# data[].attributes.body
Add a link to the best scholarly source you can find for your lens and topic. Make sure it is RECENT, CREDIBLE, RELEVANT, and you can ACCESS and UNDERSTAND it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Homeschooling Associated with Beneficial Learner and Societal Outcomes but Educators Do Not Promote It on JSTOR

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Brian D. Ray, Homeschooling Associated with Beneficial Learner and Societal Outcomes but Educators Do Not Promote It, Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 88, No. 3, Homeschooling Rising Into the Twenty-First Century (2013), pp. 324-341

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Bryn Cunningham -  Cashless Society Economic Lens

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Bryn Cunningham -  Cashless Society Economic Lens

# data[].attributes.headline
Samantha Elias - Homeschooling economics 

# data[].attributes.subject
Samantha Elias - Homeschooling economics 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.headline
Ariel Ruggiero - Homeschooling Economics  

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Ariel Ruggiero - Homeschooling Economics  

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The Costs of Homeschooling Today

https://hslda.org/post/the-costs-of-homeschooling-today

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.headline
Alexa Schaffer- Cashless society Economy

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Alexa Schaffer- Cashless society Economy

# data[].attributes.body
https://www.emerald.com/jstpm/article-abstract/16/4/756/1247339/How-does-digital-payment-transform-society-as-a?redirectedFrom=fulltext

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In “Homeschooling on a Budget,” veteran homeschooling mother Jessica Marie Baumgartner dismantles the myth that quality education requires thousands of dollars in specialized materials and programs. Drawing from her decade of experience teaching four children on a modest family income, she delivers a practical, no-nonsense guide that proves excellent homeschooling is achievable for families of all economic backgrounds. Baumgartner walks readers through every aspect of affordable homeschooling, from utilizing free community resources like libraries and museums to finding low-cost curriculum materials and enrichment activities. She offers candid insights about navigating homeschooling co-ops, conventions, online resources, and workforce training without breaking the bank. The book addresses common concerns about socialization, graduation requirements, and preparing students for higher education or careers. With refreshing honesty and pragmatism, Baumgartner shares her family’s journey through various educational approaches, teaching readers to identify what truly matters in education versus expensive trappings that add little value. She provides concrete examples of how to stretch each dollar while providing rich, customized learning experiences that cater to each child’s unique needs and interests. Whether you’re a seasoned homeschooler looking to reduce costs or a family considering homeschooling but worried about affordability, this guide provides the encouragement and practical tools needed to confidently educate your children without financial strain. If you enjoyed “The Brave Learner,” “The Homeschool Highway,” or “Homeschooling for Absolute Beginners,” you’ll love “Homeschooling on a Budget.”

# data[].attributes.headline
Nicole Morales - homeschooling historical

# data[].attributes.subject
Nicole Morales - homeschooling historical

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Confrontation and Cooperation: The Complicated Relationship Between Homeschoolers and Public Schools on JSTOR

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Donna M. Johnson, Confrontation and Cooperation: The Complicated Relationship Between Homeschoolers and Public Schools, Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 88, No. 3, Homeschooling Rising Into the Twenty-First Century (2013), pp. 298-308

# data[].attributes.body
Croushore, Dean D. “Government Financial Policy and Capital.” Southern Economic Journal, vol. 54, no. 2, 1987, pp. 435–48. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1059327. Accessed 25 Sept. 2025.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.headline
Elias Wojtusiak - Homeschooling History.

# data[].attributes.subject
Elias Wojtusiak - Homeschooling History.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Coalition for Responsible Home Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The modern homeschool movement began in the 1970s when John Holt, an educational theorist and supporter of school reform, began arguing that formal schools' focus on rote learning created an oppressive classroom environment designed to make children compliant employees. Holt called for parents to liberate their children from formal education and instead follow a method today known as "unschooling." Early Holt followers connected through Holt's newsletter, Growing Without Schooling, which was founded in 1977.

Soon after Holt's arguments inspired the first homeschoolers, Holt's friend educational theorist Raymond Moore added his voice, arguing that early schooling was detrimental to children and that children should be schooled at home until age eight or nine in order to give them a firm educational, psychological, and moral foundation. Moore's 1981 Home Grown Kids quickly became popular and was often the first book homeschoolers read.

