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Attachment trauma occurs when disruptions in early bonding with caregivers lead to difficulties in trust, emotional regulation, and relationships later in life.

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Attachment trauma comes from a rupture in the bonding process between a child and their primary caregiver. Its effects can last well into adulthood.

If you struggle with relationships, there's a dominant cultural narrative that assumes there is something wrong with you.

But science offers us a more expansive view: Our relationship challenges may be rooted in what's known as attachment trauma.

Attachment trauma is "a consistent disruption of physical and emotional safety in the family system. It is not what happens to you, but what happens inside you," says Heather Monroe, a licensed clinical social worker (LCSW) in Nashville, Tennessee, who specializes in treating relational trauma.

A child's early life experiences shape their adult life, and the relationship with their primary caregiver is among the most important for their development.

If a child doesn't have their early relational needs met, this can show up later in life in their mental health, relationships, and sense of self.

As we develop as children, we look to our caregivers for access to a variety of human needs, from shelter to affection. When those needs go unmet, some children can feel alone in highly charged emotional states.

Attachment trauma can occur when a caregiver is a source of overwhelming distress for the child. This is a form of relational trauma, which is trauma that occurs in the context of a relationship with another person.

It's also closely linked with complex trauma, which is trauma from repeated events, such as ongoing emotional abuse or childhood neglect.

While conversations around terms such as " attachment styles " and "attachment theory" are growing in popularity, what is less talked about is how attachment trauma can affect how we move through the world physically, mentally, and emotionally.

Attachment trauma can be felt physically. "Relationships can trigger your nervous system to go into fight, flight or freeze," explains Monroe.

Monroe, who is also a trauma educator, says relational trauma can be a constant, cumulative stress building up in the body over time in both visible and invisible ways.

Attachment trauma often leads to a "disoriented-disorganized" attachment - a pattern that, in turn, imparts an increased risk of further abuse and neglect.

In addition to relationship difficulties, attachment trauma is also linked to our overall mental health, according to a .

"Your nervous system is constantly learning how to be in connection with people. And the biggest thing around that is, is it safe to be in connection or not? There's all these overt ways that it can feel not safe, but also really covert ways that it can start feeling unsafe and shutting us down or revving us up," says Monroe.

Monroe explains there are overt and covert causes of attachment trauma.

Overt causes of attachment trauma include:

divorce in the family

loss in the family, such as death of a parent or sibling

postpartum issues

physical neglect, such as going without basic needs, like food or water

abuse, which could be physical, sexual, or emotional

caregiver(s) facing a life threatening illness

caregiver(s) having a substance use disorder

domestic violence

Covert causes of attachment trauma include a caregiver (or more than one caregiver) who:

is physically or emotionally unavailable

has mental health difficulties, such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or eating disorders, that may make them less available to be present for their child

has inherited trauma they haven't processed yet and unknowingly pass on to their child

has poor boundaries and tends to treat child more like a friend

objectifies a child's body

uses psychologically controlling tactics, such as not being affectionate, shaming the child, making the child feel guilty, or not validating a child's feelings

may be controlling, which can remove a child's power and individuality

Relationship issues are one of the dominant aspects and often the most painful of attachment trauma. Attachment trauma, like other forms of childhood trauma, can affect adult relationships.

It can, for example, show up in avoiding relationships for fear of rejection, intense fears of intimacy, or being overly attached, such as ending up in codependent relationships.

Along with relationship difficulties, signs you may be facing attachment trauma include:

a tendency toward shame, guilt, and humiliation

hyper-reactivity to stress

hyperarousal

enmeshment

Like other forms of trauma, attachment trauma may be linked with mental health conditions, including:

There's a myth that if you face challenges in relationships, you will always find relationships difficult.

That simply isn't true.

"What attachment science shows us, especially the new attachment science and adults, is that we can change our attachment style at any point in our life, and we can actually change the wirings in our brain at any point in our life," Monroe says.

The process of healing from attachment trauma isn't easy, especially as we might not have immediate access to secure relationships.

It's important to remember that just as we have taken a lifetime to build our attachment style, changing our attachment style can also take time.

Here are some ways to recover from attachment trauma:

Find a connection that provides strength

Humans rely on connection for support and belonging. While one heals from attachment trauma, they don't have to work on their romantic relationships right away. They can start with a friendship, or a relationship with a therapist.

Monroe advises asking yourself which relationship gives you strength and security. Then, you can look at what traits make that happen, so you can better understand how a healthy relationship can function.

She says, "Think about relationships that give you resiliency. What are the qualities of those relationships? Usually, it has to do with being seen, feeling truly seen, feeling heard, and a person that is helpful in regulating your own nervous system."

Consider working with the body

"I look at the body as a vessel for healing, instead of looking at the mind as a way of thinking its way out of the problem," says Monroe, who works with her clients on mindfulness, breath, and grounding exercises.

Research from 2015 found that mindfulness can help treat PTSD.

While talk therapy can be a crucial part of the healing process, a behavioral component to healing such as walking, yoga, or other exercises can also help, according to a

It's common for people with a history of trauma to struggle with typical mindfulness sessions. If this applies to you, consider trauma-informed mindfulness.

What makes you feel calm? The answer to that question can be one way to start reprogramming your nervous system from trauma-response mode such as fight, freeze, flee, or fawn into a more grounded state.

Consider trauma-focused therapy

One of the best things you can do for healing attachment trauma is to try trauma-focused psychotherapy.
You can read about effective types of therapy for trauma here.
If you're looking for a therapist, consider checking out Psych Central's Find a Therapist resource for support in starting your therapeutic journey.

While there are many forms of trauma therapy to consider, here are two to look into:

"You are on a path of healing when your past becomes information with nonneutral energy, and it doesn't define you," says Monroe.

Here are some indicators you are on the right path:

You feel safe in your body.

You're practicing boundary setting.

You trust your intuition.

Your behavior is consistent with your values or beliefs.

You respond, rather than react.

There's no one approach to healing attachment trauma. It's important to take great care along your journey and make your healing process your own.

As you learn more about how your earlier childhood affected the patterns in your adult life, have patience with yourself. While it may take time, remember that healing is possible.

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Attachment Trauma: Effects, Examples, and How to Heal

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Attachment trauma comes from a rupture in the bonding process between a child and their primary caregiver. Its effects can last well into adulthood. If you struggle with relationships, there's a dominant cultural narrative that assumes there is something wrong with you.

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This video explains how trauma affects the developing brain. It's a helpful visual aid for understanding the impact of trauma on children's neurological development.

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Childhood Trauma and the Brain | UK Trauma Council

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SAMHSA provides a clear definition of childhood trauma, explaining that it stems from a frightening or dangerous experience that triggers a strong emotional reaction.

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Children are among the most vulnerable after traumatic events or disasters. Traumatic stress occurs when a child (0-18 years) feels intensely threatened by an event they experience or witness. Young people often need time and emotional support to feel secure again after experiencing trauma or a disaster. Their reactions are influenced by how parents, relatives, teachers, and caregivers respond. These individuals provide comfort and stability, and play a vital role by maintaining normal routines or establishing new ones after a crisis. With proper caregiving and access to trauma-informed services, many children recover and thrive.

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Focuses on the first three years of life, explaining how trauma in infancy and toddlerhood can derail emotional and brain development. Provides caregiver guidance for creating a sense of safety and stability.

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Home Children of all ages can experience the impact of trauma. When events such as parental incarceration, family separation, abuse or neglect, the illness or death of a parent or sibling, or natural disasters occur early in life, they weigh on children both emotionally and physically.

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This resource explores childhood trauma as deeply distressing experiences that can have lasting psychological and physical consequences. It delves into various forms of interpersonal trauma such as abuse, neglect, and bullying illustrating their profound impact on emotional development, behavior, and overall well-being.

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The NCTSN explains childhood trauma, showing how scary events can make kids feel unsafe and affect their relationships. It also covers how trauma impacts emotions and the body, helping people understand its effects

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The National Child Traumatic Stress Network

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Children who suffer from child traumatic stress are those who have been exposed to one or more traumas over the course of their lives and develop reactions that persist and affect their daily lives after the events have ended.

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How Childhood Trauma Affects the Brain and Body Across a Lifetime

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How Childhood Trauma Affects the Brain and Body Across a Lifetime

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Childhood trauma can have lasting effects on physical health, mental health, and social functioning. This will talk about early interventions.

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How Childhood Trauma Affects the Brain and Body Across a Lifetime- The ACES Study

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Childhood Trauma – International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies

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Childhood Trauma – International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies

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This article explains different categories of trauma from abuse to natural disasters.

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Childhood Trauma | International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies

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The word trauma is used to describe negative events that are emotionally painful and that overwhelm a person’s ability to cope. Examples of such events include experiencing an earthquake or hurricane, industrial accident or vehicular accident, physical or sexual assault, and various forms of abuse experienced during childhood.

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 Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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 Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

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This article will explain the term A.C.E

Adverse Childhood Experiences

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Overview of adverse childhood experiences, the latest data, and CDC’s approach to prevention.

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PositivePsychology.com – Childhood Trauma & Its Lifelong Impact

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PositivePsychology.com – Childhood Trauma & Its Lifelong Impact

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This article provides detailed overview of childhood trauma, discussing its various forms, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence.

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Childhood Trauma & Its Lifelong Impact: 12 Resources

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By better understanding childhood trauma, therapists can recognize its signs and guide clients on a path toward healing and resilience.

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 Unseen Scars of Childhood Trauma – Knowable Magazine

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 Unseen Scars of Childhood Trauma – Knowable Magazine

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his article explores how childhood traumas, such as abuse and neglect, leave lasting effects not only on mental health but also on physical health. It delves into scientific studies that reveal how early adverse experiences can alter brain development and increase the risk of chronic diseases.

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Twenty years of research have established the connection between adverse childhood experiences and long-term health. Now researchers are looking for ways to measure the biology behind the correlation and try to reverse it.

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 How Trauma Shapes Children's Behavior – Express News

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 How Trauma Shapes Children's Behavior – Express News

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This article explores the behavioral manifestations of trauma in children and the importance of trauma-informed approaches in caregiving. It provides real-life examples and expert insights into how caregivers can support children in processing and healing from traumatic experiences.

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As a nonprofit that provides mental health care for children ages 3 to 17, Clarity Child Guidance Center has noticed for more than a decade that 90% of our patients have experienced trauma of some sort - whether it's "Big T Trauma" like physical and/or sexual abuse, or "Little t trauma" such as lack of housing or food; neglect or verbal abuse; or emotional detachment. Therefore, it is no surprise to us that experts estimate that more than two thirds of children in Bexar County reported at least one traumatic event by age 16.

Understanding how trauma affects the way a child develops is the first step to helping our kids. Trauma can have lasting effects in the body and, more specifically, in the part of the brain where the automatic responses such as fight or flight reside. This internal alarm can be activated at any perceived sign of trouble and leaves kids feeling scared, angry, irritable or even withdrawn. When the event is deeply distressing or disturbing and is difficult to cope with, it can cause feelings of helplessness. If trauma happens when kids are very young, they have no language to express what is happening. The feelings are there but the child cannot label them. This results in confusion and an inability to describe what happened and how it makes them feel.

That is a lot for a child of any age to process, so caretakers of children must give them a way to express their emotions and process their pain. When a child experiences trauma, it can affect behavior and cause the child to respond to different situations in an exaggerated, highly emotional manner. This can occur years after the trauma occurred. It can impact a child's functioning at school and the child can experience learning problems, including lower grades and suspension. Repeated trauma can affect the health of a child and result in long-term health problems such as diabetes. If trauma goes unrecognized and untreated, it can impact the child as an adult and cause persistent behavioral problems and disruptions in their lives such as loss of jobs and unstable destructive relationships, alcoholism, smoking and other addictions, chronic diseases and attempted suicide.

As caregivers, how should we approach a child exhibiting these behaviors? Traditional parenting with reward and consequence can worsen the behaviors. The child's behaviors or "acting out" is their way of communicating their distress and suffering. If we punish the child, it will worsen the distress and cause more suffering. We must look beyond the surface behaviors and try to gain an understanding of what the child is experiencing. If we offer comfort and temporarily remove expectations, this can de-escalate the behaviors, so the child is calmer and able to discuss the problem.

Adults need to look past the "wrong" behavior and try to get to the distress causing the negative behavior. This is not easy because the displayed behavior can be very disruptive and overwhelming for the parent. It is important to recognize the child is in distress by showing empathy and compassion; we need to get down to the root of how their child is feeling.

We can start by using a simple empathy statement such as "I see that you are having a hard time." Remove expectations with statements like: "Why don't we forget about you changing your clothes right now and talk about what's bothering you?" It is important to let the child know that their feelings are more important than the parental expectation at this moment. Take time and reassure the child that you are there to support and assist them. Watch your body language carefully; children are very sensitive to unspoken communication conveying frustration or impatience.

The need to give a consequence when a child is acting out is very strong and it can be difficult to offer a child comfort when they are misbehaving. But using a trauma informed approach can make a major difference in managing the symptoms that result from trauma. This is so important that all members of the Clarity staff - both clinical and support staff - went through a two-and-a-half-year process to obtain Level One certification in Trauma Informed Care. The certification was awarded in early May.

We are seeing lots of encouraging signs: Parents, teens and children are less afraid to open up and get help, and are more engaged in treatment. One particularly helpful book is "The Explosive Child" by Ross Greene, Ph.D.
Carol Carver, MSN, RN, is senior vice president and chief operating officer at Clarity Child Guidance Center.

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Childhood trauma impacts behavior: How caregivers can help children

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Childhood trauma can deeply affect kids' behavior and health; learn how caregivers can support children with empathy and trauma-informed care.

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 Understanding the Effects of Childhood Trauma – Verywell Mind

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 Understanding the Effects of Childhood Trauma – Verywell Mind

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Verywell Mind: Effects of Childhood Trauma
This article outlines the various effects of childhood trauma on mental, emotional, and physical health. It discusses symptoms, potential long-term consequences, and the importance of therapeutic interventions, serving as a practical guide for caregivers and educators.

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Childhood trauma involve aversive, distressing experiences that can affect a child's ability to function and cope. Unfortunately, it is all too common. An estimated 46% of children experience trauma at some point in their young lives.

While kids are resilient, they're not made of stone. Adults often say things like, 'They were so young when that happened, they won't even remember it as an adult.' However, it is important to recognize that childhood trauma can have a lifelong effect.

"As children's brains develop, they are learning how safe or unsafe the world is through their experiences," says psychotherapist Yolanda Renteria, LPC. "A child has to develop a way to protect itself from what it deems unsafe; the ways in which a child protects itself shape their adult personality."

Because of this, it's important to recognize when a child may need professional help for dealing with their trauma. Early intervention can also prevent the ongoing effects of the trauma into adulthood.

What Is Childhood Trauma?

Childhood trauma is an event experienced by a child that evokes fear and is commonly violent, dangerous, or life-threatening. Also sometimes referred to as adverse childhood experiences or ACEs, there are many different experiences that can lead to trauma.

Physical or sexual abuse, for example, can be traumatic for children. One-time events like a car accident, natural disaster (like a hurricane), the loss of a loved one, or a major medical incident can take a psychological toll on children as well.

Ongoing stress, such as living in a dangerous neighborhood or being the target of bullying, can also be traumatic for a child-even if it just feels like daily life to an adult.

Childhood trauma doesn't even have to involve experiences that occur directly to the child. Watching a loved one endure a major health issue, for instance, can be extremely traumatic for children. Violent media can have this effect too.

Childhood Trauma and PTSD

As many as 15% of girls and 6% of boys develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following a traumatic event. Children with PTSD may re-experience the trauma in their minds over and over again. They might also avoid anything that reminds them of the trauma or re-enact the trauma in their play.

Sometimes children believe that they missed warning signs predicting the traumatic event. In an effort to prevent future traumas, they become hypervigilant in looking for signs that something bad is going to happen again.

Children with PTSD may also:

Act younger than they are (such as by sucking their thumb)

Experience trouble focusing

Feel more depressed or anxious

Find it difficult to be affectionate with others

Have increased anger and aggression

Have issues in school

Have trouble sleeping

Lose interest in activities they once enjoyed

Lose touch with reality

Seem detached, numb, or non-responsive

Worry about dying young

Even children who don't develop PTSD may still exhibit emotional and behavioral issues following a traumatic experience. Here are some things to watch for during the weeks and months after an upsetting event:

Anger issues

Attention problems

Changes in appetite

Development of new fears

Increased concerns about death or safety

Irritability

Loss of interest in normal activities

Problems sleeping

Sadness

School refusal

Somatic complaints like headaches and stomachaches

Impacts of Childhood Trauma

Traumatic events can affect how a child's brain develops, which can have lifelong consequences for them physically, mentally, and socially.

Physical Health Impacts

When a child experiences a traumatic event, it can impair their physical development. The stress can impair the development of their immune and central nervous systems, making it harder to achieve their full potential.

Specifically, it notes that exposure to repeated trauma increases a child's risk of developing:

A 2019 review of 134 different research-based articles adds that exposure to adverse experiences as children increases the risk of developing several different conditions-such as autoimmune diseases, pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer-in adulthood, as well as increasing levels of pain.

Mental Health Impacts

Childhood trauma can also have an impact on mental health. Psychological effects of traumatic experiences can include:

Children exposed to complex traumas may even become disassociated. Dissociation involves separating themselves from the experience mentally. They might imagine that they are outside of their bodies and watching it from somewhere else or they may lose memory of the experience, resulting in memory gaps.

Research published in Psychiatric Times further notes that the prevalence of suicide attempts is significantly higher in adults who experienced traumas such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, and parental domestic violence as a child.

