without talking about both sides. That does not always mean the pros and cons of an issue. When dealing with issues that specifically impact the lives of humans through racism, oppression, colonization or genocide, the two sides are the two opposing groups of people, not the positives and negatives. Do not debate the pros and cons of a serious historical event like the Holocaust.

Save the positives and negatives for human lives are together on the same side. For example, debating whether or not plastic bags should be banned is an issue where you can debate the pros and cons.

We created a product that introduces all sides of the pipeline issue. It's not meant to have students create an opinion, but to learn to listen to a variety of perspectives. Sometimes when we feel passionately about an issue, it's difficult to hear the other side. Even as teachers, we have to be careful to not influence the opinions of our students. We need to teach students to listen and evaluate multiple perspectives, disagree respectfully and back up their opinions with facts rather than other people's opinions.

Keep Your Opinion to Yourself

It can be difficult to keep your own bias and opinion to yourself. In fact, you might not even be aware of your own bias when discussing issues.

It is much easier to keep historical events in check because you are far removed from them, but for more current events, particularly those that are emotionally charged, it can be more difficult.

But it is important to stay impartial. Your role as the teacher is to facilitate the conversation but not impose your values or beliefs on the matter.

That said, if a conversation becomes overtly racist or inappropriate, it is your job to stop the conversation and educate your students on why the discussion is off track.

For non-negotiable wrongs of the past like Residential Schools or the Holocaust, your opinion is irrelevant because these matters were inhumane. That is a fact. It is not an opinion.

Debate Little Things to Learn to Debate Big Things

Start small.

Teach your students how to listen to all the information about an issue before forming an opinion or taking action on an issue.

Have discussions about little things to learn about to listen to others and present an argument that supports their position.

Here is a list of topics we have discussed and debated in our Grade Four and Grade Five classrooms:

which colour of Smarties tastes the best?

should plastic straws be banned?

should everything in school be paperless?

which brand of cookie is the best?

should dance be taught in gym class?

what snack is best to take on a field trip?

should pets be allowed at school?

Teach Students to Argue the Issue With the Actual Issue

Nothing makes a ninja's blood boil when you are discussing one issue and someone reciprocates with a completely unrelated issue.

For example: Using plastic straws is a waste of resources because they can only be used once. Instead, people should use paper straws that can be recycled or metal straws that can be reused.

The argument from someone in my family: When I had babies, we used cloth diapers. All you moms with your disposable diapers are the problem.

So, while the diaper issue is important, that wasn't the debate.

Teach your students to stick to the facts and issues specifically related to the debate.

Teach Students it's Okay to Change Your Mind

One of the most difficult things for adults to do is change their minds about an issue. It is possible, but some people are more likely to change their minds than others.

It comes down to having a growth mindset. Let's be honest; there are some people who are not able to learn from their mistakes. They continue to make the same bad choices over and over again.

These people often struggle with a fixed mindset because they see changing their minds as a weakness. But, having a growth mindset allows a person to recognize they now have more information and, therefore, can make a more informed decision.

And it's ok to change your mind. Particularly if you didn't have all the information when you started.

Try This Multiple Perspectives Activity

Here is a quick activity we do to show students that something that seems like a black-and-white, clear-cut issue can quickly turn grey.

Ask your students to put their heads down so they cannot see anything. For each of the questions, students will raise their hand for yes and keep their hands down for no. It is important to just watch the hands, but not call out any student for any of the questions. You might want to count the hands and keep a tally but do not identify any students or show surprise at any point.

Start the Questions Here

Start with a simple phrase: Is it wrong to steal something from a store? It is likely most of your students will raise their hands.

Next question: Is it wrong to steal something that doesn't cost very much from a store? You will likely have most people keep their hands raised.

Next question: Is it wrong to steal food from a store if someone doesn't have the money to buy it? This is where we found a few less hands, but this will depend on your student's personal experience.

Next question: Is it wrong to steal medicine from a store for a sick relative if no one sees the person stealing it? Now it will get more difficult for people to decide.

Next question: Is it wrong to steal medicine for a sick child from a store if the person stealing it would not get caught?

Last question: Is it wrong to steal medicine for a baby that will die if they don't get it and the person stealing it will not be punished?

It is likely that some of your students had trouble deciding for some of the questions because we're humans who want to help people.

What this activity shows us, is that when emotions are involved, it becomes more difficult to make a decision based on facts instead of how people feel. This is bias. Knowing that we have bias means we can try to separate it from the facts.

The facts in this activity is that someone is stealing. Stealing is wrong.