When Holt and Moore first began advocating homeschooling, educating children at home was legal in every state, but subject to varying regulations, which were sometimes quite stringent (for example, six states required parents to have teaching licenses). Early homeschoolers generally worked with their local school boards, meeting requirements and submitting their home education plans. In the early 1980s, Moore stated that in 80 to 90% of all cases, "local public school administrators and primary teachers ... are understanding." In those cases where homeschoolers faced challenges, organizations founded by Holt and Moore offered help in mediating with local officials and, if needed, legal aid.

During the 1980s the tenor of homeschooling changed as a new wave of individuals entered the movement. These were evangelical and fundamentalist Christians engaged in culture wars rhetoric about public schools as "Satanic hothouses." Given credibility by Focus on the Family founder James Dobson and initial support by Moore, these newer homeschoolers took an antagonistic outlook toward public school administrators and were unwilling to cooperate with public schools they saw as evil. It was at this point that the legal battles began in earnest as homeschoolers found themselves faced with newly uncooperative local public school officials and the negative feedback cycle that ensued as officials responded even more negatively when faced with litigation. Also in play was the fact that some school officials felt threatened by the growing number of homeschoolers. For all these reasons, the head of one secular homeschooling group call the mid-1980s "the look over your shoulder time."

Homeschoolers responded to the changed situation by turning from the local level to the state level, petitioning state legislatures to change laws to accommodate for homeschooling. Homeschoolers fought among themselves over how much oversight the laws should contain; while some homeschoolers were comfortable with standardized testing and submitting curriculum plans, others felt that such requirements were oppressive. The story of the legalization of homeschooling is really fifty different stories: Some states saw education policy change without the need for legislative action, some added only a few words or a sentence to their statutes, and others composed and passed detailed homeschool statutes. Oversight of homeschooling today differs widely from state to state; some states have no oversight at all while others impose various requirements such as testing or curriculum approval. By 1989 the vast majority states had made peace with homeschoolers, with only a few states holding out into the early 1990s.

The 1980s was also the time of what historian Milton Gaither has called "the changing of the guard." By 1990, homeschooling was no longer connected to the liberal-leaning educational reform movement, as it had been in the 1970s, but rather to conservative religious ideas and the Christian Right. While Holt and Moore together essentially singlehandedly founded the homeschool movement, their books and publications serving as the lifeblood of the fledgling movement in its early years, their leadership did not last past the 1980s. Holt died in 1985, and Moore found himself marginalized by new homeschool leaders who did not consider him, as a Seventh Day Adventist, "Christian" enough. While religious and secular homeschoolers had worked together to form local, state, and national organizations and fight legal battles throughout much of the 1980s, this alliance began to fracture toward the end of the decade. In 1990, Moore appealed vainly to the homeschool community to remain united even as homeschool groups and organizations were increasingly explicitly Christian, often requiring the signing of statements of faith and excluding secular homeschoolers. First and foremost among the new leaders of the homeschool movement was Michael Farris.

Michael Farris, a homeschool parent and attorney, founded the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in 1983. Early in the decade homeschoolers had generally worked together with local public school officials, aided as needed by the efforts of Holt and Moore. However, as relations with local officials became more tendentious (in part as a result of the entrance of more oppositional and less cooperative evangelical and fundamentalist homeschoolers), a variety of organizations, some religious and some secular, engaged in legal efforts on behalf of homeschoolers and worked to change state laws. HSLDA was one of these organizations, though others did most of the heavy lifting before it came into existence or while it was still in its infancy. In the early 1990s, HSLDA made a name for itself by bringing about the end of the last remaining holdouts.

Michael Farris used both his acclaim for fighting the last remaining legal battles and his connections to other influential homeschool leaders such as Greg Harris and Sue Welch to position HSLDA to become "the nerve center of a national movement infrastructure." Aided by these other, newer homeschool leaders, Farris carried out a virtual coup of the homeschool movement and by the mid-1990s came to control both the movement's networking system and its public image. Secular homeschool groups and organizations still existed, but they were overshadowed by the political power and organizational strength of HSLDA, which was aided by its commitment to hierarchical structure.