Relationship Impacts

A child's relationship with their caregivers-whether they be parents, grandparents, or other familial or non-familial adults-is vital to their emotional and physical health. The attachment children have with their caregivers can help them learn to trust others, manage emotions, and positively interact with the world around them.

When a child experiences a trauma that teaches them that they cannot trust or rely on that caregiver, they're likely to believe that the world around them is a scary place and people are dangerous. This lesson makes it incredibly difficult to form relationships throughout their childhood and into their adult years.

Children who experience trauma are also likely to struggle with romantic relationships in adulthood. A 2017 study in the Journal of Family Psychology found that spouses with a history of child abuse tend to have less satisfying marriages, even when still in the newlywed phase.

Renteria notes that the lasting effects of trauma often depend on the nature and severity of the event. In some cases, it may lead to feelings of anxiety or avoidance coping that some partners may find frustrating or confusion.

Yolanda Renteria, LPC

She also explains that some common relationship struggles that can stem from such trauma include:

Difficulty trusting

Being physically and verbally distant

Defensiveness

Difficulty being vulnerable

Difficulty giving their partner the benefit of the doubt

Difficulty with communication skills

Difficulty seeing their partner as their ally

Other Impacts

Sometimes the impact of childhood trauma extends beyond physical or mental health and relationships. For instance, some studies have connected adverse childhood experiences with an increased risk of becoming a criminal offender by the age of 35, oftentimes committing offenses that are serious and violent.

Additional impacts can include:

Being easily "set off" and having more intense reactions

Engaging in high-risk behaviors (such as driving at high speeds or unsafe sex)

Inability to plan ahead or prepare for the future

Increased risk of self-harm

Lack of impulse control

Low self-esteem

Trouble problem-solving or reasoning

Children experiencing traumatic events may also have a reduced ability to parent their own kids later in life.

Untreated Childhood Trauma

How to Help Children Who Have Experienced Trauma

Social support can be key to reducing the impact trauma has on a child, even as far as reducing their risk of suicidal ideation. Here are some ways to support a child after an upsetting event:

Encourage the child to talk about their feelings and validate their emotions.

Help them understand that they are not at fault.

Answer their questions honestly.

Reassure the child that you'll do everything you can to keep them safe.

Stick to a daily routine as much as possible.

Be patient as each child recovers at their own pace.

Depending on the child's age and needs, they may be referred for services such as cognitive behavioral therapy, play therapy, or family therapy. In some cases, such as when there is a diagnosis of PTSD, medication may also be an option to help treat their symptoms.

How to Heal From Your Own Childhood Trauma

If you experienced trauma as a child and still have some healing to do, there are several actions you can take to help you better cope. Among them are:

Talking to a mental health professional can also help you start to heal. Therapeutic options may include a number of trauma-informed therapies, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), among others.

You may also want to reach out to reputable organizations able to help childhood trauma survivors. The Disaster Distress Helpline offered by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) is one option. If you prefer to communicate via text, the Crisis Text Line is another.

A Word From Verywell

While it's normal to have some level of distress following a traumatic event, it's not out of the question that children can return to a healthy state of functioning-and some kids are less affected by their circumstances than others.

If childhood trauma has created negative effects, it is never too late to get help. Whether you've adopted a teenager who was abused over a decade ago or you've never received help for the traumatic experiences you endured 40 years ago, trauma treatment can still be effective and beneficial.

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The effects of childhood trauma can be debilitating and last a lifetime without early intervention. Here's how to recognize the signs of trauma and get help.

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What is trauma

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How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime 

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How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime 

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Long term effects of trauma

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How childhood trauma affects health across a lifetime | Nadine Burke Harris | TED

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Ways Childhood Trauma and Adverse Childhood Experiences Impact (ACEs) Adult Health and Behavior

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Ways Childhood Trauma and Adverse Childhood Experiences Impact (ACEs) Adult Health and Behavior

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8 Ways Childhood Trauma and Adverse Childhood Experiences Impact (ACEs) Adult Health and Behavior

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The Biological Effects of Childhood Trauma – PubMed Central

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The Biological Effects of Childhood Trauma – PubMed Central

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This scholarly article examines the biological and psychological impacts of childhood trauma.

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“The Biological Effects of Childhood Trauma”

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Trauma in childhood is a grave psychosocial, medical, and public policy problem that has serious consequences for its victims and for society. Chronic interpersonal violence in children is common worldwide. Developmental traumatology, the systemic…

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Harvard University Center on the Developing Child – Toxic Stress

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Harvard University Center on the Developing Child – Toxic Stress

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Explains how chronic stress from trauma affects brain architecture and lifelong development. Introduces the concept of “toxic stress” and its biological and behavioral consequences.

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Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

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Toxic Stress - Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

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Learn how safe, stable developmental environments, including responsive relationships with caring adults, can help buffer against sources of stress, supporting early development and lifelong health.

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What happens as baby's toddler's young children and even as adults is remembered and your body responds according to how it was perceived.

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What is trauma? The author of “The Body Keeps the Score” explains | Bessel van der Kolk | Big Think

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 Child Mind Institute – Trauma Symptoms in Children

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 Child Mind Institute – Trauma Symptoms in Children

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Provides clear explanations of how trauma can look different depending on the child. Includes signs like nightmares, irritability, clinginess, and school difficulties, with tips for how adults can respond.

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In the wake of a disturbing event or tragic loss in the lives of children, we know parents and teachers will do their best to help kids cope with their grief and anxiety in a healthy way. We have provided some tips on how best to engage kids in a calm and supportive dialog about their feelings-it's certainly not easy to do, but it can make a big difference to kids.

Still, some children are more at risk than others for suffering long-term effects from an upsetting event, including those who have lost close friends or classmates and those who might have learned about the event or loss in a particularly emotional and upsetting way.

How a child experiences an event and how it's handled by those around him have an effect on how traumatizing it can be, notes Child Mind Institute psychologist Jerry Bubrick, PhD. When families come upon news accidentally, parents can be caught off guard and respond in a highly emotional way that can impact children. Television coverage and shocking newspaper headlines can also amplify the impact of a disturbing event or loss.

So even as you try to soothe and comfort children, it is important to recognize the signs of unhealthy coping that would suggest a visit with a professional might be needed. In extreme cases, children can develop post-traumatic stress disorder, but even less extreme PTSD-like symptoms can interfere with a child's life and happiness. Here are some signs to look for and things to keep in mind.

"Everyone grieves at a different pace," Dr. Bubrick says, and an immediate reaction-or lack of one-is not really an indicator of how a child will cope with the loss. "If a child seems to be coping well now, they might still have a poor reaction later," he says. "Or it could also just be a sign that they're handling it well." So while we want to help our children as much as possible immediately after the event, a lasting and hurtful response usually won't be evident until 3 or 6 months later.

Increased thinking about death and safety

One common sign of PTSD or a PTSD-like reaction is what Dr. Bubrick calls a "hyper-focus on mortality or death." And while some kids become notably morbid and fascinated by death, others will develop an obsession with their own safety and the safety of those close to them. In the case of a fire or another disaster, their thoughts might return with disturbing regularity to the possibility of a fire in their own home, or of the earthquake or flood happening where they live.

Problems with sleeping, eating, anger, and attention

Some of the symptoms of trauma in children (and adults) closely mimic depression, including too much or too little sleep, loss of appetite or overeating, unexplained irritability and anger, and problems focusing on projects, school work, and conversation. Sometimes the symptoms appear more like an anxiety disorder-obsessive or pervasive worry, difficulty separating from parents.

A year after a tragic event, we tend to look back, take stock, and memorialize those whose lives were lost. But as Dr. Bubrick observes, there are other anniversaries connected to children's lives that could have unexpected consequences for them- the birthdays of friends or classmates who died, for instance. Children "could be basically OK between now and then, maybe with some rocky periods," he says. "And then around the time of the birthday, they could have more symptoms. It's a trigger."

When an event is connected to school, such as the loss of classmates or violence at school itself, an unhealthy reaction could take the form of avoiding school. As Dr. Bubrick points out, school is "where the most reminders of the kids' deaths will be." While episodes of depression, heightened anxiety, trouble sleeping, and a fixation on the accident may be transient, avoiding school is a clear sign that something is wrong. "For the most part, everyone is going to experience some form of those things, altogether or in pieces," says Dr. Bubrick. "But if, over time, it's not really lifting and it's continuing, it may result in school refusal altogether. At that point we definitely know the child needs help."

You should also know that stress and trauma can manifest differently in girls and boys. Although this is by no means definitive, boys often react more quickly and with more irritation and anger, while girls can have delayed reactions that are more internal.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the signs of trauma in a child?

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Signs of Trauma in Children - Child Mind Institute

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What to watch for in the weeks and months after an upsetting event - signs of trauma in children and how to begin to address the issue.

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HealthyChildren.org – Emotional and Behavioral Reactions to Trauma

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HealthyChildren.org – Emotional and Behavioral Reactions to Trauma

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From the American Academy of Pediatrics, this guide outlines common trauma reactions across different ages, including aggressive behavior, withdrawal, and regression in younger children.

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AAP Report Addresses Behavioral Symptoms of Childhood Maltreatment

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Reflecting the latest scientific findings on how traumatic experiences can shape a young child's health and development, an updated American Academy of Pediatrics clinical report in the April 2017 Pediatrics aims to help recognize and respond to symptoms of maltreatment in a positive, healing way.

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In this video we cover: therapy, healing, imposter syndrome, mindfulness, procrastination, magical thinking, anger, grief, triggers, childhood trauma, inner child, inner child work, c-ptsd, ptsd, toxic parents, narcissistic abuse, depression, anxiety, dissociation, abusive parents, emotional abuse, childhood ptsd, repressed memories, hypervigilance, narcissistic parents, emotionally abusive parents, narcissistic father, childhood emotional neglect, abuse, shadow work, narcissistic mother, NPD, BPD

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11 Oddly Specific Childhood Trauma Issues

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How to Tell if a Child Is Experiencing Trauma

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How to Tell if a Child Is Experiencing Trauma

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Lists subtle and overt trauma indicators, such as difficulty trusting adults, panic attacks, or changes in play. Encourages adults to look beyond surface behaviors to understand root causes.

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Childhood trauma involve aversive, distressing experiences that can affect a child's ability to function and cope. Unfortunately, it is all too common. An estimated 46% of children experience trauma at some point in their young lives.

While kids are resilient, they're not made of stone. Adults often say things like, 'They were so young when that happened, they won't even remember it as an adult.' However, it is important to recognize that childhood trauma can have a lifelong effect.

"As children's brains develop, they are learning how safe or unsafe the world is through their experiences," says psychotherapist Yolanda Renteria, LPC. "A child has to develop a way to protect itself from what it deems unsafe; the ways in which a child protects itself shape their adult personality."

Because of this, it's important to recognize when a child may need professional help for dealing with their trauma. Early intervention can also prevent the ongoing effects of the trauma into adulthood.

What Is Childhood Trauma?

Childhood trauma is an event experienced by a child that evokes fear and is commonly violent, dangerous, or life-threatening. Also sometimes referred to as adverse childhood experiences or ACEs, there are many different experiences that can lead to trauma.

Physical or sexual abuse, for example, can be traumatic for children. One-time events like a car accident, natural disaster (like a hurricane), the loss of a loved one, or a major medical incident can take a psychological toll on children as well.

Ongoing stress, such as living in a dangerous neighborhood or being the target of bullying, can also be traumatic for a child-even if it just feels like daily life to an adult.

Childhood trauma doesn't even have to involve experiences that occur directly to the child. Watching a loved one endure a major health issue, for instance, can be extremely traumatic for children. Violent media can have this effect too.

Childhood Trauma and PTSD

As many as 15% of girls and 6% of boys develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following a traumatic event. Children with PTSD may re-experience the trauma in their minds over and over again. They might also avoid anything that reminds them of the trauma or re-enact the trauma in their play.

Sometimes children believe that they missed warning signs predicting the traumatic event. In an effort to prevent future traumas, they become hypervigilant in looking for signs that something bad is going to happen again.

Children with PTSD may also:

Act younger than they are (such as by sucking their thumb)

Experience trouble focusing

Feel more depressed or anxious

Find it difficult to be affectionate with others

Have increased anger and aggression

Have issues in school

Have trouble sleeping

Lose interest in activities they once enjoyed

Lose touch with reality

Seem detached, numb, or non-responsive

Worry about dying young

Even children who don't develop PTSD may still exhibit emotional and behavioral issues following a traumatic experience. Here are some things to watch for during the weeks and months after an upsetting event:

Anger issues

Attention problems

Changes in appetite

Development of new fears

Increased concerns about death or safety

Irritability

Loss of interest in normal activities

Problems sleeping

Sadness

School refusal

Somatic complaints like headaches and stomachaches

Impacts of Childhood Trauma

Traumatic events can affect how a child's brain develops, which can have lifelong consequences for them physically, mentally, and socially.

Physical Health Impacts

When a child experiences a traumatic event, it can impair their physical development. The stress can impair the development of their immune and central nervous systems, making it harder to achieve their full potential.

Specifically, it notes that exposure to repeated trauma increases a child's risk of developing:

A 2019 review of 134 different research-based articles adds that exposure to adverse experiences as children increases the risk of developing several different conditions-such as autoimmune diseases, pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer-in adulthood, as well as increasing levels of pain.

Mental Health Impacts

Childhood trauma can also have an impact on mental health. Psychological effects of traumatic experiences can include:

Children exposed to complex traumas may even become disassociated. Dissociation involves separating themselves from the experience mentally. They might imagine that they are outside of their bodies and watching it from somewhere else or they may lose memory of the experience, resulting in memory gaps.

Research published in Psychiatric Times further notes that the prevalence of suicide attempts is significantly higher in adults who experienced traumas such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, and parental domestic violence as a child.

Relationship Impacts

A child's relationship with their caregivers-whether they be parents, grandparents, or other familial or non-familial adults-is vital to their emotional and physical health. The attachment children have with their caregivers can help them learn to trust others, manage emotions, and positively interact with the world around them.

When a child experiences a trauma that teaches them that they cannot trust or rely on that caregiver, they're likely to believe that the world around them is a scary place and people are dangerous. This lesson makes it incredibly difficult to form relationships throughout their childhood and into their adult years.

Children who experience trauma are also likely to struggle with romantic relationships in adulthood. A 2017 study in the Journal of Family Psychology found that spouses with a history of child abuse tend to have less satisfying marriages, even when still in the newlywed phase.

Renteria notes that the lasting effects of trauma often depend on the nature and severity of the event. In some cases, it may lead to feelings of anxiety or avoidance coping that some partners may find frustrating or confusion.

Yolanda Renteria, LPC

She also explains that some common relationship struggles that can stem from such trauma include:

Difficulty trusting

Being physically and verbally distant

Defensiveness

Difficulty being vulnerable

Difficulty giving their partner the benefit of the doubt

Difficulty with communication skills

Difficulty seeing their partner as their ally

Other Impacts

Sometimes the impact of childhood trauma extends beyond physical or mental health and relationships. For instance, some studies have connected adverse childhood experiences with an increased risk of becoming a criminal offender by the age of 35, oftentimes committing offenses that are serious and violent.

Additional impacts can include:

Being easily "set off" and having more intense reactions

Engaging in high-risk behaviors (such as driving at high speeds or unsafe sex)

Inability to plan ahead or prepare for the future

Increased risk of self-harm

Lack of impulse control

Low self-esteem

Trouble problem-solving or reasoning

Children experiencing traumatic events may also have a reduced ability to parent their own kids later in life.

Untreated Childhood Trauma

How to Help Children Who Have Experienced Trauma

Social support can be key to reducing the impact trauma has on a child, even as far as reducing their risk of suicidal ideation. Here are some ways to support a child after an upsetting event:

Encourage the child to talk about their feelings and validate their emotions.

Help them understand that they are not at fault.

Answer their questions honestly.

Reassure the child that you'll do everything you can to keep them safe.

Stick to a daily routine as much as possible.

Be patient as each child recovers at their own pace.

Depending on the child's age and needs, they may be referred for services such as cognitive behavioral therapy, play therapy, or family therapy. In some cases, such as when there is a diagnosis of PTSD, medication may also be an option to help treat their symptoms.

How to Heal From Your Own Childhood Trauma

If you experienced trauma as a child and still have some healing to do, there are several actions you can take to help you better cope. Among them are:

Talking to a mental health professional can also help you start to heal. Therapeutic options may include a number of trauma-informed therapies, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (TF-CBT), eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), among others.

You may also want to reach out to reputable organizations able to help childhood trauma survivors. The Disaster Distress Helpline offered by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) is one option. If you prefer to communicate via text, the Crisis Text Line is another.

A Word From Verywell

While it's normal to have some level of distress following a traumatic event, it's not out of the question that children can return to a healthy state of functioning-and some kids are less affected by their circumstances than others.

If childhood trauma has created negative effects, it is never too late to get help. Whether you've adopted a teenager who was abused over a decade ago or you've never received help for the traumatic experiences you endured 40 years ago, trauma treatment can still be effective and beneficial.

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The effects of childhood trauma can be debilitating and last a lifetime without early intervention. Here's how to recognize the signs of trauma and get help.

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 Child Welfare Information Gateway – Understanding Trauma and Its Impact

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 Child Welfare Information Gateway – Understanding Trauma and Its Impact

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A downloadable PDF that discusses trauma’s impact on emotional regulation and behavior. Includes examples of trauma-triggered reactions and how they can be mistaken for defiance or attention-seeking.