But when we add in emotion, we are concerned for the sick person and don't want the stealer to be punished for something we might see as trying to hold someone else.

Have a Discussion About Multiple Perspectives

Once your students have raised their heads ask them these questions and have the discussion about what they thought of the activity (not the specifics of how they voted): Did you find it more difficult to make a decision the more you learned about the situation? Did you change your mind at any point?

Ask your students if their opinion would change if they were the storekeeper. the stealer? the sick person?

Explain that as people learn more information about an issue, they might change their minds. The ability to change your mind and accept that an issue is different than you originally thought is ok.

Normalize changing your mind based on new information. Teach the phrase, "Oh, I didn't know that. Now that I do..."

Need a Specific Multiple Perspectives Lesson About Pipelines?

We wrote an entire lesson about whether or not pipelines are the best way to move oil from the oilsands. It is not a debate about whether or not people should be using fossil fuels. We've included many opinions from a variety of people involved in the issue along with facts.

You can find The Pipeline Perspective: Teaching Multiple Perspectives in our TpT Store ($USD) and BN Shop ($CAN).

If you are looking for some other ways to incorporate multiple perspectives into your lessons, you should check out some of our other social studies-related posts.

How to Bring Your Social Studies Lessons to Life
How to Get Your History Lessons Off Life Support Connecting Social Studies and Art
We have a Project Based Learning planning sheet, but we also use it to plan out activities that students will do from multiple perspectives. Come grab it in the Resource Library or we can send a copy to your inbox when you sign up to our mailing list.

We'd love to hear about your experiences discussing polarizing issues with your students. How are you managing the current culture of differing sides? How do you keep your personal opinion out of the classroom? Please share with us in the comments below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How to Teach Multiple Perspectives in the Classroom - Ninja Notes

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teach your students about learning from multiple perspectives before forming an opinion about pipelines in Canada.

# data[].attributes.body
Colorado Social Studies Standards

# data[].attributes.body
High Tech: Special-purpose computers, text-to-speech and speech-to-text software, audiobooks, and screen readers - all of these fall under the category of High Tech assistive technology. Assistive technology can be incredibly helpful for students with serious limitations in reading fluency.

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for teachers on importance of social studies.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How social studies can help young kids make sense of the world

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Time spent teaching social studies has declined in the last two decades, particularly since the 2001 passage of No Child Left Behind, which favored a focus on math, reading and accountability as a way of addressing the country’s growing achievement gap between rich and poor children.

# data[].attributes.body
Tips for teachers when teaching STEM.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Developing Ethical Thinking in STEM - TeachHUB

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Middle and high school-aged students can pick up ethical thinking skills through STEM. Learn more about strategies to enhance your students' ethical thinking!

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for teachers in creating science lesson plans.

# data[].attributes.body
Tips for teachers in a science classroom.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Science Classroom – Science for Developing Scientifically Literate Citizens

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
An effective science learning environment is creating an atmosphere for the most effective science learning to take place. In order to do this we have to put everything together. As teachers we need to integrate NGSS (including DCI, CCC, and SEP), unit planning, bundled standards, big ideas, and big questions to create a student-centered effective learning environment. These practices allow for students to do what scientists do to get engaged in science by using practices, exploring and learning science information like scientists do. To create an effective science environment you need to understand the key concepts, take time to reflect and implement, and critically think and be intentional in developing an effective environment in your future classroom. You want the focus on an environment that offers student-centered learning where students engage as scientists. An effective science learning environment includes but is not limited to the characteristics listed below.

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for teachers to make science more engaging for students.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Science instruction boosts students' curiosity and encourages collaboration, which will help them transition back to in-person school.

Frances Roberts / Alamy Stock Photo

Looking to help students grow academically, engage deeply in their learning, and cultivate critical social and emotional learning (SEL) competencies after more than a year of virtual and hybrid instruction? Science-and evidence-based methods for teaching it-can help.

The 2018 National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education found that students in grades K-3 were taught science for an average of just 18 minutes a day, compared with 89 minutes for English language arts and 57 minutes for math. Science instructional time is only marginally greater in the upper-elementary grades. And those are averages, which means many children go whole days and even weeks without science instruction. Amid the pandemic, science instruction often has been shoved even further aside.

While math and reading are essential subjects, elementary students need more science instruction. By creating time for science, school leaders and educators give students the space and opportunity to build knowledge, interact with classmates, problem-solve, and engage in important content at an age when they are at their most curious. Today's young people need to study and understand their world so that as young adults they can make decisions that have a positive impact.