While early homeschool leaders had focused on liberating children from the constraints of formal schooling and freeing them to follow their interests, these new leaders had a different goal and vision. These new leaders created a radical social and religious vision in which children would be homeschooled with the explicit purpose of being launched into government, education, and the entertainment industries in order to transform the United States into a nation based in Christian beliefs. While their beliefs and practices varied, some of these leaders have embraced a more extreme ideology that held that women should not attend college or endorsed a full return to Old Testament law. In contrast to the earlier focus on liberating children, these leaders have generally focused on properly training children, and in many cases have placed more emphasis on religious ideology than on education.

Meanwhile, homeschooling has continued to grow by leaps and bounds, especially as it has increasingly come to be seen as an acceptable educational alternative. A growing number of families have begun homeschooling for neither pedagogical nor religious reasons but rather for individual pragmatic reasons, including concerns about bullying or the poor quality of local schools. This increasing diversity, combined with the advent of the internet, has opened up information networks once controlled almost solely by Christian homeschooling groups and has the potential to change the face of the movement.
For more on the varying groups of homeschoolers, including those homeschooled for pedagogical, religious, or pragmatic reasons, see How Have Scholars Divided Homeschoolers into Groups? For individual state histories, see Histories of Homeschooling.
Note: The information in this overview is drawn from J. Gary Knowles, Stacey E. Marlow, and James A. Muchmore, "From Pedagogy to Ideology: Origins and Phases of Home Education in the United States, 1970-1990," pp. 223-225; Milton Gaither, Homeschool: An American History (New York, 2008), esp. 164-166, 175-200; Mitchell L. Stevens, Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement (Princeton, 2001), esp. 122-3, 172-73; Rachel E. Coleman, "Ideologues, Pedagogues, Pragmatics: A Case Study of the Homeschool Community in Delaware County, Indiana" (M.A. thesis, Ball State University, 2010); and Jennifer Lois, Home Is Where the School Is: The Logic of Homeschooling and the Emotional Labor of Mothering (New York, 2012).

Read more about homeschooling:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Brief History of Homeschooling - Coalition for Responsible Home Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The modern homeschool movement began in the 1970s when John Holt, an educational theorist and supporter of school reform, began arguing that formal schools' focus on rote learning created an oppressive classroom environment designed to make children compliant... Read More

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.body
POLOZ, STEPHEN S. “Integrating Financial Stability into Monetary Policy.” Business Economics, vol. 50, no. 4, 2015, pp. 200–05. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43678270. Accessed 26 Sept. 2025.

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https://www.jstor.org/stable/41719723

# data[].attributes.headline
Bella Scheehser- Cashless Society Ethics

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Bella Scheehser- Cashless Society Ethics

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July 28, 2016

Thanks to the internet, smartphone apps and other technological advances, we seem to be headed in the direction of a cashless society in which physical currency is replaced completely by an internet connection and a bank account. For instance, I can pay my portion of a bar tab with my phone using the payment-splitting app Venmo. I can send friends money through PayPal's website. I can even buy Cheez-Its at work sans cash, because there's a credit card reader attached to the vending machine. Using near-field communication, the tech-savvy among us can breeze through the retail checkout process by waving an Apple Smartwatch or Visa payWave credit card over a contactless terminal.

All these innovations have happened in the past few decades. At this rate, could cash become completely obsolete in the near future? And is that a good thing?

To answer the first question: Certain cultures are certainly heading in that direction. A 2013 article on Swedish news site The Local was headlined, "Swedes set for cashless future." The article stated that only 27 percent of retail purchases involve cash (not including those made online), and some public buses in the country refuse paper money and coins altogether. Sweden's central bank, the Riksbank, told The Local, "Neither retailers nor banks have any obligation to accept cash."

Convenience-wise, a cashless society certainly sounds appealing (imagine a future with no dirty, wrinkled dollar bills or coins buried in the couch). Privacy-wise, it's harder to say. Especially when you consider the existence of an electronic record of your most sensitive purchases, including items such as drugs.
One example: marijuana
On Oct. 1, 2015, recreational marijuana sales became legal in Oregon. Hundreds of dispensaries sprouted up; they quickly outnumbered Oregon's Starbucks and McDonald's locations. It was a boon for small businesses-except most banks don't allow dispensaries to open accounts. Banks fear losing their Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation insurance, as marijuana is still illegal at the federal level. That means roughly 85 percent of Oregon's dispensaries are cash-only. Many have ATMs inside, but that's not the point. The point is someone at the federal level gets to decide marijuana is questionable even though the majority of Americans disagree.