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Signs an Adult May Notice in a Child Who Has Experienced Trauma

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Signs an Adult May Notice in a Child Who Has Experienced Trauma

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Lists red flags that may be observed in everyday interactions—e.g., avoidance, inappropriate sexual behavior, excessive compliance. Focuses on building adult awareness to ensure early intervention.

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Do you wonder if you should be concerned about a child's behavior? Are you worried that a child is being abused? Are you concerned about a child or teen's behavior towards another child or teen? Identify the warning signs of sexual abuse. Find out about healthy sexual development. Learn what can be done when a child abuses another child. Get help to talk to other parents about their child's behavior.

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Do you wonder if you should be concerned about a child's behavior? Are you worried that a child is being abused? Are you concerned about a child or teen's behavior towards another child or teen? Identify the warning signs of sexual abuse. Find out about healthy sexual development.

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Signs of Trauma – Child Trauma and Wellbeing

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Signs of Trauma – Child Trauma and Wellbeing

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This resource lists common signs of trauma in children, including physical complaints without medical reasons, chronic illness, unexplained headaches, stomachaches, changes in sleeping patterns, and appetite. It also discusses cognitive and behavioral signs such as difficulty concentrating, learning challenges, and impaired memory.

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Signs of Trauma – Child Trauma and Wellbeing

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Trauma can have a significant impact on children’s lives, but sometimes it can be hard to spot the signs. Children’s response to traumatic events can vary depending on:

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Child Focus – How to Spot Trauma in Young Children

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Child Focus – How to Spot Trauma in Young Children

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This resource provides a list of signs indicating trauma in young children, such as avoidant or anxious behavior, general fearfulness, helplessness, restlessness, physical symptoms like headaches, and difficulty identifying what is bothering them.

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How to Spot Trauma in Young Children | Child Focus

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Trauma manifests itself in children in a variety of ways. It depends on the child, the issue they are facing, their age and developmental level, as well as other social and genetic factors

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This video explores various aspects of trauma and healing, including triggers, childhood adversity, inner child work, complex PTSD, toxic family dynamics, narcissistic abuse, emotional neglect, and patterns of codependency. It addresses challenges such as hypervigilance, repressed memories, mind reading tendencies, and difficulties stemming from abusive parents, single-parent households, and chaotic family environments.

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Better Health Channel – Trauma and Children (Two to Five Years)

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Better Health Channel – Trauma and Children (Two to Five Years)

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This fact sheet discusses how preschool-aged children may not have the words to express their distress from traumatic events and instead show changes in behavior and functioning. It emphasizes the importance of observing behavioral clues to understand the impact of trauma.

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Preschoolers may not have the words but will show their distress at traumatic events through changes in behaviour and functioning.

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Anna Freud Centre – Trauma in Under Fives

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Anna Freud Centre – Trauma in Under Fives

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This resource outlines signs of traumatic stress in young children, including increased crying, fearfulness, clinginess, sleep difficulties, regression in development, aggression, and concentration issues.

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Trauma is an emotional response to an event that is deeply frightening or distressing and can affect babies, infants and young children in ways they might not be able to communicate. Find out more.

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SOS Children's Villages USA – Childhood Trauma: 30+ Signs Your Child Is Trying to Cope

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SOS Children's Villages USA – Childhood Trauma: 30+ Signs Your Child Is Trying to Cope

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This article lists over 30 signs that may indicate a child is coping with trauma, emphasizing that these signs can vary based on age and developmental level. It encourages parents to trust their intuition if they sense something is 'off' with their child.

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Childhood trauma

Spot the signs of childhood trauma.

Has your child gone through a traumatic physical, psychological or emotional experience?

Sometimes it can be hard to tell whether a child is simply upset by something that happened or if they are traumatized. We all experience feelings of stress-but the difference between reactions to our everyday stressors and a child's traumatic stress is that reactions to trauma interfere with daily life, impact the ability to function and affect interactions with others.

The effects of trauma manifest differently from child to child, and they vary based on age and developmental level. However, a general sign that your child is suffering from traumatic stress is that they may act in a way that is uncharacteristic for him or her. Sometimes, signs may not manifest at all, or they may develop very gradually. As a parent, you may not be aware of how serious the reasons are behind your child's reaction.

You know your child better than anyone else does. You are the best judge to determine if something feels 'off.' If you sense that your child is not acting in a manner that's typical for them, trust your intuition.

CHILDREN MAY EXHIBIT SIGNS OF TRAUMATIC STRESS IF THEY ENDURE EXPERIENCES LIKE:

Physical, sexual, verbal or emotional abuse (including human trafficking)

Abandonment, neglect or disorganized attachment

Domestic violence

Violence in the child's community (ex: school shootings or even mass casualty events in the news)

Loss of a loved one (Learn more about how to help your child heal after loss)

Change in caregivers

Serious accidents (ex: car accidents)

Medical diagnoses, events and life-threatening illnesses

Natural disasters (ex: hurricanes, earthquakes or tsunamis)

Exposure to substance abuse (self or other)

War, terrorism and refugee experiences (including torture)

Military-related incidents or stress (ex: deployment of a parent)

Absent parent

Bullying

Major life changes (ex: moving or starting at a new school)

TRAUMA CAN INCLUDE A VARIETY OF RESPONSES AND BEHAVIORAL CHANGES, SUCH AS:

Intense and ongoing emotional upset, including feelings of fear, terror or under pressure

Anxiety or being in a state of constant alert

Depression

Nightmares or trouble sleeping

Changes in eating habits or loss of appetite

Trouble forming attachments or relationships

Difficulty trusting you or others

Difficulty concentrating or paying attention

Regression or loss of skills the child had previously mastered

Poor academic performance

Aches and pains

Pounding heart

Vomiting

Incontinence (loss of bladder or bowel control, including enuresis [bed-wetting])

Substance use/abuse (drugs or alcohol)

Engaging in sexual activity/promiscuity

Risky behavior

Many of these reactions can apply to children of any age (for instance, regardless of developmental stage, a child can suffer from nightmares, feel fearful or exhibit changes in eating habits).

YOU MAY NOTICE THESE COMMON SIGNS OF TRAUMATIC STRESS BASED ON YOUR CHILD'S AGE:

Wondering how soon after a potentially traumatic experience your child would start to show these signs? Some children start exhibiting signs of traumatic stress immediately after the impactful event; for others, the signs are noticeable weeks or even months later. Or, symptoms may manifest when your child enters a close relationship with another person. Your child's behavioral changes may last for days, weeks, months or even years.

But what's important to remember is that these reactions are normal and expected after a child survives a traumatic experience. No matter what your child has been through, they have the potential for growth, development, healing and extraordinary resilience. And you're here to help them cope, navigate the healing process and emerge happier and healthier on the other side. You're in this together.

YOU CAN HELP GUIDE YOUR CHILD'S RECOVERY WITH:

TRAUMA THERAPY EXPERTS

Every day, SOS Children's Villages helps children overcome the trauma they've experienced prior to being in our care, including the loss of their parents and families. We offer mental health programs and services to children, families and communities, and we train SOS mothers and caregivers to provide critical help to children who may have been exposed to traumatic experiences. We also empower children to cope with their anguish through specialized trauma recovery techniques and psychological support from SOS experts in child care and mental health. For instance, provides trauma treatment and play therapy activities for children impacted by local conflict. With seven decades of experience, SOS Children's Villages works in 135 countries to ensure that all children in our programs receive appropriate care, stimulation and support to overcome traumas from their past-and build resilience and post-traumatic growth.

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Childhood trauma Spot the signs of childhood trauma. Has your child gone through a traumatic physical, psychological or emotional experience? Sometimes it can be hard to tell whether a child is simply upset by something that happened or if they are traumatized.

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A brief introduction to core concepts regarding brain structure and function that provide the basis for developmentally sensitive and trauma-informed caregiving, education and therapy.

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Dr Bruce Perry - Early Brain Development: Reducing the Effects of Trauma

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Dr Bruce Perry - Early Brain Development: Reducing the Effects of Trauma

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This in-depth article by Dr. Bruce Perry explains how early adverse experiences affect neurodevelopment and behavior. The paper breaks down brain functions by region and discusses how trauma delays or distorts healthy development.

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Dr Bruce Perry - Early Brain Development: Reducing the Effects of Trauma

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 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child – Early Exposure to Toxic Stress

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 National Scientific Council on the Developing Child – Early Exposure to Toxic Stress

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A technical working paper that shows how extreme, prolonged stress in childhood reshapes brain circuitry. It introduces the science of "neuroplasticity" and how early experiences "get under the skin."

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 Experiencing Childhood Trauma Makes Body and Brain Age Faster

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 Experiencing Childhood Trauma Makes Body and Brain Age Faster

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Children who suffer trauma from abuse or violence early in life show biological signs of aging faster than children who have never experienced adversity.

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WASHINGTON - Children who suffer trauma from abuse or violence early in life show biological signs of aging faster than children who have never experienced adversity, according to research published by the American Psychological Association. The study examined three different signs of biological aging-early puberty, cellular aging and changes in brain structure-and found that trauma exposure was associated with all three.

"Exposure to adversity in childhood is a powerful predictor of health outcomes later in life-not only mental health outcomes like depression and anxiety, but also physical health outcomes like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer," said Katie McLaughlin, PhD, an associate professor of psychology at Harvard University and senior author of the study published in the journal Psychological Bulletin. "Our study suggests that experiencing violence can make the body age more quickly at a biological level, which may help to explain that connection."

Previous research found mixed evidence on whether childhood adversity is always linked to accelerated aging. However, those studies looked at many different types of adversity-abuse, neglect, poverty, and more-and at several different measures of biological aging. To disentangle the results, McLaughlin and her colleagues decided to look separately at two categories of adversity: threat-related adversity, such as abuse and violence, and deprivation-related adversity, such as physical or emotional neglect or poverty.

The researchers performed a meta-analysis of almost 80 studies, with more than 116,000 total participants. They found that children who suffered threat-related trauma such as violence or abuse were more likely to enter puberty early and also showed signs of accelerated aging on a cellular level-including shortened telomeres, the protective caps at the ends of our strands of DNA that wear down as we age. However, children who experienced poverty or neglect did not show either of those signs of early aging.

In a second analysis, McLaughlin and her colleagues systematically reviewed 25 studies with more than 3,253 participants that examined how early-life adversity affects brain development. They found that adversity was associated with reduced cortical thickness-a sign of aging because the cortex thins as people age. However, different types of adversity were associated with cortical thinning in different parts of the brain. Trauma and violence were associated with thinning in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, which is involved in social and emotional processing, while deprivation was more often associated with thinning in the frontoparietal, default mode and visual networks, which are involved in sensory and cognitive processing.

These types of accelerated aging might originally have descended from useful evolutionary adaptations, according to McLaughlin. In a violent and threat-filled environment, for example, reaching puberty earlier could make people more likely to be able to reproduce before they die. And faster development of brain regions that play a role in emotion processing could help children identify and respond to threats, keeping them safer in dangerous environments. But these once-useful adaptations may have grave health and mental health consequences in adulthood.

The new research underscores the need for early interventions to help avoid those consequences. All of the studies looked at accelerated aging in children and adolescents under age 18. "The fact that we see such consistent evidence for faster aging at such a young age suggests that the biological mechanisms that contribute to health disparities are set in motion very early in life. This means that efforts to prevent these health disparities must also begin during childhood," McLaughlin said.

There are numerous evidence-based treatments that can improve mental health in children who have experienced trauma, McLaughlin said. "A critical next step is determining whether these psychosocial interventions might also be able to slow down this pattern of accelerated biological aging. If this is possible, we may be able to prevent many of the long-term health consequences of early-life adversity," she says.

Article: "Biological Aging in Childhood and Adolescence Following Experiences of Threat and Deprivation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis," by Natalie Colich, PhD, University of Washington, Eileen S. Williams, PhD, Stanford University, and Maya Rosen, PhD, and Katie McLaughlin, PhD, Harvard University. Psychological Bulletin, published online Aug. 3, 2020.

Katie McLaughlin, PhD, can be reached by email.

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Study: Experiencing childhood trauma makes body and brain age faster

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Children who suffer trauma from abuse or violence early in life show biological signs of aging faster than children who have never experienced adversity.

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Childhood Close Family Relationships and Health [PDF]

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Childhood Close Family Relationships and Health [PDF]

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This article applies a developmental stress-buffering model to examine how aspects of family relationships — such as support, conflict, obligations, and parenting behaviors — evolve over time.

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Childhood Close Family Relationships and Health

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Trauma For Kids - Coping With Childhood Trauma, Resilience, Self-Care, Grounding Techniques

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Trauma For Kids - Coping With Childhood Trauma, Resilience, Self-Care, Grounding Techniques

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This video will teach you eight coping skills needed to help children overcome traumatic experiences.

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Trauma For Kids - Coping With Childhood Trauma, Resilience, Self-Care, Grounding Techniques

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Adverse Childhood Experiences and Insecure Attachment

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Adverse Childhood Experiences and Insecure Attachment

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Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) like abuse and household dysfunction increase the risk of long-term health problems. The ACE Study found that more ACEs lead to higher rates of issues such as depression, addiction, and chronic illness. These experiences often overlap, and early intervention is key to preventing lasting harm

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Adverse Childhood Experiences and Insecure Attachment

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The study examined how dissociation and emotion regulation difficulties indirectly impact the relationship between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and anxious and avoidant attachment patterns in adulthood.

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7 Ways Childhood Trauma Follow You Into Adulthood

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7 Ways Childhood Trauma Follow You Into Adulthood

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This video explores how childhood trauma can continue to shape your emotions and behaviors in adulthood, helping you understand the underlying reasons behind your actions.

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7 Ways Childhood Trauma Follow You Into Adulthood

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The Body Keeps the Score - Book Summary by a Therapist w/o the Triggering Bits

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The Body Keeps the Score - Book Summary by a Therapist w/o the Triggering Bits

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Is your body keeping score? Discover trauma recovery through this therapist-guided summary of The Body Keeps the Score, offering essential insights into healing and body-centered therapeutic approaches.

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The Body Keeps the Score - Book Summary by a Therapist w/o the Triggering Bits

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What factors contributed to your ADHD? What childhood trauma might you have experienced? As you observe this, you will understand the strong connection between trauma and mental health.

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6 ways to heal trauma without medication

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6 ways to heal trauma without medication

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Can we recover from trauma? Is it necessary to take medication? Learn 6 ways to begin healing techniques. Find what works for you or the person you're supporting.

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6 ways to heal trauma without medication | Bessel van der Kolk | Big Think

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The Body Keeps the Score (summary) by Bessel van der Kolk - How trauma effects the brain & body

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The Body Keeps the Score (summary) by Bessel van der Kolk - How trauma effects the brain & body

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A breakdown of this remarkable book in a video format. What would you like to explore? Are you interested in understanding how trauma impacts the body? Or perhaps the brain? Would you like to find ways to heal both your body and mind? Learn new innovative tools to manage trauma, and gain insight into creating the ideal approach for a personal recovery journey.

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The Body Keeps Score by Dr. Bessel van der Kolk's (Book Summary)

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10 Characteristics of Highly Toxic Parents

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10 Characteristics of Highly Toxic Parents

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What are toxic parents? Do you know toxic parents? Learn the 10 most common characteristics of toxic parenting. Learn what not to do as a parent and find ways to help children recognize the issue is not them find them help.

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10 Characteristics Of Highly Toxic Parents

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Attachment Disorders When early emotional bonds are disrupted, attachment disorders can develop, making it difficult to form healthy relationships. Common types include Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED), often caused by neglect or inconsistent caregiving. Treatment options like therapy, counseling, and parenting education can help individuals build secure attachments and improve emotional well-being.

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Children who have had breaks from their primary caregiver, unmitigated pain, abuse, neglect or in other ways have not had their needs met can often be impaired in their ability to develop healthy emotional attachments. This is currently called by many names, such as insecure attachment. These less-than-healthy ways of attaching are often not diagnosed as disorders, but are common in children who have backgrounds of abuse or neglect or who are no longer with their biological parents, who have had the loss of one or more parents, who are in foster care, who have had several medical procedures or who have been adopted. Attachment is on a spectrum - from healthy to insecure to disorganized (often diagnosed as an attachment disorder). Some of the basic signs/characteristics that a person struggles with attachment are:

History of abandonment, neglect, abuse, and/or multiple placements

Indiscriminately seeks affection and/or comfort from strangers (i.e., pseudo-attachments)

Anti-social behaviors (e.g., lying, stealing, manipulating, destructiveness, cruelty, fire-setting, aggression)

Lack of authenticity, spontaneity, flexibility, and empathy

Lack of physical affection and closeness and/or inappropriate clinginess

Poor eye contact

Problems with learning, attending, self-regulating, self-monitoring

Abnormal eating and elimination patterns (e.g., wetting, soiling, hoarding food)

The children exhibiting the most severe symptoms are sometimes diagnosed with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD), or the newer diagnosis - Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED). All disorders/impairments of attachment are serious, because they impede the child's emotional health and ability to have meaningful relationships.

Attachment Disorders: Causes, Types, Symptoms, and Treatment

How do emotional bonds in early life shape our ability to form and maintain relationships? Attachment disorders arise when these crucial bonds are disrupted, affecting emotional development and the capacity to connect with others. In this blog post, we will delve into the world of attachment disorders, exploring their causes, types, symptoms, and treatment options. By understanding the complexities of attachment disorders, we can better support those affected by them and foster healthier relationships.

Key Takeaways

Attachment disorders are conditions that can have detrimental effects on emotional and social well-being.

Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) are two distinct attachment disorders which can be caused by childhood neglect/abuse, inconsistent caregiving or experiences in institutional settings.