Current practice simply isn't working, as evidenced by the latest National Assessment of Educational Progress, known as the gold standard in student assessments. Science scores were down on the latest assessment in elementary school and flat in middle and high school.

As a lifelong science educator, I believe high-quality science instruction is essential. It takes advantage of students' innate curiosity, boosts discourse and engagement, and enhances important social and emotional skills such as teamwork, self-management, and critical thinking. Great science instruction also encourages students to drive their learning through exploration. Those are exactly the kind of learning experiences students need as they transition back to in-person school this year.

3 Key Steps for Making Science More Engaging

1. Use phenomena: Anchoring lessons in observable events that can be explained or predicted through scientific understanding motivates students, allowing them to ask questions, make observations, and conduct investigations to understand and explain the world. For example, fourth-grade students might investigate how elephants sense rainstorms that are hundreds of miles away. This leads students to share ideas about related phenomena, such as pet dogs knowing when someone is at the door before people know. By incorporating phenomena in this manner, students interact with a web of interrelated events that help them connect core science ideas-in this case, how we respond when we sense information in our environment.

2. Integrate art and literature into your lessons: Science lends itself to interdisciplinary learning, which tends to be highly engaging. For example, when studying windmills in an energy unit, consider exploring Piet Mondrian's windmill paintings or incorporating The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind, by William Kamkwamba and Bryan Mealer, a nonfiction text about a Malawian boy who builds his own windmill and brings electricity to his village. This gives your students who love art or literature a window into science.

For K-2, the "tableau routine" allows students to visually and kinesthetically express understanding of a concept by communicating about it without words. Students use their bodies and facial expressions to create a scene, or tableau, that represents a concept. For example, they can pose in ways that show how plants respond to specific water and light conditions during an investigation.

The "jigsaw routine" helps students in third grade and above digest complex texts. Students are split into groups, and each group studies a section of text, becoming an expert on that portion. The groups then share what they learned. For example, students can read about fossils found in each rock layer of the Grand Canyon, reporting their findings to their peers and comparing the layers they studied to others.

And the "chalk-talk routine" is a silent exercise that encourages universal participation by giving students a chance to organize their thinking by first writing their thoughts and questions about a topic on sheets of chart paper. As students consider each topic, they build on their peers' ideas, respond to questions, and write follow-up questions. I've seen teachers use this routine to explore different solutions for mitigating severe weather damage.

3. Use engaging instructional routines: Many of these may already be in your toolbox.

Teachers can leverage the power of science when working to address learning challenges exacerbated by the pandemic. Emphasizing science instruction, using evidence-based strategies and routines, and exploring real-world phenomena will pique students' interest and help them with vital skills while giving more attention to a core academic subject that has too often been neglected.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Focusing on Science With Elementary Students This Year

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Science instruction boosts students' curiosity and encourages collaboration, which will help them transition back to in-person school.

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for teachers when teaching science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Understanding Science - How science REALLY works...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The following tips grow out of the research literature just reviewed and the guidance of teacher advisors to Understanding Science. Overall: Be explicit about how your classroom activities and content relate to the nature and process of science. Model the behaviors, strategies, and scientific language that you want from your students. Incorporate the nature and process of science

# data[].attributes.body
The purpose of inquiry is to evoke critical thinking rather than giving students the answers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Teachers can use 'effortful' follow-up questions to refine and extend student thinking about important concepts in a lesson.

Have you ever had a conversation, only to think of what you really wanted to say after it was over? These moments happen all the time in our everyday lives but are perhaps more significant when they occur within the context of teaching and learning.

As any teacher knows, classrooms are complex places with rich, layered lines of communication and meaning-so it's little wonder that we often end a lesson thinking, "If only I had asked that question!"

Planning to respond to student thinking is an important step, so that you aren't left regretting the question left unasked, and your students are more likely to think deeply about the content that matters most.

These are the kinds of instructional challenges we address at Deans for Impact, a national nonprofit working with educator preparation programs around the United States to apply cognitive science principles to practice.

How to Respond to Student Work

Drawing from my experience supporting novice and early-career teachers, let's consider the following scenario and what it tells us about responding to student thinking.

You're teaching an elementary math class on fractions in which students must complete this task: There are nine circles. Color some in and leave the rest white. What fraction of the circles are colored in?

While circulating, you see that a student has filled in four circles but hasn't written the fraction. What you say in response to this student will determine what they think about next. It will either refine and extend their thinking, or mean they remember the wrong or incomplete information.

In this instance, the student hasn't done anything "wrong" per se. They've successfully completed the first half of the task-coloring the circles-but the most important part, where effortful thinking can and should take place, comes in the second half of the prompt: determining what fraction is represented by the image.