Immediately, troublesome implications come to mind about the potential difficulties for dispensary owners. What if dispensary owners want to apply for a loan or rent retail space, but have no way to prove their creditworthiness? Paper records only go so far. And it's inconvenient for any business to have to deal solely in cash: Tracking transactions, managing payroll and doing taxes are difficult. As Oregon Sen. Ron Wyden said last year, "It is ridiculous to make any business owner carry duffel bags of cash just to pay their taxes." Finally, there's theft. As Jeffrey Stinson wrote for the Pew Charitable Trusts, "The abundance of cash makes ... dispensaries tantalizing targets for criminals."

These arguments for a cashless society may be compelling, but swapping cash for plastic presents privacy concerns for consumers. Currently, cash-only marijuana purchases mean that my bank-and anyone who hacks into my bank account or subpoenas my banking activity-doesn't know if or when I buy marijuana. If society goes cashless, if I apply for a loan through a national bank, loan officers might not view those purchases favorably when considering how responsible, upstanding and financially prudent I am-even though purchasing marijuana is legal in my state. (Some lenders, such as Earnest, don't merely use your credit score to determine your creditworthiness; they also examine your purchase history.) So yes, marijuana dispensaries should not have to rely solely on cash, but consumers shouldn't have to rely solely on debit and credit cards.

To put it plainly, most people probably don't want their banks to know whenever they buy drugs. The minute Americans can purchase marijuana with credit or debit cards, other people will start making assumptions and judgments will start being used against them.
Your bank account tells all
In an imaginary future cashless society, it's one thing for your bank to know your complete spending history. Unless you shun banks and get paid only in cash, your bank knows almost everything you buy already. But what happens when (as previously mentioned) someone subpoenas a record of your financial transactions to determine whether you deserve custody of your child? Or whether you're a "suspicious character" and had motive to commit a crime? In a cashless society, activities such as gambling, going to a strip club and purchasing a counterfeit handbag lose their anonymity. Not only do banks gain knowledge of your every purchase, but they open the door for others to police your morality.

Sometimes this is a good thing, like with illegal activity. "A student at Columbia University was arrested and charged with five drug-related offenses, including possession with the intent to sell," wrote Sarah Jeong for The Atlantic. "Supposedly, his fellow students and customers had paid him through the PayPal-owned smartphone app Venmo." No matter how unmonitored they seem, most digital apps and payment systems aren't anonymous. That's good news for law enforcement and cases that are black and white, but what about the gray areas?
Who decides what's unethical?
What if the morality of a situation is not as cut-and-dried? Who gets to decide that a legal purchase such as like purchasing marijuana in Oregon or tipping a stripper is unethical? What you and I may think is acceptable may be put in the same category as activities that are illegal and far less ethically ambiguous. For example, a recent initiative by the Department of Justice inadvertently grouped Ponzi schemes and adult entertainment together in the same category of suspicious, high-risk activity, despite their fundamental differences in legality.

Here's the full story, according to Sarah Jeong in The Atlantic: In 2013, the Department of Justice launched an initiative called Operation Choke Point to crack down on high-interest payday loans. The DOJ asked banks to flag "high-risk activity." In addition to guns, get-rich-quick schemes and pyramid schemes, other high-risk activities according to the FDIC included "tobacco sales, telemarketing, pornography, escort services, dating services, online gambling, coin dealers, cable-box descramblers, and 'racist materials,'" wrote Jeong. As a result, banks stopped working with businesses that were actually legitimate, concluded an investigation by the U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform. As Jeong commented in her piece, "It's strange to see a list of a handful of actually-illegal activities ... alongside legal vices." Indeed. While the goal of Operation Choke Point was to target exploitative payday lenders, not to serve as the morality police, the operation ended up revealing how easy it was to do the latter. In a cashless society, we lose the option to keep legal yet morally questionable purchases private, leaving others to label them as they will.
From hacking to hurricanes
Aside from concerns about privacy and morality, a cashless society is worrisome in light of threats such as fraud and natural disasters (two cases in which cash comes out on top).