Treatment approaches such as therapy, counseling, parenting skills classes and medication/mental health support help individuals with attachment disorders develop secure attachments & improve their relationships.

Understanding Attachment Disorders

Attachment disorders can be a significant obstacle in forming and maintaining healthy relationships. These disorders arise from negative experiences, such as neglect or inconsistent caregiving, during early childhood. Attachment issues can impact a person's emotional development, making it challenging to form secure emotional bonds with others. Recognizing and addressing attachment disorders in infants and young children is crucial, as early intervention can lead to more positive outcomes.

A comprehensive understanding of attachment disorders requires familiarity with their definition, significance, and the foundational principles of attachment theory. We will examine these aspects in the following sections, shedding light on the complexities of attachment disorders and their impact on individuals and families.

Definition and Importance

Attachment disorders are conditions that hinder the formation of secure emotional bonds, affecting a person's ability to form and maintain relationships. These disorders can have long-lasting effects on emotional and social well-being.

Healthy development is deeply rooted in secure emotional bonds that foster a sense of trust, safety, and emotional security. Grasping the definition and significance of attachment disorders paves the way for identifying and addressing these challenges in individuals and families.

Attachment Theory Background

Attachment theory, developed by British psychologist John Bowlby, emphasizes the importance of secure emotional bonds between infants and caregivers for healthy development. This theory explains how humans form and sustain attachments, and how these attachments influence emotional and social development.

Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) are two distinct attachment disorders. Both can lead to difficulties in forming healthy relationships and social interactions. The causes of attachment disorders can be attributed to childhood neglect and abuse, inconsistent caregiving, and institutional settings and foster care.

A grasp of the principles underlying attachment theory underscores the importance of secure attachments and the potential ramifications of attachment disorders.

Types of Attachment Disorders

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) are two primary attachment disorders. These conditions can have significant impacts on children's lives. These disorders can significantly impact an individual's emotional development and ability to form healthy relationships.

Subsequent sections delve into the specific traits of each attachment disorder and how they affect individuals and their families.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

The gives the following criteria for Reactive Attachment Disorder:

A. A consistent pattern of inhibited, emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult caregivers, manifested by both of the following:

The child rarely or minimally seeks comfort when distressed.

The child rarely or minimally responds to comfort when distressed.

B. A persistent social or emotional disturbance characterized by at least two of the following:

Minimal social and emotional responsiveness to others

Limited positive affect

Episodes of unexplained irritability, sadness, or fearfulness that are evident even during nonthreatening interactions with adult caregivers.

C. The child has experienced a pattern of extremes of insufficient care as evidenced by at least one of the following:

Social neglect or deprivation in the form of persistent lack of having basic emotional needs for comfort, stimulation, and affection met by caring adults

Repeated changes of primary caregivers that limit opportunities to form stable attachments (e.g., frequent changes in foster care)

Rearing in unusual settings that severely limit opportunities to form selective attachments (e.g., institutions with high child to caregiver ratios)

D. The care in Criterion C is presumed to be responsible for the disturbed behavior in Criterion A (e.g., the disturbances in Criterion A began following the lack of adequate care in Criterion C).

E. The criteria are not met for autism spectrum disorder.

F. The disturbance is evident before age 5 years.

G. The child has a developmental age of at least nine months.

Specify if Persistent: The disorder has been present for more than 12 months.

Specify current severity: Reactive Attachment Disorder is specified as severe when a child exhibits all symptoms of the disorder, with each symptom manifesting at relatively high levels.

Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder

Disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED) involves over-friendliness with strangers, lack of distress when separated from caregivers, and little preference for trusted adults over unfamiliar individuals. Children with DSED display a lack of preference for their parents over other people, even strangers, and may seek comfort and attention from virtually anyone. They may not exhibit any distress when a parent is not present and may be overly familiar with strangers, yet have difficulty forming meaningful connections with others.

Factors such as childhood neglect and abuse, inconsistent caregiving, and experiences in institutional settings or foster care could potentially cause DSED.

The gives the following criteria for Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder:

A. A pattern of behavior in which a child actively approaches and interacts with unfamiliar adults and exhibits at least two of the following:

Reduced or absent reticence in approaching and interacting with unfamiliar adults.

Overly familiar verbal or physical behavior (that is not consistent with culturally sanctioned and with age-appropriate social boundaries).

Diminished or absent checking back with adult caregiver after venturing away, even in unfamiliar settings.

Willingness to go off with an unfamiliar adult with little or no hesitation.

B. The behaviors in Criterion A are not limited to impulsivity (as in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder) but include socially disinhibited behavior.

C. The child has exhibited a pattern of extremes of insufficient care as evidenced by at least one of the following:

Social neglect or deprivation in the form of persistent lack of having basic emotional needs for comfort, stimulation and affection met by caregiving adults.

Repeated changes of primary caregivers that limit ability to form stable attachments (e.g., frequent changes in foster care).

Rearing in unusual settings that severely limit opportunities to form selective attachments (e.g., institutions with high child to caregiver ratios).

D. The care in Criterion C is presumed to be responsible for the disturbed behavior in Criterion A (e.g., the disturbances in Criterion A began following the pathogenic care in Criterion C).

E. The child has a developmental age of at least nine months.

Specify if Persistent: The disorder has been present for more than 12 months.

Specify current severity: Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder is specified as severe when a child exhibits all symptoms of the disorder, with each symptom manifesting at relatively high levels.

Causes of Attachment Disorders

Attachment disorders can be caused by various factors, including childhood neglect and abuse, inconsistent caregiving, and institutional settings or foster care. These factors can disrupt the development of secure emotional bonds, leading to attachment difficulties and challenges in forming and maintaining healthy relationships.

We will delve deeper into each of these factors in the sections that follow.

Childhood Neglect and Abuse

Neglect and abuse during childhood can lead to the development of childhood attachment disorder, as a young child struggles to form secure emotional bonds with caregivers. Children who have experienced neglect or abuse may have difficulty trusting others, controlling their emotions, and forming healthy relationships.

Furthermore, these early experiences can also have a detrimental effect on their self-esteem and lead to difficulties in social and emotional functioning. Providing the necessary support and therapy to individuals who have endured childhood neglect and abuse is important to mitigate the consequences and enhance their overall well-being.

Inconsistent Caregiving

Inconsistent caregiving can result in attachment disorders, as children are unable to develop a sense of security and trust in their caregivers. Children who experience inconsistent caregiving may display aberrant attachment behaviors, deficits in social-emotional development, and insecure attachment.

Insecure attachments may result in confusion, insecurity, and difficulties in forming healthy emotional relationships. Identifying and addressing issues of inconsistent caregiving can aid in preventing the onset of attachment disorders and foster the establishment of secure emotional bonds.

Institutional Settings and Foster Care

Children in institutional settings or foster care may be at a higher risk of developing attachment disorders due to frequent changes in caregivers and lack of consistent emotional support, especially for an infant or young child. These children may struggle to establish secure attachments, and the quality of attachment can be influenced by various risk factors.

Acknowledging the influence of institutional settings and foster care on attachment disorders can guide suitable interventions and support for impacted children.

Insecure Attachment Styles

Insecure attachment styles, which include anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, or fearful-avoidant, can manifest in adults as different forms of attachment styles. These styles can significantly impact an individual's emotional development and ability to form and maintain healthy relationships.

Subsequent sections will delve into each of these insecure attachment styles and their impact on individuals and relationships.

Anxious-Preoccupied

An anxious-preoccupied attachment involves:

Fear of abandonment

Tendency to overanalyze the behavior of loved ones

Struggle with trust issues

Difficulty with emotional regulation

Challenges in maintaining healthy relationships

Identifying and addressing issues related to anxious-preoccupied attachment can assist individuals in surmounting these challenges and fostering more secure emotional bonds.

Dismissive-Avoidant

Dismissive-avoidant attachment is characterized by:

A desire for self-sufficiency

Difficulty allowing others to provide support or feel close

Struggles with emotional intimacy, trust, and maintaining healthy relationships.

Identifying and addressing issues related to dismissive-avoidant attachment can empower individuals to overcome these challenges and form more secure emotional bonds.

Fearful-Avoidant

Fearful-avoidant attachment may lead to:

Emotional suppression

Challenges in forming and maintaining relationships

Difficulty trusting others

Difficulty in forming close relationships

Identifying and addressing issues related to fearful-avoidant attachment can enable individuals to surmount these challenges and cultivate more secure emotional bonds.

Diagnosing Attachment Disorders

Diagnosing attachment disorders involves assessing symptoms, using diagnostic criteria, and considering potential misdiagnoses and comorbid conditions. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for providing appropriate treatment and support for individuals with attachment disorders.

Subsequent sections will discuss the diagnostic criteria for attachment disorders, along with the potential risks and complications arising from misdiagnosis and co-existing conditions.

Diagnostic Criteria

Diagnostic criteria for attachment disorders, as outlined in the DSM-5-TR, include:

Minimal social and emotional responsiveness to others

Limited positive affect

Episodes of unexplained irritability, sadness, or distress

Failure to seek comfort when distressed

Persistent social and emotional problems

In some cases, poor hygiene and underdevelopment of motor coordination

These criteria focus on symptoms and behaviors related to emotional bonding and relationships.

Utilizing these criteria can help ensure accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment for individuals with attachment disorders.

Misdiagnosis and Comorbid Conditions

Misdiagnosis is possible, as attachment disorders can share symptoms with other conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder. Comorbid conditions may also be present, complicating the diagnostic process.

A comprehensive medical history, evaluation of any co-existing conditions, and appropriate diagnostic techniques are necessary to minimize the risk of misdiagnosis. Accurate diagnosis is vital for providing proper treatment and support for individuals with attachment disorders.

Treatment Approaches for Attachment Disorders

Treatment approaches for attachment disorders include:

Therapy

Counseling

Parenting skills classes

Medication or mental health support when necessary

These approaches aim to help individuals with attachment disorders develop secure attachments, improve their emotional regulation, and enhance their relationship skills.

We will delve deeper into each of these treatment approaches in the sections that follow.

Therapy and Counseling

Therapy and counseling can help individuals with attachment disorders develop secure attachments and improve their emotional regulation and relationship skills. Various therapy approaches that can be utilized include:

Attachment-based therapy

Psychotherapy

Play therapy

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

These approaches can help individuals develop healthy attachment patterns and improve their relationships.

Professional guidance from a therapist, specializing in adolescents' psychiatry, can offer invaluable support and direction for individuals with attachment disorders and their families.

Parenting Skills Classes

Parenting skills classes can provide caregivers with the tools and strategies needed to support children with attachment disorders and foster healthy emotional bonds. These classes cover various topics, such as:

Therapeutic parenting

Trust-based relational intervention (TBRI)

Circle of security

Parent-child interaction therapy (PCIT)

Participation in parenting skills classes can enhance caregivers' understanding and ability to address the specific challenges faced by children with attachment disorders.

Medication and Mental Health Support

Medication and mental health support may be necessary for individuals with attachment disorders who also struggle with comorbid mental disorders, such as anxiety or depression. Antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications, and mood stabilizers may be prescribed to help manage symptoms of these conditions.

In addition, therapeutic approaches can be utilized to help individuals with attachment disorders develop healthy attachment patterns and improve their relationships. It's paramount for individuals with attachment disorders and their families to consult a mental health professional to determine the most effective treatment plan.

Coping Strategies for Individuals and Families

Coping strategies for individuals and families affected by attachment disorders involve building secure attachments, supporting emotional development, and navigating relationships. These strategies can help individuals with attachment disorders overcome challenges, develop trust and emotional security, and foster healthier connections with others.

Subsequent sections will delve into each of these coping strategies in greater detail.

Building Secure Attachments

Building secure attachments requires patience, consistency, and emotional support from caregivers, helping individuals with attachment disorders develop trust and emotional security. Responsive caregiving, emotional availability, positive reinforcement, consistency and predictability, physical affection, play and exploration, and open communication are all essential components of building secure attachments.

The development of secure attachments can enhance the emotional well-being of individuals with attachment disorders and facilitate the formation of healthier relationships.

Supporting Emotional Development

Supporting emotional development involves:

Helping individuals with attachment disorders identify and express their emotions

Providing guidance in managing emotional challenges

Creating a secure and supportive environment

Promoting open dialogue

Assisting individuals in identifying and articulating their emotions

These are essential components of supporting emotional development.

In addition, teaching coping skills, such as deep breathing and mindfulness, can help individuals with attachment disorders manage emotional difficulties and enhance their emotional well-being.

Navigating Relationships

Navigating relationships for individuals with attachment disorders may require:

Therapy

Open communication

Understanding from both parties

Setting boundaries

Navigating differences

Seeking support

These strategies are essential for fostering healthy and fulfilling relationships.

Effective relationship management enables individuals with attachment disorders to overcome challenges and cultivate more secure emotional bonds with others.

Summary

In this blog post, we delved into the complexities of attachment disorders, exploring their causes, types, symptoms, and treatment options. We also discussed coping strategies for individuals and families affected by attachment disorders, emphasizing the importance of building secure attachments, supporting emotional development, and navigating relationships. By understanding and addressing attachment disorders, we can help individuals overcome the challenges they face and foster healthier, more fulfilling connections with others. Together, we can make a positive difference in the lives of those affected by attachment disorders.

The behaviors (symptoms) of attachment disorders can be very challenging to parent. Providing safety for these children and the rest of the family is a major concern. Families need continuous support and education to help these children heal.

Most professionals agree that attachment disorders are the result of early childhood trauma, so it's important to understand how trauma affects a developing brain.

The APA further is recognizing that disorders of attachment are trauma-related and has designed a new category of Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders, under which both attachment diagnoses will be found.

Links:

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the different attachment disorders?

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) and disinhibited social engagement disorder are the two attachment disorders recognized by the DSM-5, classified as trauma and stressor-related disorders.

What are the signs of attachment disorder?

Signs of attachment disorder include withdrawal, difficulty forming emotional connections, a lack of eye contact, limited communication skills, and difficulty expressing emotions.

How are attachment disorders typically diagnosed?

Attachment disorders are typically diagnosed through a comprehensive examination including physical exams, lab tests, and psychiatric assessments conducted by a pediatrician or psychologist.

These assessments are used to determine the presence of an attachment disorder and to identify any underlying medical or psychological conditions that may be contributing to the disorder.

The treatment of attachment disorders is typically a combination of psychotherapy and medication.

What are the common causes of attachment disorders?

Neglect and abuse, inconsistent caregiving, and living in institutional or foster care settings are the most common causes of attachment disorders.

What are the treatment options for attachment disorders?

Treatment for attachment disorders typically involves therapy, counseling, parenting skills classes and, in some cases, medication or mental health support.

These treatments are designed to help the child learn to form healthy attachments and develop better coping skills. They may also help the child better understand and manage their emotions. The goal is to help the child develop a secure environment.

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Attachment Disorders | Causes, Types, Symptoms and Treatment

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Attachment disorders arise when crucial emotional bonds are disrupted, affecting emotional development and the capacity to connect with others.

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5 Subtle Signs of Unprocessed Attachment Trauma

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5 Subtle Signs of Unprocessed Attachment Trauma

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Unprocessed trauma can manifest in adulthood through emotional, behavioral, and physical symptoms. Some individuals experience unexplained health issues linked to early trauma, while others engage in compulsive behaviors to avoid distressing memories or emotions.

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ℹ️🌿 5 SUBTLE SIGNS OF UNPROCESSED ATTACHMENT TRAUMA | How these symptoms can affect the quality of our lives. read full article:…

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The lasting affects of childhood trauma. Trauma continues long into adulthood. Can therapy help? Can talking to your partner help? Where do you start? How do you approach this situation and save your marriage. How to create healthy boundaries and start healing

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How Childhood Trauma Affects Marriage | Reddit Posts Reaction | Dr. David Hawkins

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10 Ways Narcissistic Parents Hurt Their Children

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10 Ways Narcissistic Parents Hurt Their Children

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This article explores how narcissistic parenting undermines healthy child development. It highlights how narcissistic parents often lack the emotional capacity to meet their children’s basic psychological needs, leading to poor modeling of emotional regulation. Their low tolerance for frustration fosters immature coping mechanisms in their children. Furthermore, their self-centered behavior disrupts the formation of a secure attachment and a stable sense of self. The insensitivity and emotional neglect characteristic of this parenting style can leave children struggling with low self-esteem and persistent feelings of unworthiness.

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Many who have been reared by a narcissist wonder about the nature of their injury and its influence on their development. Several studies in 2023 shed light on this timely topic.

Ultimately, adult children of narcissists want to know:

How did my parent's narcissism injure me?

Where should I look for signs of injury?

Can I escape my narcissistic parent's negative influence?

The recognized risk of having a narcissistic parent

New research shows how narcissism can play out between parent and child. Three international studies, all published in 2023, observed that the experience of having a narcissistic parent has recognizable consequences on the child's and young adult's mental and emotional development. Subject identification varied by study and relied on self-identification as an adult child of a narcissist (Lyons et al., 2023); subject report of parent behavior meeting criterion for narcissistic personality disorder (Hoxhoj, 2023); and professional diagnoses of narcissism (Torres, 2023).

While employing less-than-ideal methodology (including small sample size, case study or interviewing as the primary investigative tool, and self-report measures), the research nevertheless provides valuable insights. The negative impact of narcissistic parents on children was consistent across studies.

Having a narcissistic parent can negatively influence the child's and, ultimately, the adult's self-worth, attachment style, romantic relationships, and emotional stability (Lyons et al., 2023; Hoxhoj, 2023; Torres, 2023). One study noted that narcissism in the parent could "serve as a barrier to [healthy] attachment and the potential for profound and lasting influences on self-esteem in adulthood" (Hoxhaj, 2023).