The best way to ensure that this student engages in the rich thinking that you planned for is to offer an effortful (or elaborative) follow-up question. That is, a question that will make the student think more deeply about the content at hand.

1. Is my follow-up question effortful? Does it prompt analysis, justification, or detailed explanation?

2. Is my follow-up question targeted? Does it prompt students to elaborate on the thing I want them to remember and not something else?

To help us think about what we would say next, let's consider two criteria for refining student thinking:

Even though formulating a question that fulfills these criteria might seem straightforward at first, crafting an effective, effortful question is difficult to do on the fly. To show how such follow-up questions can go right (and wrong), let's use our criteria from above to explore four ways that a teacher could respond.

How Follow-Up Questions Affect Student Understanding

Now let's consider the impact that different types of questions would have on student learning:

"What other colors could you use to shade your fraction next time?" This question isn't effortful or targeted because it won't prompt students to think deeply about useful information. The color they shaded the circles has nothing to do with determining what fraction of the circles are colored in, and the closed-ended question will lead to short, often one-word answers (like "Red").

"Why are fractions important?" This "why" question is effortful, so students may remember their response later. However, it's not targeted or focused on the information that students need to refine their answer. Even if a student answers the question correctly, they're unlikely to get closer to understanding how to determine a fraction from its visual representation.

"The numerator is the number of shaded circles and the denominator is the total number of circles. Count each number with me and write it out. So, what's the fraction?" This question focuses on the right information, but it doesn't prompt the effortful thinking required to remember the concept. The teacher is the one doing the effortful thinking in this case, and the student can simply follow along and count their way to the "correct" answer.

"How can you use your picture to decide what to write as the numerator and denominator? How would your fraction be different if you colored in one more circle?" This question is targeted at what we want students to learn and prompts effortful thinking about that content. This brings the student closer to answering the original effortful question and prompts the type of deep processing that makes it more likely that they'll remember the information later.

1. Expect and anticipate student misconceptions. Consider the ways that students might misunderstand or have only partial understanding in answering the question. This will ensure that your follow-ups target the types of support that your students will need.

2. Script follow-up questions in advance. Based on the anticipated student misunderstandings, craft follow-up questions that are targeted and effortful. Scripting questions in advance means that you'll be more likely to prompt the type of effortful thinking that will ensure your students remember the content later.

3. Answer your own follow-up questions. By responding to your own elaborative prompts, you can determine whether they will move the student any closer to the exemplar response you want them to take away.

If you want to make sure your follow-up questions are both effortful and targeted, here are three strategies for helping students refine and extend their thinking:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Using Inquiry to Support Deeper Learning

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teachers can use 'effortful' follow-up questions to refine and extend student thinking about important concepts in a lesson. Have you ever had a conversation, only to think of what you really wanted to say after it was over?

# data[].attributes.body
Culturally responsive strategies for teachers while teaching science.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ten Culturally Responsive Teaching Strategies for the Science Classroom (Opinion)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Four teachers share how they implement culturally responsive instruction in their science classrooms.

# data[].attributes.body
Resource for teachers on using cross-cutting concepts.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
9 Tips for Using Crosscutting Concepts to Boost Students’ Scientific Thinking

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Introducing elementary students to ideas that apply across disciplines enhances their understanding of the sciences as an interconnected whole.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Patterns. Observed patterns of forms and events guide organization and classification, and they prompt questions about relationships and the factors that influence them.

2. Cause and effect: Mechanism and explanation. Events have causes, sometimes simple, sometimes multifaceted. A major activity of science is investigating and explaining causal relationships and the mechanisms by which they are mediated. Such mechanisms can then be tested across given contexts and used to predict and explain events in new contexts.

3. Scale, proportion, and quantity. In considering phenomena, it is critical to recognize what is relevant at different measures of size, time, and energy and to recognize how changes in scale, proportion, or quantity affect a system’s structure or performance.

4. Systems and system models. Defining the system under study—specifying its boundaries and making explicit a model of that system—provides tools for understanding and testing ideas that are applicable throughout science and engineering.

5. Energy and matter: Flows, cycles, and conservation. Tracking fluxes of energy and matter into, out of, and within systems helps one understand the systems’ possibilities and limitations.

6. Structure and function. The way in which an object or living thing is shaped and its substructure determine many of its properties and functions.

7. Stability and change. For natural and built systems alike, conditions of stability and determinants of rates of change or evolution of a system are critical elements of study

# data[].attributes.body
Science and Engineering Practices

# data[].attributes.body
Colorado Science Standards