Today, it's arguably easier to open a fraudulent credit card in someone's name than to snatch someone's physical wallet; compare 326,000 reported robberies in the United States in 2014 to 333,000 reported cases of identity theft. And having your identity stolen is not merely annoying. "Identity theft is often committed to facilitate other crimes such as credit card fraud, document fraud, or employment fraud, which in turn can affect not only the nation's economy but its security," noted the Congressional Research Service. In contrast, cash is relatively secure, even if you don't wear a wallet chain.

Plus, its liquidity makes it good for emergencies. Apps and online banking require not only power but also internet access. Should a large-scale natural disaster strike, no one will be taking Uber to the grocery store to buy flares with their debit card. Need a five-gallon jug of water? Don't count on Amazon Prime.

Obviously, I'm not advocating draining your bank account and stashing all your money under your mattress. But as we slowly transition away from physical money, it's worth first examining the sacrifices to our privacy, anonymity and security. Jeong warns, "[T]he cashless society offers the government entirely new forms of coercion, surveillance, and censorship." Whether you care more about your freedom or your right to privacy, a cashless society should give us pause.

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Thanks to the internet, smartphone apps and other technological advances, we seem to be headed in the direction of a cashless society in which physical currency is replaced completely by an internet connection and a bank account. For instance, I can pay my portion of a bar tab with my phone using the payment-splitting app Venmo.

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Towards a Cashless Society: The Imminent Role of Wearable Technology

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Wearable payment, which is the use of wearable technology to make payment, is anticipated to be the future of proximity mobile payment. However, the acceptance and use of wearable payment in Malays…

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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View of SOCIAL SKILLS LEVELS FOR HOMESCHOOLING STUDENTS COMPARED TO PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS

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Return to Article Details SOCIAL SKILLS LEVELS FOR HOMESCHOOLING STUDENTS COMPARED TO PUBLIC SCHOOL STUDENTS

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

# data[].attributes.headline
Nicole Morales - Homeschooling Historical

# data[].attributes.subject
Nicole Morales - Homeschooling Historical

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The link you followed may be broken. Try again using one of the options below or contact JSTOR support for help.

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Would a Cashless Society Be a Better Society? | J.P. Morgan

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As physical cash use rapidly declines, what would the implications of a cashless society be? We asked two experts to weigh in on either side of the debate.

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Elias Wojtusiak - Homeschooling Historical

# data[].attributes.subject
Elias Wojtusiak - Homeschooling Historical

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Coalition for Responsible Home Education

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The modern homeschool movement began in the 1970s when John Holt, an educational theorist and supporter of school reform, began arguing that formal schools' focus on rote learning created an oppressive classroom environment designed to make children compliant employees. Holt called for parents to liberate their children from formal education and instead follow a method today known as "unschooling." Early Holt followers connected through Holt's newsletter, Growing Without Schooling, which was founded in 1977.

Soon after Holt's arguments inspired the first homeschoolers, Holt's friend educational theorist Raymond Moore added his voice, arguing that early schooling was detrimental to children and that children should be schooled at home until age eight or nine in order to give them a firm educational, psychological, and moral foundation. Moore's 1981 Home Grown Kids quickly became popular and was often the first book homeschoolers read.

When Holt and Moore first began advocating homeschooling, educating children at home was legal in every state, but subject to varying regulations, which were sometimes quite stringent (for example, six states required parents to have teaching licenses). Early homeschoolers generally worked with their local school boards, meeting requirements and submitting their home education plans. In the early 1980s, Moore stated that in 80 to 90% of all cases, "local public school administrators and primary teachers ... are understanding." In those cases where homeschoolers faced challenges, organizations founded by Holt and Moore offered help in mediating with local officials and, if needed, legal aid.

During the 1980s the tenor of homeschooling changed as a new wave of individuals entered the movement. These were evangelical and fundamentalist Christians engaged in culture wars rhetoric about public schools as "Satanic hothouses." Given credibility by Focus on the Family founder James Dobson and initial support by Moore, these newer homeschoolers took an antagonistic outlook toward public school administrators and were unwilling to cooperate with public schools they saw as evil. It was at this point that the legal battles began in earnest as homeschoolers found themselves faced with newly uncooperative local public school officials and the negative feedback cycle that ensued as officials responded even more negatively when faced with litigation. Also in play was the fact that some school officials felt threatened by the growing number of homeschoolers. For all these reasons, the head of one secular homeschooling group call the mid-1980s "the look over your shoulder time."