Another study informally linked narcissistic parenting to childhood experiences related to "low trust, feelings of shame, commitment difficulties, and poor relationship strategies" (Lyons et al., 2023). Evidence for generational transmission of narcissism was also observed (Torres, 2023).

Narcissists are not equipped to be "good enough" parents

The risk of harm to children of narcissistic parents is real, as narcissists lack many foundational parenting skills and abilities. From a structural perspective, the narcissist does not have the capacity to be a "good enough" parent.

In my recent book, Childhood Narcissism: Strategies to Raise Unselfish, Unentitled, and Empathetic Children, the impact of healthy and not-so-healthy parenting on children is explored. The narcissistic parent injures the child in predictable ways.

10 tendencies in narcissistic parents that can injure children

1. Selfishness and self-centeredness. Narcissistic self-centeredness means that attention is primarily turned inward. As a result, narcissists have less emotional energy available for the child. As children require almost unlimited supplies of attention and affection, the narcissistic parent is ill-equipped to provide adequate nurture, without which the growth of basic security and a positive self-concept suffers.
Risks to the child's development include insecurity, self-doubt, insecure attachment, and flawed self-concept (due to inadequate nurture).
2. Grandiosity. For a parent who longs for power, status, and positive regard, the need for narcissistic inflation makes the child a potential vehicle for serving the needs of the parent. If the child shows extraordinary talent-anything indicating exceptional promise-there is the risk of enmeshment. If the child disappoints, there is the risk of rejection through harsh treatment. Especially talented children are at particular risk of becoming a narcissistic extension of the parent. They can also suffer the ongoing need to achieve in an effort to please the demanding parent.
Risks to the child's development include stunted emotional growth due to enmeshment with talented children (narcissistic extension of the parent) or rejection of less talented ones.
3. Limited caretaking skills and unresponsive parenting. Narcissists are typically insensitive and lack responsive caretaking abilities unless the child provides something that would benefit the parent. The narcissist's lack of regard for the feelings of others means that they too often miss seeing, appreciating, and meeting the child's needs and knowing the unique child. Parental insensitivity impedes the child's developmental progress and translates into low self-confidence and feelings of unworthiness.

Narcissism Essential Reads
Risks to the child's development include emotional "hunger," limited trust and confidence in others, low self-worth, and immaturity.
4. Low frustration tolerance. The narcissistic parent is preoccupied with their own self-image and often unable to tolerate normal stage-related "bad" behavior. Easily frustrated by childhood misbehavior, the parent is prone to harsh responses to the child. They believe bad behavior in the child will "reflect poorly" upon them, which threatens their grandiose self-concept. Low frustration tolerance in the parent causes dysregulation in the child and results in immature coping skills ranging from perfectionism to tantrums and anxiety to withdrawal.
Risks to the child's development include the need to be perfect, a sense of being unable to please others, anxiety or withdrawal, immature coping skills, and feeling ashamed.
5. Excessive need to control. Narcissists demonstrate an excessive need to control. Overly directing, coaching, and criticizing, they handicap their child by limiting experience with independent, self-directed behavior. Self-knowledge and self-confidence are slow to develop.
Risks to the child's development include lack of independence, inexperience with self-direction, lack of confidence, and immaturity of judgment.
6. Inability to love the "authentic" child. Narcissists lack the ability to love fully and unconditionally. "Good enough" parenting requires that parents love the child they were given, not the child they wished for. Driven to inflate their self-image, narcissists may lack the capacity to love others fully. Conditional love leads to a negative self-concept and basic insecurity.
Risks to the child's development include feeling unlovable or unworthy, negative self-concept, and worthlessness.
7. Tendency toward emotional dysregulation. Narcissists are prone to overreaction and emotional outbursts. Their volatility as a parent means that they may not create a safe emotional space for a child to develop psychologically. A volatile home environment interferes with basic emotional security.
Risks to the child's development include insecurity, problems with trust, difficulties in emotional steadiness, anxiety, and immature coping.
8. Distortion of the facts or bias in interpretation. Narcissists tend to interpret the world in terms of their own needs and biases. Lacking the consistent ability to "see" the reality of many situations, they can be ill-suited to help the child identify their true strengths and weaknesses and build a stable, realistic, positive self-concept or to share an unbiased, accurate view of the world.
Risks to the child's development include flawed, negative, or unrealistic self-concepts and immature or inaccurate abilities to make sense of the world around them.
9. Lack of empathy. Narcissists can struggle with empathy, being unable to appreciate the feelings of others fully. This makes them prone to inadequate understanding and insensitive responses. Empathy is necessary for children to experience trust, develop secure attachment, and learn to attend to the needs of others.
Risks to the child's development include problems with trust, insecure attachment, a sense of insecurity, feelings of isolation, and emotional insensitivity.
10. Flawed model of love and relationships. Narcissists often demand and engage in "one-up/one-down" relationships. Unable to participate in more healthy reciprocal relationships, the child often ends up serving the emotional needs of the parent. This is an unhealthy model both in the family and, more broadly, in peer and work relationships. Children who experience this power dynamic at home sometimes mimic the same limited model in their personal relationships.
Risks to the child's development include an unhealthy model of love and relationships, unrealistic social expectations, and unfulfilling relationships.
The primary deficit seen in narcissistic parents is an overemphasis on parental needs.

The narcissist's self-focus and rigid adherence to selfish satisfaction do not provide a good foundation for parenting. Significantly, narcissists may lack the ability to put the needs of the child ahead of their own unless it serves some kind of narcissistic gratification. Overemphasis on parental needs means that the parent cannot support healthy emotional development in the child.

If you had a narcissistic parent, are you doomed to repeat their mistakes?

There is evidence that nurture from those outside the family can substitute in essential ways for parental shortcomings. It is well-accepted that healthy corrective life experiences can heal and that growth through therapy can result in substantial change.

Anyone who grew up with a narcissistic parent can grow beyond the injuries born of their parent's limitations and develop in healthier ways. Whether this takes place during childhood or adulthood, healing is always possible. Moreover, anyone who is self-aware enough to suspect a tendency toward narcissism can make substantive changes and avoid injuring their child. Understanding the flaws of a narcissistic parent and its impact on development is a good place to start.

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10 Ways Narcissistic Parents Hurt Their Children

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Recent research sheds light on the negative impact of a narcissistic parent on a child. This information is essential for adult children working to heal over time.

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A narcissistic parent prioritizes their own needs, image, and control over their child's emotional well-being. They may dismiss the child's preferences, be emotionally or physically absent, and seek validation outside the family. Love is often conditional—offered when the child boosts their ego, but withdrawn in response to failure. Appearance matters more than feelings, and affection is expressed through material gifts rather than emotional support. They may envy their child's achievements, respond with criticism, and project their insecurities. Seeking admiration, they manipulate others, dominate conversations, and react explosively to negative feedback. The child's self-expression is seen as a threat, and blame is placed elsewhere for any failure. Constant criticism, blurred boundaries, and attempts to act as a friend instead of a parent create an unstable and invalidating environment, leaving the child feeling unseen and emotionally neglected.

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Child development: The 6 huge impacts of NPD Parents

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Child development: The 6 huge impacts of NPD Parents

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Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is marked by inflated self-importance, a need for admiration, and low empathy. Those with NPD often manipulate, gaslight, and distort narratives to maintain control and secure resources. They exaggerate their struggles while disregarding others' needs, expecting an imbalance in their favor. In parenting, this can disrupt a child’s emotional development, as narcissists struggle to set fair boundaries, model healthy behavior, and provide emotional support. Their self-centeredness creates an unstable environment, leaving children feeling unseen and emotionally neglected.

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Growing up with a parent who exhibits narcissistic traits typically leaves lasting impact on a child's emotional and psychological well-being. Child development, and their ability to forge healthy relationships for life, can be substantially influenced by a narcissistic parent.

Understanding Narcissism and its impact on early learning:

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is characterized by a recurrent pattern of grandiosity, a need for admiration and lack of empathy. It is a challenging disorder that can be treated with Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Group Therapy, or Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. Schema therapy as well as Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP) are also commonly used.

Due to their extreme subjectivity, demanding grandiose ways and low empathy, narcissists display typically a structural "imbalance" in expectations: They exaggerate their troubles and efforts in order to secure more resources, justification or forgiving. Somewhat deprived of a rich internal life, they "fill" the void by scheming, controlling narratives, misleading, arguing, gaslighting, in order to get more (attention, resources, status, etc.).

Simply put, when most people would see a 50/50 situation as 60/40 in their favour (we all have an ego), Narcissists will see everything as 80-20 for them, and will fight immediately to protect this imbalance, justify it, make up excuses, deny the imbalance, etc.

They can be very hard work to argue or collaborate with, as they truly seem to expect that kind of double standard in their favour in every way. Narcissists prioritize their own needs and desires above those of others, including during their child development, with significant consequences within the family unit.

Put simpler yet: Sound psychological development in children rests on many things, but some key ones are emotional safety, safe and balanced boundaries, principled education, fair and reasonable behaviour modelled by parents. All of which are key struggles for narcissists.

6 types of impact of NPD parents on children:

NPD impact on children coming from a parent is varied and extensive. Child development is affected along major , affecting beliefs, self-worth, behaviour and emotional bonding.

1. Fear of Abandonment: Narcissistic parents may exhibit unpredictable behavior, including emotional outbursts, withdrawal of affection, or threats of abandonment that can be highly damaging to the child's development. This can instill a deep-seated fear of abandonment in children, leading to anxiety, insecurity, and an inability to trust others in their relationships.

2. Role Reversal: Narcissists are often unstable emotionally. In some cases, children of narcissistic parents may be forced into a role reversal where they become the caretaker or emotional support for their parent. This dynamic can hinder the child's emotional development and create a sense of burden and responsibility beyond their years, feeling pressured to meet their parent's needs at the expense of their own well-being.

3. Emotional Neglect: Children of narcissistic parents may experience emotional neglect as their parent's focus remains primarily on themselves. Narcissistic parents may be emotionally unavailable or dismissive of their child's feelings and experiences, leaving them feeling unseen, unheard, and invalidated.

4. Adoption of grandiose self-centered behaviour modelled by the NPD parent: Children simply learn a lot more from seeing what their parents do, than listening to what their parents tell them to do. By behaving at times erratically, unreasonably, or grandiosely NPD parents instill in the child development, a familiarity, a "blind spot" around these behaviours that children will typically reproduce.

5. Low Self-Esteem: Constant criticism and invalidation from a narcissistic parent can erode a child's self-esteem and sense of self-worth. Children may internalize the belief that they are never good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, and a persistent fear of failure.

6. Difficulty Establishing Boundaries: Growing up in an environment where boundaries are disregarded can make it challenging for children to establish healthy boundaries in their own relationships later in life. Children may struggle to assert their needs and prioritize their own well-being, leading to difficulties in setting boundaries with others and a heightened vulnerability to manipulation and exploitation.

Support and Coping Strategies for affected child development:

NPD impact on children, particularly from a parent, cannot be over-stated. Child development is upset, delayed, or debilitated across a variety of core emotional assets (confidence, esteem, boundaries, trauma bonding, etc.)

1. Seek Therapy: Children of narcissists often lack the healthy compass to navigate relations, as their early development centered around toxic behaviours (threats, neglect, abuse) and poor boundaries. Building awareness and practicing healthier coping strategies is very valuable for patients. Therapy can provide a safe and supportive environment for children of narcissistic parents to process their experiences, gain insight into their emotions and behavior, and develop coping strategies for navigating challenging family dynamics. A qualified therapist can offer validation, support, and guidance as individuals work through their feelings of guilt, shame, and trauma.

2. Establish Healthy Boundaries: Child development is particularly affected by the poor, intrusive, or downright absent boundaries an NPD parent manifests towards their child. NPD survivors at large always need to "re-learn" healthy boundaries when they come out of any sort of relation with a narcissist. Learning to set and enforce boundaries is essential for protecting one's emotional well-being and sense of self. Children of narcissistic parents may need to practice assertiveness skills and boundary-setting techniques to protect themselves from emotional manipulation and abuse. Setting boundaries can involve identifying one's needs and limits, communicating them assertively, and enforcing consequences for boundary violations.

3. Cultivate Self-Compassion: Children of narcissistic parents may struggle with feelings of self-blame, inadequacy, and unworthiness. Practicing self-compassion involves treating oneself with kindness, understanding, and acceptance, even in the face of difficult emotions and experiences. Self-compassion can help individuals challenge negative self-talk, develop self-esteem and self-worth, and foster resilience in the face of adversity.

4. Develop Supportive Relationships: Surrounding oneself with supportive friends, family members, or mentors can provide validation, encouragement, and a sense of belonging outside of the family environment. Building a strong support network can help individuals feel seen, heard, and valued, and provide a source of comfort and stability during difficult times.

5. Focus on Personal Growth: Despite the challenges they may face, children of narcissistic parents have the resilience and inner strength to overcome adversity and thrive. Investing in personal growth and self-care activities can empower individuals to break free from the cycle of narcissistic abuse, heal from past wounds, and create a life filled with purpose, meaning, and fulfillment. Personal growth may involve pursuing hobbies and interests, setting and achieving personal goals, and engaging in activities that bring joy, fulfillment, and a sense of accomplishment.

Child development, growing up with a narcissistic parent can present numerous challenges impacting their emotional and psychological well-being, self-esteem, and relationships. By understanding the dynamics of narcissism and seeking support from qualified professionals and supportive individuals, children of narcissistic parents can begin to heal from the effects of their upbringing and cultivate healthy, fulfilling lives.

Remember, you are not alone, and there is hope for a brighter future beyond the shadows of narcissistic parenting. With compassion, self-awareness, and resilience, individuals can break free from the cycle of abuse, reclaim their sense of self-worth and dignity, and create the life they deserve.

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Child development: The 6 huge impacts of NPD Parents | Odyssey & Serendipity

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Child development, and their ability to forge healthy relationships for life, can be substantially influenced by a narcissistic parent.

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What Happens to a Child Raised by a Narcissist: Understanding Emotional Consequences and Healing Steps

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What Happens to a Child Raised by a Narcissist: Understanding Emotional Consequences and Healing Steps

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Individuals raised by narcissistic parents often face significant challenges in establishing healthy boundaries in relationships. This difficulty stems from deep-seated fears of rejection and abandonment, as well as struggles with trust and emotional connection. The emotional consequences of such an upbringing can include persistent anxiety, emotional instability, and difficulty navigating social interactions. However, healing is possible through seeking therapy, cultivating self-awareness, and surrounding oneself with a supportive network, all of which are essential steps toward overcoming the lasting impact of narcissistic parenting.

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What Happens to a Child Raised by a Narcissist: Understanding Emotional Consequences and Healing Steps - Mind Psychiatrist

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Discover the tumultuous journey of a child raised by a narcissist. Unravel the emotional turmoil encompassing approval seeking, self-doubt, trust issues, and anxiety. Explore the profound impact on relationships and learn strategies for healing, setting boundaries, and fostering self-compassion for a brighter mental horizon.

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Narcissistic Parents Abuse You in These 5 Ways

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Narcissistic Parents Abuse You in These 5 Ways

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This article explores the emotional and psychological dimensions of narcissistic parent abuse, which often go unnoticed due to their invisible nature. It highlights manipulative behaviors such as gaslighting, verbal insults, silent treatment, and mind games, alongside seemingly positive actions like excessive praise or grooming for success that may mask deeper control. While narcissism exists on a spectrum and is a common human trait, it becomes abusive when such behaviors are persistent, pervasive, and damaging to the child’s well-being.

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Narcissistic Parents Abuse You in These 5 Ways

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Narcissistic parents abuse their child in invisible ways. It can include projection, gaslighting, mind games, the passive-aggressiveness.

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Narcissistic Parents: Traits, Signs, & Coping Strategies

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Narcissistic Parents: Traits, Signs, & Coping Strategies

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Recognizing a narcissistic parent can be hard because their behavior is often subtle and manipulative. These parents constantly seek attention and use their children to boost their ego. They rarely take responsibility for their actions, often blaming others, especially their kids, when things go wrong. They show little concern for their children's feelings and may play favorites to control them. Narcissistic parents often manipulate through guilt, withhold love if their expectations aren’t met, and criticize their children to keep them feeling small and dependent. They care more about maintaining a perfect image than truly supporting their family. Their love and attention are usually conditional, and they may embarrass their children, ignore boundaries, and become possessive or jealous if their control is threatened. Often, they expect their children to care for them instead of the other way around. These parents may even gaslight their kids, making them doubt their own memories or feelings, leaving lasting emotional harm

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Narcissistic Parents: Traits, Signs, & How to Deal With One

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Narcissistic parents are incredibly possessive, critical, and controlling of their children. These parents fear children becoming independent and will humiliate and shame them to prevent this from happening. Being raised by narcissistic parents may result in poor self-esteem, over-achieving tendencies, or self-sabotaging behaviors in adulthood.

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7 Signs of a Narcissistic Father | Father/Son Relationship

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7 Signs of a Narcissistic Father | Father/Son Relationship

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Father-Son relationship. Narcissistic fathers, whether exhibiting grandiose or vulnerable traits, can exert a profound influence on their sons. These fathers often model maladaptive behaviors, teaching their sons distorted ways of relating to others, emphasizing control, emotional suppression, and superficial charm over genuine connection. They frequently maintain strong opinions about their sons' life choices, including whether or not they should have children, seeing these decisions as extensions of their own identity and legacy. A hallmark of the narcissistic father's behavior is living vicariously through the son, projecting grandiose fantasies onto him and expecting the son to fulfill ambitions or ideals the father holds. Although such fathers may not be overtly emotionally distant, they tend to disregard or invalidate their sons' emotional experiences, focusing instead on appearances or outcomes that serve their self-image. In some cases, the son may experience emotional abandonment if another child, perhaps one who better fulfills the narcissistic fantasy, takes center stage in the father's life. During divorce, narcissistic fathers are often divisive, manipulating family dynamics to align the son against the mother, further entrenching dysfunctional relational patterns.

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7 Signs of a Narcissistic Father | Father/Son Relationship

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DAUGHTERS OF NARCISSISTIC FATHERS and THE PROBLEMS WE FACE

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DAUGHTERS OF NARCISSISTIC FATHERS and THE PROBLEMS WE FACE

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This passage explores how daughters of narcissistic fathers often carry unresolved emotional wounds into adulthood, leading them to attract narcissistic partners. Raised without unconditional love and seen as extensions of their fathers, these women may struggle with low self-worth and people-pleasing tendencies. Initially drawn to narcissistic men who seem strong and protective, they often lose themselves trying to earn love. Healing begins when they recognize these toxic patterns and seek the support needed to reclaim their identity and self-worth.

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Lisa A. Romano Breakthrough Life Coach Inc

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DAUGHTERS OF NARCISSISTIC FATHERS and THE PROBLEMS WE FACE/LISA ROMANO

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This TED Talk discusses the topic of child abuse. It highlights the harsh reality that not all parents are good parents, yet children are often required to remain in unsafe homes. The speaker questions why children sometimes receive more kindness and respect from strangers than from their own caregivers. This lack of respect and proper treatment can lead to various forms of abuse, which have devastating and long-lasting effects on children around the world.

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Not all parents are good | Dr. Sherrie Campbell | TEDxDanville

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Identifying Narcissistic Behaviors in Fathers

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Identifying Narcissistic Behaviors in Fathers

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A narcissistic father often exhibits traits such as a need for constant admiration, self-centeredness, and a lack of empathy. His behavior can lead to emotional manipulation, favoritism, and invalidation of his children's feelings. These patterns may cause lasting effects on children's self-esteem, relationships, and emotional health. Recognizing these signs is essential for setting boundaries and beginning the healing process.

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Narcissist Father Traits: Understanding the Signs and Impact

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Explore common narcissist father traits and their effects on family dynamics. Learn to recognize manipulative behaviors and discover strategies for coping with a narcissistic parent.

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Child abandonment is when a parent or guardian intentionally stops providing care, support, or contact with their child for a long period, often six months or more. Laws vary, but this typically applies to children under 18. If another caregiver prevents the parent from seeing the child, it usually isn't considered abandonment.

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Child abandonment involves a parent or guardian deserting a child, either physically, by leaving them in unsafe or inappropriate conditions, or emotionally, by being present but neglecting the child’s emotional needs. It can lead to serious legal consequences, varying from misdemeanors to felonies based on the extent of harm or neglect.

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Child abandonment occurs when a parent, guardian, or person in charge of a child either deserts a child without any regard for the child's physical health, safety or welfare and with the intention of wholly abandoning the child, or in some instances, fails to provide necessary care for a child living under their roof.

While abandoning a child typically involves physical abandonment -- such as leaving a child at a stranger's doorstep when no one is home -- it may also include extreme cases of emotional abandonment -- such as when a "work-a-holic" parent offers little or no physical contact or emotional support over long periods of time.

Unfortunately, abandoned children (also called "foundlings") who do not get their needs met often grow up with low self-esteem, emotional dependency, helplessness, and other issues.

A person charged with deserting a child may face felony or misdemeanor penalties and other consequences.

What Constitutes Child Abandonment?

The term "child abandonment" is broadly categorized and used to describe a variety of behaviors. Specific examples of abandonment vary, but common actions that may lead to charges include:

Leaving a child with another person without provision for the child's support and without meaningful communication with the child for a period of three months;

Making only minimal efforts to support and communicate with a child;

Failing for a period of at least six months to maintain regular visitation with a child;

Failing to participate in a suitable plan or program designed to reunite the parent or guardian with a child;

Leaving an infant on a doorstep, in trash cans and dumpsters, and on the side of the road;

Being absent from the home for a period of time that created a substantial risk of serious harm to a child left in the home;

Failing to respond to notice of child protective proceedings; or

Being unwilling to provide care, support, or supervision for the child.

Child Abandonment Laws

The laws vary from state to state. Many states include deserting a child within its child abuse laws and vice versa, while some states have laws specifically targeting the act of abandoning a child.

Most states classify abandonment as a felony, which may include situations where a parent or guardian physically abandons a child in any place with the intent of relinquishing all rights and responsibilities to the child.

Other states classify the desertion of a child as a misdemeanor (with lesser penalties), including situations that involve non-physical acts of abandonment.

In general, child abandonment occurs when a parent, guardian, or other person has physical custody or control of a child and, when acting without regard for the mental or physical health, safety, or welfare of the child:

Knowing leaves a child (typically under the age of 13) without supervision by a responsible person (typically over the age of 14); or

Fails to maintain contact with the child or provide reasonable support for a specified period of time.

In the criminal context, child desertion is defined as physically abandoning a child, but may also include emotional abandonment such as failing to provide basic needs to a child. For example, in some states, a parent may be guilty of abandonment if they fail to provide necessary clothing, food, shelter or medical care for their child. In other states, however, parents are only punished for deserting a child with the intent to abandon the child.

Mandatory Reporting Laws

Because abandoning a child is considered child abuse in some states, certain people may be required to report known or suspected cases of child abandonment to the proper authorities. Check your state's child abuse laws to see if you qualify as a "mandatory reporter."

Safe Haven Law Exception

Most jurisdictions have exceptions to child abandonment in the form of safe haven laws. Safe Haven Laws allow mothers to safely abandon their newborn infants in safe locations - such as churches, hospitals, and fire stations - without fear of being charged with the crime of child abandonment.

Leaving a Child at Home Alone

While it's necessary in some instances to leave a child at home alone, states typically offer age guidelines to help parents avoid abandonment charges. Under some state statutes, leaving a child at home alone may constitute child abandonment, depending on a number of factors, including the age of the child, duration of time the child was left without adult supervision, and economic hardship or illness of the parent or guardian. Read tips on leaving a child home alone to better understand how to fulfill your obligations.

Child Abandonment Penalties and Punishment

Depending on the state, a person charged with criminal child abandonment faces a wide range of penalties and sentencing options, depending on whether the state makes it a felony or misdemeanor. A court will take the factors listed above into consideration - but the penalties may include fines, termination of parental rights, supervised access to the child, and jail time.

In addition, a person may face reckless abandonment charges of a greater penalty if a child dies as a result of the desertion.

How Can You Protect Yourself and Your Loved Ones? Call a Defense Attorney Today

Some cases of abandonment aren't always clear and can fall into a gray area of the law. If you're facing child abandonment charges, you should consult with a criminal defense lawyer in your area who may be able to reduce or lessen the severity of penalties in your case or get it dismissed altogether. Take the first step by contacting an experienced criminal defense attorney in your area.

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Child abandonment typically involves physical abandonment -- such as leaving a child at a stranger's doorstep when no one is home -- it may also include extreme cases of emotional abandonment. Learn more about what constitutes child abandonment and more at FindLaw's section on Crimes Against Children.

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Abandonment is a significant form of childhood trauma that can deeply affect a person's emotional well-being, sense of self, and even physical health. Recognizing the signs is essential for beginning the healing process.

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Key points

Abandonment is a major form of childhood trauma that impacts everything from self-esteem to physical health.

Recognizing the signs of abandonment trauma is a critical step in healing and moving forward.

Emotional instability, substance use, hypervigilance, and unhealthy relationship patterns are common signs.

Becky, a 35-year-old graphic designer, has always felt anxiety in her relationships, especially during periods of quiet, when she worried her partner would grow bored with her and leave. Abandoned by her parents as a teenager after coming out as gay, she constantly fears that those she loves will leave her too. This fear manifests in her romantic relationships, so she becomes overly clingy and demands constant reassurance from her partners. Becky's low self-esteem, stemming from her belief that she wasn't worthy of her father's love, causes her to doubt her worth in every relationship. Despite her professional success, Becky struggles with chronic feelings of loneliness and emotional numbness. She finds it difficult to trust others, always anticipating betrayal or rejection. Her friends notice that she often withdraws from social activities, preferring isolation over the risk of potential abandonment. In therapy, Becky is beginning to uncover how her abandonment has shaped her in adulthood, affecting everything from her partnerships to her relationship with food and alcohol.
Abandonment from a parent constitutes a profound form of abandonment trauma, deeply affecting a child's emotional and psychological development. This type of trauma stems from the loss of a primary attachment figure, leading to intense feelings of insecurity, worthlessness, and mistrust. The absence of parental support and nurturing during critical developmental stages can result in long-lasting fears of rejection and difficulties in forming healthy relationships later in life (Cruz et al., 2022).

Abandonment trauma is a profound psychological wound that arises when an individual feels deserted by someone crucial to their emotional and physical well-being, typically during childhood. This trauma can have long-lasting effects that manifest in various ways throughout a person's life. Understanding the signs of abandonment trauma is crucial for recognizing and addressing these issues in order to heal and move forward.

While not an exhaustive list, here are some of the most common signs of abandonment trauma I witness in my practice and in my personal life:

1. Emotional Instability and Insecurity: One of the hallmark signs of abandonment trauma is emotional instability. Individuals who have experienced abandonment may struggle with intense and fluctuating emotions. They often live with a pervasive sense of insecurity, fearing that those they care about will leave them. This fear can lead to heightened anxiety, especially in relationships. They might constantly worry about being rejected or abandoned, which can make them overly sensitive to perceived slights or changes in others' behavior.

2. Fear of Intimacy and Commitment: Abandonment trauma can make it incredibly challenging for individuals to form close, intimate relationships. The fear of being hurt or left again can cause them to avoid deep emotional connections altogether. This avoidance can manifest as a reluctance to commit to long-term relationships or a tendency to keep partners at a distance. They might engage in self-sabotaging behaviors, such as pushing partners away or ending relationships prematurely, to protect themselves from potential abandonment. Some may jump from relationship to relationship to avoid these feelings.

3. Clinginess and Dependency: Conversely, some individuals with abandonment trauma may exhibit clinginess and dependency in their relationships. They might develop an overwhelming need for constant reassurance and validation from their partners or friends. This need can lead to excessive demands for attention and affection as well as a fear of spending time alone. This clinginess is often rooted in the fear that, without constant contact and affirmation, they will be abandoned again.

4. Low Self-Esteem and Self-Worth: Low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are common among those who have experienced abandonment trauma. These individuals often internalize the abandonment, believing it was their fault or that they were not worthy of love and care. This negative self-perception can lead to a chronic sense of inadequacy and self-doubt, impacting various areas of their lives, including their perception of their "lovability," their careers, friendships, and romantic relationships (Cruz et al., 2022).

5. Trust Issues: Having been let down by someone they depended on, survivors may find it difficult to trust others. They might be suspicious of people's intentions, constantly fearing betrayal or deception. This mistrust can make it hard for them to open up to others and build meaningful relationships

6. Unhealthy or Unstable Relationship Patterns: Individuals may find themselves repeatedly in relationships that mimic the dynamics of their original abandonment. For instance, they might unconsciously choose partners who are emotionally unavailable or prone to leaving. These repetitive patterns can reinforce their feelings of unworthiness and perpetuate the cycle of abandonment.

7. Emotional Numbness and Detachment: In an effort to protect themselves from further hurt, some individuals with abandonment trauma may emotionally shut down. This emotional numbness or detachment serves as a defense mechanism to avoid feeling the pain of potential abandonment.

8. Chronic Feelings of Loneliness: Even if they are surrounded by people, individuals with abandonment trauma often feel chronically lonely. The deep-seated fear of being left alone can make it difficult for them to feel truly connected to others. This loneliness can be pervasive, affecting their sense of belonging and making social interactions feel superficial or unfulfilling.

9. Hypervigilance: Hypervigilance is another common sign of abandonment trauma. Those affected may constantly monitor their environment and relationships for signs of potential abandonment. This heightened state of alertness can be exhausting and lead to chronic stress, as they are always on guard, anticipating the next loss or rejection.

10. Unhealthy Coping Mechanisms: To manage their intense emotions and fears, individuals with abandonment trauma may develop various coping mechanisms as a way of self-medicating. These can include substance abuse, overeating, or other addictive behaviors as a way to numb the pain or distract themselves from their anxiety (Hughes et al., 2017). While these behaviors may offer temporary relief, they often exacerbate the underlying issues and lead to further emotional and physical health problems.

11. Physical and Medical Concerns: It is common for survivors of childhood trauma to struggle with physical health concerns later in life, pointing to the link between trauma and health. Many survivors of repeated traumas in childhood later report chronic pain or fatigue, or even cancer or heart disease (Hughes et al., 2017).

12. Struggles With Finding Meaning: While this is by no means unique to this group, many survivors of childhood trauma struggle with their faith or spirituality later in life (Cruz et al., 2022). Some may lose their faith or rebel against it, while others may struggle with finding purpose and meaning in life, almost asking "What is the point of all of this?"

Many survivors are blamed for the behaviors and coping skills that they had to develop to survive their situation. Developing understanding and increasing awareness of abandonment trauma and its effects can empower survivors to reduce self-blame and work to foster a more empathetic and supportive environment for those affected by this profound emotional pain.
To find a therapist, visit the Psychology Today Therapy Directory.

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Abandonment can leave profound psychological wounds that manifest in various ways throughout a person's life. Here are 12 of the most common signs.

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Michigan Child Abandonment Laws: Definitions and Consequences

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Michigan Child Abandonment Laws: Definitions and Consequences

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Examine the laws surrounding child abandonment in Michigan, including how abandonment is defined, the associated criminal penalties, exceptions under the Safe Haven Law, and possible legal defenses.

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Michigan Child Abandonment Laws: Definitions and Consequences

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Explore Michigan’s child abandonment laws, including definitions, penalties, safe haven exceptions, and legal defenses.

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One of the most devastating actions a parent or caregiver can take is to abandon a child, leaving them to face the world alone. The emotional and psychological wounds from such experiences often carry into adulthood, with lasting and profound effects.

In this article, we’ll explore what childhood abandonment truly means, how it impacts individuals later in life, and what steps can be taken to heal and reclaim one’s sense of self.

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The Long-Term Effects of Abandonment | CPTSDfoundation.org

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One of the most egregious behaviors a parent or other caregiver can do to a child is to abandon them, allowing them to suffer alone. The damages done to the child when grown are significant and should not be ignored.

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7 Most Common Abandonment Issues Symptoms

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7 Most Common Abandonment Issues Symptoms

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In this article, I’ll explain what abandonment means and explore the seven most common symptoms associated with abandonment issues.

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7 Most Common Abandonment Issues Symptoms | Seattle Christian Counseling

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In this article, we answer the question, “What is abandonment?” as well as discuss the most common abandonment issues symptoms.

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Previous trauma can impact expectant mothers during pregnancy and beyond

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Previous trauma can impact expectant mothers during pregnancy and beyond

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New research uses theories of post-traumatic stress disorder to help educate practitioners on how to address trauma experienced by their patients.

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Previous trauma can impact expectant mothers during pregnancy and beyond

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FACULTY Q&A Josie Granner, a doctoral candidate at the University of Michigan School of Nursing, studies the childbearing year for new parents who are survivors of trauma and post-traumatic stress. Granner recently co-authored a study with Julia Seng, professor of nursing, that uses th

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How is attachment related to trauma? | Kati Morton

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Kati Morton also emphasizes how early childhood experiences—especially neglect or inconsistent caregiving—can shape our attachment style and vulnerability to trauma-related disorders.

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How is attachment related to trauma? | Kati Morton

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The website provides a comprehensive legal overview of child abandonment, a term used in Family Law to describe a parent or guardian's willful failure to provide emotional, physical, or financial support to a child. It explains the legal definitions, types (physical and emotional), and consequences of abandonment, including potential criminal charges and termination of parental rights. The site also outlines child abandonment laws, statistics, and related legal concepts such as mandated reporting and custody proceedings. It emphasizes the serious impact of abandonment on a child’s well-being and long-term health.

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In law, the term "abandonment" may be used in a variety of legal issues, from contract law to real estate law, referring to the giving up or renunciation of an interest, privilege, possession, or right, with the intent of never reclaiming it. As the term applies to matters of Family Law, an individual may abandon a marriage, spouse, child, or property. While abandonment of a marriage or marital property is a civil matter to be dealt with in family court, abandonment of a child may also be a criminal offense for which the individual may face criminal charges. To explore this concept, consider the following child abandonment definition.

Definition of Abandonment

Noun

1. The giving up or withdrawal of support from something or someone

2. The act of leaving or deserting a person or property

Origin
1325-1375 Middle French abandoner

Types of Child Abandonment

Child abandonment occurs when a child's parent or guardian willfully withholds emotional, physical, and financial support, with no regard for the child's safety and welfare. This may include physical abandonment, such as leaving a child somewhere with no intent to return for him, or it may include failure to provide physical supervision, emotional support, and other necessities of life for a child living in the home. So-called "latchkey kids" may, in extreme cases, be considered abandoned by their working or otherwise absent parents.