Homeschoolers responded to the changed situation by turning from the local level to the state level, petitioning state legislatures to change laws to accommodate for homeschooling. Homeschoolers fought among themselves over how much oversight the laws should contain; while some homeschoolers were comfortable with standardized testing and submitting curriculum plans, others felt that such requirements were oppressive. The story of the legalization of homeschooling is really fifty different stories: Some states saw education policy change without the need for legislative action, some added only a few words or a sentence to their statutes, and others composed and passed detailed homeschool statutes. Oversight of homeschooling today differs widely from state to state; some states have no oversight at all while others impose various requirements such as testing or curriculum approval. By 1989 the vast majority states had made peace with homeschoolers, with only a few states holding out into the early 1990s.

The 1980s was also the time of what historian Milton Gaither has called "the changing of the guard." By 1990, homeschooling was no longer connected to the liberal-leaning educational reform movement, as it had been in the 1970s, but rather to conservative religious ideas and the Christian Right. While Holt and Moore together essentially singlehandedly founded the homeschool movement, their books and publications serving as the lifeblood of the fledgling movement in its early years, their leadership did not last past the 1980s. Holt died in 1985, and Moore found himself marginalized by new homeschool leaders who did not consider him, as a Seventh Day Adventist, "Christian" enough. While religious and secular homeschoolers had worked together to form local, state, and national organizations and fight legal battles throughout much of the 1980s, this alliance began to fracture toward the end of the decade. In 1990, Moore appealed vainly to the homeschool community to remain united even as homeschool groups and organizations were increasingly explicitly Christian, often requiring the signing of statements of faith and excluding secular homeschoolers. First and foremost among the new leaders of the homeschool movement was Michael Farris.

Michael Farris, a homeschool parent and attorney, founded the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in 1983. Early in the decade homeschoolers had generally worked together with local public school officials, aided as needed by the efforts of Holt and Moore. However, as relations with local officials became more tendentious (in part as a result of the entrance of more oppositional and less cooperative evangelical and fundamentalist homeschoolers), a variety of organizations, some religious and some secular, engaged in legal efforts on behalf of homeschoolers and worked to change state laws. HSLDA was one of these organizations, though others did most of the heavy lifting before it came into existence or while it was still in its infancy. In the early 1990s, HSLDA made a name for itself by bringing about the end of the last remaining holdouts.

Michael Farris used both his acclaim for fighting the last remaining legal battles and his connections to other influential homeschool leaders such as Greg Harris and Sue Welch to position HSLDA to become "the nerve center of a national movement infrastructure." Aided by these other, newer homeschool leaders, Farris carried out a virtual coup of the homeschool movement and by the mid-1990s came to control both the movement's networking system and its public image. Secular homeschool groups and organizations still existed, but they were overshadowed by the political power and organizational strength of HSLDA, which was aided by its commitment to hierarchical structure.

While early homeschool leaders had focused on liberating children from the constraints of formal schooling and freeing them to follow their interests, these new leaders had a different goal and vision. These new leaders created a radical social and religious vision in which children would be homeschooled with the explicit purpose of being launched into government, education, and the entertainment industries in order to transform the United States into a nation based in Christian beliefs. While their beliefs and practices varied, some of these leaders have embraced a more extreme ideology that held that women should not attend college or endorsed a full return to Old Testament law. In contrast to the earlier focus on liberating children, these leaders have generally focused on properly training children, and in many cases have placed more emphasis on religious ideology than on education.

Meanwhile, homeschooling has continued to grow by leaps and bounds, especially as it has increasingly come to be seen as an acceptable educational alternative. A growing number of families have begun homeschooling for neither pedagogical nor religious reasons but rather for individual pragmatic reasons, including concerns about bullying or the poor quality of local schools. This increasing diversity, combined with the advent of the internet, has opened up information networks once controlled almost solely by Christian homeschooling groups and has the potential to change the face of the movement.
For more on the varying groups of homeschoolers, including those homeschooled for pedagogical, religious, or pragmatic reasons, see How Have Scholars Divided Homeschoolers into Groups? For individual state histories, see Histories of Homeschooling.
Note: The information in this overview is drawn from J. Gary Knowles, Stacey E. Marlow, and James A. Muchmore, "From Pedagogy to Ideology: Origins and Phases of Home Education in the United States, 1970-1990," pp. 223-225; Milton Gaither, Homeschool: An American History (New York, 2008), esp. 164-166, 175-200; Mitchell L. Stevens, Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement (Princeton, 2001), esp. 122-3, 172-73; Rachel E. Coleman, "Ideologues, Pedagogues, Pragmatics: A Case Study of the Homeschool Community in Delaware County, Indiana" (M.A. thesis, Ball State University, 2010); and Jennifer Lois, Home Is Where the School Is: The Logic of Homeschooling and the Emotional Labor of Mothering (New York, 2012).

Read more about homeschooling:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Brief History of Homeschooling - Coalition for Responsible Home Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The modern homeschool movement began in the 1970s when John Holt, an educational theorist and supporter of school reform, began arguing that formal schools' focus on rote learning created an oppressive classroom environment designed to make children compliant... Read More

# data[].attributes.headline
Bella Scheehser- Cashless society ethics

# data[].attributes.subject
Bella Scheehser- Cashless society ethics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Navigating the Transition_ Impacts, Challenges and Future Prospects of a Cashless Society _ OxJournal

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Homeschooling Economics - Ariel Ruggiero

# data[].attributes.subject
Homeschooling Economics - Ariel Ruggiero

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Some 3.4% of K-12 students in the United States were homeschooled during the 2022-23 academic year, according to recently released data from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). That was roughly on par with the 2.8% of students who were homeschooled during the 2018-19 academic year, before the coronavirus pandemic.

How we did this

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to examine homeschooling patterns in the United States. This analysis relies on data from the Parent and Family Involvement in Education Survey (PFI) by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES).

The PFI collects data on family engagement in education, including parent involvement at school, family activities and homeschooling. This analysis exclusively uses the survey's data on homeschooled students and their families.

The nationally representative PFI survey is conducted every three to four years. The latest survey was fielded between January and August 2023 by the U.S. Census Bureau. Questionnaires were completed for 19,562 students and weighted to represent approximately 53 million students in the U.S. between kindergarten and 12th grade - or in homeschool equivalents - during the 2022-23 school year. The questionnaires were completed by a parent or guardian about a selected child.

Find the complete methodology, data tables and appendices here.

How is homeschooling defined?

The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) provides the official federal estimate of the homeschooling rate in the United States, based on a survey of American parents. Each parent responds to questions about the schooling of one selected child in their household.

The NCES homeschooling rate is the share of sampled children ages 5 to 17 with a grade equivalent of kindergarten through grade 12 whose parents say they are homeschooled for all or some classes. It excludes students with temporary illnesses and those who attend a public or private school for more than 25 hours per week.

Learn more about the survey methodology here. Here are the questions used for this analysis.

Another 1.8% of K-12 students were enrolled in full-time virtual public or private schools in 2022-23, but their parents did not consider them to be homeschooled. In 2018-19, fewer than 1% of students (0.86%) were in this virtual schooling group.

Why do parents choose to homeschool?

Parents of homeschooled children cite multiple factors as reasons for doing so, according to NCES.

The most common reason given by parents of homeschooled children is concern about the school environment - such as safety, drugs or negative peer pressure (83% of parents of homeschooled children cite this as a reason).

About seven-in-ten (72%) say dissatisfaction with academic instruction at other schools is a reason.

Large majorities of parents of homeschooling kids also cite the preference to provide moral instruction (75%) and the desire to emphasize family life together (72%).

About half of parents of homeschooling students say a reason to homeschool is the desire to provide religious instruction (53%) or to provide a nontraditional approach to their child's education (50%).

Other, less common reasons cited by parents have to do with their child's special needs or health issues. For 15% of parents of homeschooling children, a reason for homeschooling is a physical or mental health problem that has lasted six months or more. Another health-related reason these parents give is that their child has a temporary illness that prevents them from going to school (2%). And 21% of homeschooled children's parents say they choose to homeschool because their child has other special needs that they feel the school cannot or will not meet.

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Some 3.4% of K-12 students in the United States were homeschooled during the 2022-23 academic year.