Under the law, many parental behaviors lead to charges of child abandonment, including:

Leaving an infant on a doorstep, in a trash can, or on the side of the road

Being absent from the home for a period of time long enough to create substantial risk of harm to a child left in the home

Leaving a child with another person without providing for the child's support, and with no meaningful communication with the child or caregiver for a period specified by statute, usually three months

Failing to maintain regular visitation with a child for a period of at least six months

Making only token efforts to support and communicate with a child

Refusing, or being unwilling, to provide supervision, care, and support for a child

Failing to participate in a parenting plan or program designed to reunite the parent with the child

Failing to respond to official notice of child protective or child custody proceedings

Child Abandonment Laws

Laws regarding child safety and welfare, abandonment, and abuse vary from state to state, though in most states child abuse and child abandonment laws go hand-in-hand. In many states, child abandonment is considered a felony, even if the child has not been physically harmed by the abandonment. Other states classify child abandonment as a misdemeanor, unless specifics of the crime suggest it should be raised to the level of a felony.

Criminal child abandonment is often defined as physically leaving a child somewhere, though it may also include failing to provide for the child's basic needs, such as shelter, food, clothing, and medical care. As with child abuse, child physical abandonment is subject to mandatory reporting by professionals defined by state law. Such mandated reporters include medical personnel, counselors or psychiatric care providers, teachers, and other professionals in close contact with children

Emotional Abandonment

Although the child abandonment laws describe certain acts that constitutional non-physical abandonment of children, the truth is, emotional abandonment is subjective. Any act or failure to act that leaves a child feeling unwanted, discarded, or insecure may be considered emotional abandonment under the laws of child safety and welfare.

Experts in child psychology have found that, in a child's eyes, abandonment is more about the parent's absence and failure to communicate or take an active role in his life, than any financial considerations. Many children feel it is their fault, and experience feelings of low self worth and shame. Because emotional abandonment by a parent has the potential to cause a lifetime of issues for the child, it is taken very seriously by the courts.

Termination of Parental Rights

Parents have a constitutionally protected right to raise, protect, and educate their children. Such rights generally include physical custody of the child, the right to prevent adoption of a child, the right to educate and discipline the child, and the right to control and manage the minor child's income and property. When parents fail to provide for the child's welfare and safety, however, their rights to parent the child may be terminated by the court.

While laws vary from state to state, each recognizes specific circumstances that create an unsafe environment for a child. The most common reasons for termination of parental rights include:

Abandonment of the child

Severe or persistent abuse or neglect

Abuse or neglect of other children in the home

Physical or sexual abuse

Long term mental illness of a parent

Long term drug or alcohol abuse by a parent

Failure to maintain contact with, or support of, a child

Having rights to another child terminated involuntarily

One parent's rights may be terminated without affecting the rights of the other parent. In the event parental rights are taken from both parents, legal custody of the child lies with the State, which then bears the responsibility for finding a suitable placement of the child.

Requirements for Termination of Parental Rights

The parent-child relationship is seen, in the eyes of the law, to be a fundamental right afforded to all parents. Because of this, the process of terminating parental rights is protracted and difficult, and the court will only grant a termination in rare cases. The burden of proof for involuntary termination of parental rights is very high, requiring clear and convincing evidence that at least one of the following applies:

Abandonment. A parent intentionally forsakes his duties to the child, failing to accept responsibility for the child's financial, emotional, and physical support.

Failure to provide parental support. A parent repeatedly or continually neglects basic parental duties such as the provision of food, shelter, clothing, and education, or caring for the child's physical and emotional needs.

Failure to provide financial support. A parent that has been ordered to pay financial support for a child continually fails to do so, despite being financially able to do so.

Foster care placement. A parent fails to correct conditions that resulted in a child being placed in foster care.

Child Abandonment Statistics

Each year in the United States, more than 3 million reports of child abandonment, child neglect, and child abuse are reported, these statistics touching the lives of more than 6 million children. This makes the United States one of the worst among industrialized nations for child abandonment and abuse.

Studies have shown that adults who report having 6 or more harmful or detrimental experiences in their childhood have a life expectancy shortened by 20 years. Child abuse, neglect, and abandonment are tied to increased incidence of such life-altering diseases as ischemic heart disease, liver disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ("COPD").

Related Legal Terms and Issues

Necessities of Life - The bare essentials needed for survival, or to maintain a minimum standard of living.

Parenting Plan - A detailed proposal for custody and care of a child, including scheduled time the child will spend with each parent.

Child Custody Proceedings - Legal proceedings for the purpose of determining custody of a child, as well as the rights and responsibilities of the parents to the child.

Mandated Reporter - An individual required by law to report suspected child abuse or abandonment; usually professionals that have regular contact with children.

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Child Abandonment - Definition, Examples, Processes

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In law, the term "abandonment" may be used in a variety of legal issues, from contract law to real estate law, referring to the giving up or renunciation of an interest, privilege, possession, or right, with the intent of never reclaiming it.

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The PBS documentary "Abandon", featured in the Film School Shorts series (Season 6, Episode 608), is a short film inspired by actual events that profoundly impacted California's foster care system. It narrates the story of two children who escape from a group home, shedding light on the systemic challenges and emotional hardships faced by youth in foster care. Through its compelling storytelling, the film underscores the urgent need for reform and greater support within the child welfare system

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Watch full episodes of your favorite PBS shows, explore music and the arts, find in-depth news analysis, and more. Home to Antiques Roadshow, Frontline, NOVA, PBS Newshour, Masterpiece and many others.

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The Long Shadow of Childhood Abandonment

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The Long Shadow of Childhood Abandonment

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In this insightful video, psychologist Dr. Peggy Orenstein explores how childhood abandonment shapes a person’s emotional development, identity, and relationships throughout life. She explains how early experiences of neglect and loss can lead to trust issues, attachment difficulties, and mental health struggles in adulthood. The video emphasizes the importance of early intervention and trauma-informed care to help abandoned children heal and thrive.

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Child Abandonment in South Africa – Cradle of Hope (Oct 17, 2023)
This article explains what child abandonment is and highlights its severity in South Africa, where thousands of children are left without care each year. It discusses the difference between abandonment, neglect, and abuse, and emphasizes that criminalizing abandonment alone doesn’t solve the problem. The piece advocates for prevention through safe haven options, support services for parents, and stronger community systems to ensure no child is left without love or protection.

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What is child abandonment? Child abandonment is a deeply concerning issue affecting countless children worldwide, including South-Africa. A child is considered abandoned when the child has been left in circumstances where they suffer serious harm, and their parent’s identity or whereabouts are unknown or when the parent fails to maintain contact or provide support for … Child Abandonment Read More »

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Wired for Danger: The Effects of Childhood Trauma on the Brain

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Wired for Danger: The Effects of Childhood Trauma on the Brain

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Childhood trauma causes physical changes in the brain by activating toxic stress. When this stress is intense, frequent, and prolonged, it disrupts normal brain development by rewiring key areas, affecting how emotions are processed and the body's response.

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Wired for Danger: The Effects of Childhood Trauma on the Brain

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Childhood trauma can physically change the brain. Toxic stress from ongoing trauma rewires brain areas, affecting emotions, behavior, and overall development. These changes can have lasting effects on learning, relationships, and mental health.

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Feelings of self-blame

People who go through trauma sometimes feel as if they are to blame. This can cause very strong feelings of shame or guilt, even though it wasn't your fault.

Reasons for feeling self-blame include the following:

It can be one way your mind tries to make sense of what has happened, and to avoid overwhelming feelings ofanger,griefor betrayal.

It's how you've survived in an unsafe or stressful situation, such as living with someone who's harmed you.

You wish you could have done something differently at the time, even though you couldn't have.

Someone else blamed you for what happened or acted like it was your fault.

You were made to feel responsible for someone else's actions, even though they had power over you (this is sometimes called 'transfer of responsibility').

Even though self-blame can be very hard to cope with, it can be a way your mind tries to protect you, so it might take time and support to be able to start feeling differently. You might feel confused or overwhelmed if someone else says it wasn't your fault, although hearing this can also be a relief.

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Feelings of self-blame People who go through trauma sometimes feel as if they are to blame. This can cause very strong feelings of shame or guilt, even though it wasn't your fault. Reasons for feeling self-blame include the following: It can be one way your mind tries to make sense of what has happened, and to avoid overwhelming feelings ofanger,griefor betrayal.

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Culture shapes how childhood trauma is experienced, reported, and treated. Research shows trauma types like sexual abuse, neglect, and domestic violence vary across cultures. For example, Asian American children report more physical abuse but less sexual abuse, while neighborhood factors like poverty affect maltreatment rates among African American children. Understanding cultural context is key to effective trauma care.

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Cultural Perspectives on Trauma and Healing

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Cultural Perspectives on Trauma and Healing

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Trauma is universal, but each culture understands and heals from it differently. Western approaches often focus on individual therapy and diagnosis, while Indigenous, Eastern, African, Native American, Latin American, and Polynesian traditions emphasize community, spirituality, rituals, and balance. Traditional healing practices—like sweat lodges, meditation, herbal remedies, and ceremonies—reflect diverse paths to recovery that honor both the mind and spirit.

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Cultural Perspectives on Trauma and Healing - Mindful Synergi

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Explore how different cultures understand and address trauma through traditional healing practices from around the world.

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Culture, Development, Trauma and Socio-Cultural Responsive Interventions

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Culture, Development, Trauma and Socio-Cultural Responsive Interventions

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Understanding Immigrant Children’s Trauma Through a Cultural Lens

Immigrant children often face profound trauma from their experiences before, during, and after migration, including separation from family, exposure to violence, and the challenges of adapting to a new culture. They carry complex emotions—missing their home yet relieved to be away—and must navigate language barriers, discrimination, and fear about their future. Supporting these children requires a trauma-informed approach that respects their cultural background, language nuances, and unique vulnerabilities to help them feel safe, understood, and supported.

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Culture, Development, Trauma and Socio-Cultural Responsive Interventions with Youth Ages 7 and Older

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The impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing and adult behavior

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The impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing and adult behavior

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This study examined how childhood trauma survivors cope—through denial, false self-presentation, and substance use—and the effects on mental health, including depression and anxiety. It highlights the vital role of social support and professional help in healing. The research also notes limitations like a small sample and gender imbalance, suggesting areas for future study.

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Abstract

Background

This article looks at the impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing and adult behavior from the perspective of 9 clinical professionals in Ireland. It exhibits how physical, sexual and emotional abuse disrupts one's life through analyzing coping strategies and behaviors adopted by childhood trauma victims following adversity exposure.

Objectives

To examine if coping mechanisms such as denial, self- isolation, drug and alcohol abuse are associated with childhood trauma survivors. Correspondingly, this research investigates if symptoms related to depression and anxiety, sleep disturbance and low self-esteem are consequences of childhood trauma. The final objective explores possible correlations between resilience capacity and social class background. Upon this selection, the authors acknowledge that consequences and post-trauma symptoms can vary depending on numerous factors, including the type of abuse endured by victims.

Methods

Participants were recruited through convenience selection and snowball sampling. Individuals worked in social care, counselling, psychotherapy, psychology and support work. Seven females and two males participated in recorded semi-structured interviews. Six interviews were carried out via phone call and three were conducted face-to-face. Participants shared experiences about their client-based interactions. Participants were assigned a pseudonym to protect their identity.

Results

Within this study, childhood trauma survivors present alcohol and drug dependency issues, deny the negative impact their adversities have on their wellbeing (especially if it was inflicted by their parents), and construct a false self-image to cope rather than self-isolate. Early onset of trauma may contrive a low self-esteem and depression and anxiety can surface due to feelings of inadequacy. Sleep disturbance did not appear as a consequence of childhood trauma in this study. Social class was not an influential factor in mediating the type of traumatic experiences faced by individuals from different backgrounds. Financial circumstances did however, present as significant in impacting support-service availability. Interventions, treatment plans and social support emerged as crucial in enhancing resilience levels, reversing the onset of problematic behavior and psychiatric conditions.

Conclusion

Childhood trauma victims exhibit low self-esteem, and experience depression and anxiety. Some deny their trauma history, while others create a false self-image and engage in alcohol and drug misuse in attempts to prevent their traumatic experiences from impacting their life. Early interventions may reduce trauma symptoms alongside sufficient and customized treatment strategies.

Data for reference

Interview questions can be accessed via Zenodo: 10.5281/zenodo.4639706.

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The impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing and adult behavior

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This article looks at the impact of childhood trauma on children's wellbeing and adult behavior from the perspective of 9 clinical professionals in Ireland. It exhibits how physical, sexual and emotional abuse disrupts one's life through analyzing coping strategies and behaviors adopted by childhood trauma victims following adversity exposure.

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The Roots of Social Trauma: Collective, Cultural Pain and Its Consequences

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The Roots of Social Trauma: Collective, Cultural Pain and Its Consequences

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Cultural trauma happens when a group’s shared culture and identity are harmed by ongoing oppression from a dominant group. This trauma isn’t about physical places or objects but about the meanings, memories, and symbols that connect the group. It affects how the group sees itself and passes on a history of pain and exclusion. Cultural trauma limits access to power, status, and resources, and often leads to social isolation and stigma. Institutions like law and education can reinforce this harm by treating the group unfairly. This damage to culture deeply impacts mental health and how the group continues to survive and adapt.

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The Roots of Social Trauma: Collective, Cultural Pain and Its Consequences - Seth Abrutyn, 2024

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Since Kai Erikson’s landmark study of the devastation of five communities in West Virginia, sociology has leveraged the concept of trauma to describe certain so…

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Trauma-Informed Care and Cultural Humility in the Mental Health Care of People From Minoritized Communities

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Trauma-Informed Care and Cultural Humility in the Mental Health Care of People From Minoritized Communities

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Trauma is experienced differently across cultures, shaped by factors like race, ethnicity, history, and community values. Cultural beliefs influence how people understand, respond to, and heal from trauma. Trauma-informed care that respects cultural differences and practices cultural humility—an openness to learning from patients’ unique backgrounds—can improve healing and support. Traditional practices, family, and community often play key roles in recovery, especially in collectivist cultures.

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Insights into trauma awareness and prevention. It covers different types of trauma and their triggers, helping individuals recognize how past experiences shape behavior. The guide includes seven strategies for avoiding re-traumatization and introduces the De-Escalation Preferences Form—a tool for identifying triggers and calming techniques.

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Crisis Prevention Institute (CPI) | CPI Training | United States

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Crisis Prevention Institute (CPI) is an international training organization specializing in person-centered de-escalation and behavior management programs that help workplaces establish sustainable cultures of safety.

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Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care recognizes that culture shapes how trauma is experienced, understood, and healed. It means respecting families’ beliefs, values, and coping styles, and building trust by asking what trauma means to them. Care is guided by their cultural lens.

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What is Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care?
How does this complement culturally competent health care practice?
As in all pediatric care, Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care requires attention to be paid to a child's and family's values and beliefs about health and illness. What's unique is that attention must also be paid to cultural variations in the child's and family's experience of and response to trauma.

Research suggests that although there is a universal biological response to trauma, cultural factors can influence the biopsychosocial experience of trauma and subsequent traumatic stress reactions. Ethnocultural factors play an important role in an individual's vulnerability to, and experience and expression of traumatic stress, as well as one's response to trauma treatment.
What are the key components of Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care?
A culturally-sensitive, trauma-informed care provider can help traumatized children and families by:
How do I implement Culturally-Sensitive Trauma Informed Care?
Understanding perceptions of traumatic stress and the role of beliefs:
Research suggests that it is NOT the objective severity of the trauma, but how it is experienced by the child or parent that determines traumatic stress responses.

Cultural differences can exist in the perception and interpretation of the trauma event, the meaning given to the traumatic event and beliefs about control over the event.
Viewed through a cultural lens, a child's or family's subjective perceptions of the trauma experience can sometimes be quite different from a provider's.

For example, some cultures interpret illness and other trauma events as punishment, a test or rite of passage, or a special message.

The way a child or family interprets the meaning of the trauma will influence subsequent distress, reactions, and ways of coping.

Cultural differences can also exist in beliefs about if, when, and how to resolve traumatic stress symptoms, and about help-seeking and utilization of supportive resources outside their community

Remembering that some interpretations may differ from your own, it is best to ask children and families about what the trauma means to them, and incorporate those beliefs into assessment and treatment.

Restoring safety and re-establishing trust:
Trauma erodes a child's or family's sense of physical and emotional safety; promoting trust rebuilds it.

When a trauma occurs, children's and families' global beliefs about safety, vulnerability, responsibility, control, and appropriate ways of coping play a significant role regarding how the trauma impacts them.

Initially, many traumatized children and families can feel physically unsafe and emotionally vulnerable; they may have a difficult time trusting others or accepting help as a result.

Viewed through a cultural lens, some groups are less likely to trust health care providers with the details of the trauma, their symptoms, or treatment recommendations.

In these instances, providers should take a step back to assess how their helping role is perceived. Providers should also try to connect the family with resources they trust - including other types of professionals and traditional healers.

Safety and trust is established not only through words, but through actions.

Providers' cultural awareness and sensitivity help to create provider-patient interactions that build trust and promote optimal patient communication and adherence.

Beyond the words providers choose, some cultures are highly sensitive to nonverbal communication - including eye contact, tone of voice, facial expressions, body language and touch.

Culturally appropriate communication practices have been shown to result in higher levels of perceived trust and increased reporting of information.

Attending to distress:
Significant cultural variations exist in a child's or family's expression of distress.

Pain, fear, worry, or hyperarousal are sometimes expressed somatically. Traumatic stress reactions can be extremely subdued, can appear to be over-magnified, or can even mimic psychotic reactions. Often, family and cultural factors combine to define what is considered an appropriate reaction to illness or trauma.

Some families and cultural groups are less comfortable responding to personal questions about emotional distress. They may think that being distressed means that there is something mentally wrong.

What providers can do:

Provide psychoeducation about common, universal reactions to trauma.

Understand emotional reactions by asking about and responding to specific behaviors (sleep and eating patterns, jitters, etc.).

Listen to and incorporate the child's or family own terms for what they are experiencing into discussions and treatment planning.

Working within and through the family structure:
Some families and cultural groups have distinct customs about who makes decisions and how they are communicated.

These customs may lead to limitations on the child's or other family members' involvement in discussions and decisions.

Incorporating extended family and kinship networks, as well as other types of healing professionals and practices that the child and family view as helpful, may positively impact assessment and treatment.

Considerations in providing Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care
What considerations should I keep in mind in providing Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care? View RELATIONSHIPS through a Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed lens

Understand your role as a provider within this family's world.

Gain a better understanding of the roles and dynamics within this family.

Consider and facilitate the inclusion of others (extended family, clergy, healers) when treating patients.

View ASSESSMENT through a Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed lens

The manifestation and expression of psychological states differ depending on personal, familial, and cultural beliefs and practices.

Listen to and use the family's own terms during assessment and treatment planning

Trust in / comfort with the provider has been shown to be associated with increases in patient disclosure in some cultural groups.

View TREATMENT through a Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed lens

Healing comes in many different forms; your ideas, beliefs, and values may differ from the family's.

Be sure you have integrated the family's understanding of diagnosis, prognosis, and healing into your treatment planning.

Consider each family's resources and barriers to help-seeking and utilization of supportive services within the community.

Implementing Culturally-Sensitive Trauma- Informed Care with patients
How do I implement Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care in my own patient interactions? Culturally-sensitive care begins with the provider

CPTS designed the D-E-F protocol as a practical tool to guide health care providers in implementing trauma-informed pediatric care.

The cultural considerations component of the D-E-F protocol helps providers implement trauma informed care in a culturally-sensitive manner that considers a child and family's unique cultural beliefs, values, and practices.

Additional Resources:
The National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) website features various resources related to culture and trauma.

The National Center for PTSD (NCPTSD) website features a course module entitled PTSD: General Cross-Cultural Considerations.

Betancourt, J. R., Green, A. R., & Carrillo, J. E. (2002). Cultural competence in health care: Emerging frameworks and practical approaches: Field Report. Retrieved from www.commonwealthfund.org.

Davidhizar, R. (1999). Assessing culturally diverse pediatric clients. Pediatric Nursing, 25(4), 371-376.

Marsella, A. J., Friedman, M. J., Gerrity, E. T., & Scurfield, R. M. (1996). Ethnocultural aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues, research, and clinical applications. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

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Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care | Patient Centered Care and Trauma Informed Care for Pediatric Patients - HEALTHCARE TOOLBOX

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How does this complement culturally competent health care practice? As in all pediatric care, Culturally-Sensitive Trauma-Informed Care requires attention to be paid to a child's and family's values and beliefs about health and illness. What's unique is that attention must also be paid to cultural variations in the child's and family's experience of and response to trauma.

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Cultural beliefs about discipline, gender roles, and family honor can affect how abuse is recognized and reported. Stigma, mistrust of authorities, and language barriers may prevent children and families from speaking out. Teachers should be aware of these influences and approach concerns with sensitivity, understanding, and a focus on a students safety.

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Breaking Down Barriers: Navigating the Cultural Impact on Child Abuse Cases

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Cultural factors significantly influence the expression of child physical abuse and child sexual abuse, as well as the reporting and cooperation with authorities during investigations. Understanding these cultural nuances is essential for effective child abuse investigations worldwide.

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5 Steps to Creating a Trauma Informed Culture

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5 Steps to Creating a Trauma Informed Culture

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Trauma-Informed Care Starts with Us

ACEs impact how kids learn and behave. Trauma-Informed Care means creating safe, supportive spaces—but it starts with adults modeling those values too.

When leaders support staff, and staff support students, everyone thrives. It's not just what we believe—it’s what we do.

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5 Steps to Creating a Trauma Informed Culture

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Most people experience stress in their life. In some cases, the stress might be considered traumatic.

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Attachment styles shape the way we connect with others and manage closeness, conflict, and communication in relationships. Formed during early childhood, these patterns continue to influence how we interact in adult relationships—whether romantic, social, or even professional. Individuals with an anxious attachment style often fear rejection, seek constant reassurance, and tend to overanalyze their partner's actions. In contrast, those with an avoidant attachment style may struggle with emotional intimacy, pull away when others get close, and focus on their partner's flaws as a way to create distance. These patterns often repeat across relationships until they are recognized and addressed. Understanding your attachment style is the first step toward healing and building healthier, more secure connections.

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Discover how early childhood experiences with your parents impacts your ability to develop relationships as an adult.

Free Attachment Quiz

What is attachment?

Attachment is an emotional bond that forms in early childhood when we are 10 to 20 months old based on our parents' behavior. Unconscious patterns become set in place by the time we are two years old. Our attachment style is at the core of how we form adult relationships whether they are romantic or friendships.

What is an attachment disturbance?

An attachment disturbance is a dysfunctional relationship pattern that we repeat as adults. These patterns are a consequence of conditioning during early childhood from our parents or caregivers.

Why are we focused on treating attachment?

How an attachment disorder can manifest in relationships

03

Are you anxious in relationships?

Signs that you may be anxious:

Are you constantly thinking about how to make your partner happy?

Do you overthink your partner's words or actions until you spiral out of control?

Do you find it hard to trust your partner?

Do you cling to your relationship for happiness and purpose?

Discover My Attachment Style

04

Are you avoidant in relationships?

Indicators that you may be avoidant:

Are you looking for issues or flaws in your partner?

Do you always look for things that could go wrong in the relationship?

Do you pull away when your partner tries to get closer to you

Do you have a hard time being vulnerable with your partner?

Take Free Attachment Quiz

Discover Your Attachment Style in 5 Minutes

Not sure where to start? Let us help...

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The Attachment Project: Learn Attachment Theory from Experts

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Discover how early childhood experiences with your parents impacts your ability to develop relationships as an adult. Free Attachment Quiz Attachment is an emotional bond that forms in early childhood when we are 10 to 20 months old based on our parents' behavior. Unconscious patterns become set in place by the time we are two years old.

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Attachment Styles: How Do You Attach To Others?

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Attachment Styles: How Do You Attach To Others?

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Our attachment style, formed in early childhood, shapes how we connect in relationships. Secure attachment develops when caregivers are consistent and provide nurturing care. Insecure styles form from inconsistent, neglectful, or traumatic care. Anxious-preoccupied individuals often fear abandonment and seek constant reassurance. Dismissive-avoidant individuals value independence and tend to avoid emotional closeness. Fearful-avoidant (or disorganized) individuals struggle with both wanting intimacy and fearing it. Understanding your attachment style can help you break unhealthy patterns and build stronger, healthier connections.

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Attachment Styles: How Do You Attach To Others? - Sacred Humans Co.

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Guided journals + tools for healing, growth, and your spiritual journey.

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Disorganized Attachment Style: Traits and Ways to Cope

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Disorganized Attachment Style: Traits and Ways to Cope

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Disorganized attachment forms when a child's caregiver is also a source of fear, creating inner conflict and confusion. It often results from trauma, neglect, or a caregiver's unresolved issues. Children usually exhibit mixed signals, seeking closeness while also pulling away. As adults, they may fear both intimacy and abandonment, leading to unstable, confusing relationships.

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Disorganized attachment, also known as fearful-avoidant, is an insecure attachment style characterized by a fear of close relationships.

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Parental Attachment And Children’s Emotion Regulation: Meta-Analytic Review

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Parental Attachment And Children’s Emotion Regulation: Meta-Analytic Review

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Analysis has found that securely attached children exhibit better emotional regulation, more positive emotions, and healthier coping mechanisms. In contrast, insecure attachments (avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized) are associated with emotional difficulties, including increased negative emotions and poor emotional regulation. The findings suggest that early attachment security supports emotional development, and tailored interventions to improve attachment may help children develop stronger emotional skills.

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Parental Attachment & Children’s Emotion Regulation: A Meta-Analytic Review

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Attachment theory proposes that parent-child attachment relationships shape children’s emotional development.

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How Anxious Ambivalent Attachment Develops in Children

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How Anxious Ambivalent Attachment Develops in Children

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Children with anxious-ambivalent attachment often feel insecure and overly dependent on caregivers. They show extreme distress when separated but may resist comfort when reunited. This can result from inconsistent caregiving and may lead to anxiety or emotional difficulties. Support through consistent routines, emotional validation, and gentle encouragement helps build trust and resilience.

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Children who have an anxious-ambivalent attachment style are described as being distressed when their caregiver leaves them but are then inconsolable on their return. Anxious-ambivalent children fear abandonment but cannot trust their caregiver to be consistent.

Anxious-ambivalent attachment is one of the insecure attachment styles proposed by John Bowlby in the 1950s.

Anxious-ambivalent attached is believed to be a rarer type, comprising 7-15% of most American infants (Cassidy & Berlin, 1994).

Bowlby proposed that children develop an attachment style in early life depending on the parenting of their primary caregiver.

Individuals with an anxious-ambivalent attachment may hold a negative self-image and a positive image of others, meaning that they can have a sense of unworthiness but generally evaluate others positively.

As such, they strive for self-acceptance by attempting to gain approval and validation from their relationships with significant others. They may also require higher levels of contact and intimacy in relationships with others.

A child with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style may express that their peers do not want to be good friends with them as much as they want to be good friends with them. They may also be afraid that others do not love them or believe that other children avoid them (Grady et al., 2021).

Additionally, they are preoccupied with dependency on their parents and still actively struggle to please them.

Some of the key traits that a child may have an anxious-ambivalent attachment style include:

Clinging to caregivers

A fear of strangers

Extreme distress when separated from their caregivers

Inconsolable when upset - not easily comforted

Poor relationships with other children

Limited exploration of their environment

Difficulty regulating and controlling negative emotions

Appearing anxious in general

Signs of Ambivalent Attachment

Children with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style express distress when their caregiver leaves and are difficult to soothe when they return.

The child is often uncertain whether they can rely upon the caregiver and may resent being abandoned.

An anxious-ambivalent child may never know whether their caregiver will respond to them or not. Thus, they learn that love and support will not always be there for them.

Anxious at separation

A child who is anxious-ambivalent finds it very difficult to let go of their caregivers at times of separation.

They may refuse to go to school or be cared for by anyone other than their primary caregiver and display extreme signs of distress when separation occurs.

It is common for children with an anxious-ambivalent attachment to develop separation anxiety disorder (SAD). This is an anxiety disorder generally diagnosed in early childhood.

Children with SAD may refuse to go to school for fear of being separated from their caregivers and experience extreme anxiety when they are separated.

Rejecting of caregiver

Despite being anxious at separation, the child often rejects the caregiver when they return to the child.

The child may feel hurt, rejected, and angry, holding onto this sadness no matter what comfort comes from the caregiver. The child may not make eye contact upon the caregiver's return.

The anxious-ambivalent child may be very hard to please, and nothing anyone does is right for them.

Limited exploration

Anxious-ambivalent children are often insecure about exploring their world. They may find it hard to go off and play on their own without seeking constant reassurance and attention from their caregiver.

In the school playground, the anxious-ambivalent child may choose to stand close to the teacher rather than go off to play with other children since this feels safer. Thus, they may appear unsociable and find it hard to make friends with peers.

Attention-seeking

Children who are anxious-ambivalent are likely to have many emotional outbursts. In an attempt to remain connected to their caregiver, the child may have to rely on emotional strategies as a way to seek attention (Grady et al., 2021).

At school, the child is often person-focused rather than task-focused. They may spend much of their time in class trying to talk to others and the teacher rather than on their work.

They may be so concerned with trying to gain and maintain the attention of the adults that they may also struggle to focus and absorb instructions, and they may repeatedly ask questions to ensure they have been noticed.

Once they have their caregiver's attention, they are usually unwilling to let them go for fear that they will not get them back. Therefore, they often appear very clingy.

Reliance on others

Anxious-ambivalent children are often too anxious to do anything alone and may constantly ask for help. This can include always wanting to have a safe person with them wherever they go.

Moreover, these children are not able to regulate their own needs and may often rely on others to regulate them.

Cause of Ambivalent Attachment

What parenting causes ambivalent attachment?

While it may not always be clear why a child may develop an ambivalent attachment style, it is often a result of the parenting by the caregivers.

Some of the possible ways in which parenting styles can cause an ambivalent attachment style include the following:

Inconsistent parenting

Those with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style are thought to have experienced caregivers who are inconsistent and unpredictable (Grady et al., 2021).

Parenting is inconsistent when there are times of support and responsiveness to the child's needs, but not at other times. At other times, the caregiver may be cold, insensitive, or emotionally unavailable.

The child may become confused about their relationship with a caregiver who is always sending them mixed signals.

This inconsistency can make it difficult for the child to predict what their parent's behavior is going to be at any given time, resulting in elevated insecurity and anxiety.

Emotional distance

A caregiver who is emotionally distant or neglectful can leave a child feeling insecure and unstable. If a caregiver is not meeting the emotional needs of the child, especially when they are distressed or anxious, these feelings are likely to worsen.

If a caregiver is neglectful of a child's needs, the child is likely to develop an insecure attachment style.

Intrusive parenting

An intrusive caregiver is one who gives intrusive attention to their child.

They have poor emotional boundaries, intrude on the child's state of mind, and can be overbearing. The child may feel smothered by the caregiver and that they do not have enough room to grow or be themselves.

Intrusive parenting can also include mirroring the child. This is where the caregiver reflects on how the child is feeling, amplifying the child's negative reaction rather than soothing it. For instance, if a child is anxious, the caregiver becomes anxious; when the child cries, the caregiver also cries.

Caregiver's 'emotional hunger'

When caregivers seek emotional or physical closeness with the child for the purpose of satisfying their own needs, this is known as fulfilling their 'emotional hunger.'

If the caregiver is using the child to satisfy their own needs, they may be neglecting the child's emotional and physical needs. These types of caregivers can also appear intrusive and preoccupied with their child's life. They may also replace actual love and affection for their child with using the child to feed their own needs.

The child, therefore, does not get their needs met and may go on to put everyone else's needs above their own as they get older since this is what they have been used to doing.

Anxious-ambivalent caregivers

It is likely that if a child has an anxious-ambivalent attachment style, their caregiver also has this attachment style.

This is not likely due to genetic reasons; rather, it is a continuation of behavioral patterns repeated throughout generations.

Without addressing the insecure attachment of the child, they may grow up to have a child who is also anxious-ambivalent.

Attachment theory was proposed by psychologist John Bowlby in the 1950s. He proposed that children develop an attachment style in early life depending on the parenting of the primary caregiver.

The concept involves one's confidence in the availability of the attachment figure for use as a secure base from which one can freely explore the world when not in distress as well as a safe haven from which one can seek support, protection, and comfort in times of distress.

Bowlby argued that one's sense of security as a child is critical to attachment style as an adult.

It is generally accepted that there are four attachment styles (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978):

Ambivalent - also known as anxious attachment, children with this style have problems trusting others. They often worry that people will abandon them so that they may be clingy or needy with others.

Avoidant - this attachment style is characterized by problems with intimacy and low emotional investment in relationships.

Secure - this is characterized by feelings of trust and safety in relationships. Children who are securely attached feel safe and supported by their caregivers. Securely attached adults are capable of forming lasting relationships.

Disorganized - this is marked by a mix of behavior that can range from avoidance to clinginess. People with this attachment style often long for close relationships but fear trusting others and getting hurt (Main & Solomon, 1986).

The attachment style you develop in early childhood is thought to have a lifelong influence on your ability to communicate your emotions and needs, respond to conflict, and form expectations about your relationships.

Although the attachment style you were raised with does not explain everything about your relationships and who you become as an adult, understanding your style may help explain patterns you notice in relationships.

Frequently Asked Questions

How can a caregiver support a child to become more secure?

There is no perfect way to parent a child, and there may be many obstacles to navigate around. Raising a securely attached child can depend entirely on the child and caregiver.

However, there are five areas that Brown and Elliot (2016) have indicated key areas caregivers should strive for:

1. Ensuring the child feels safe
2. Making sure the child feels seen and known
3. Comforting the child
4. Valuing the child
5. Ensuring the child feels supported for being their best self

Are attachment styles universally accepted?

It is worth bearing in mind that much of the foundational research on attachment theory is based on American samples.

For instance, Mary Ainsworth's class study of The Strange Situation (1970) used only American infants - the findings of which were generalized to explain attachment for all infants.

This is a type of ethnocentric research. While the American standard for what is considered 'secure attachment' may present a certain way, this may not be how it presents in other cultures.

What are anxious-ambivalent adults like in romantic relationships?

Adults who have an anxious-ambivalent attachment style may present as clingy in their romantic relationships.

They may crave emotional intimacy with a partner but are anxious that others do not want to be with them. They may also find it hard to accept boundaries and become panicked or fearful if their partner is not around.

Likewise, they may have low self-esteem and find it hard to accept that their partner loves them, and may struggle with trust issues.

Are anxious-ambivalent children at higher risk of developing anxiety?

Compared to children who were securely attached in infancy, children who are anxious-ambivalent may have higher levels of school phobia and social phobia later in childhood (Bar-Haim et al., 2007).

Likewise, those with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style as an infant may be at a higher risk of being diagnosed with an anxiety disorder in late adolescence (Warren et al., 1997).

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Baldwin, M.W., & Fehr, B. (1995). On the instability of attachment style ratings. Personal Relationships, 2, 247-261.

Bar-Haim, Y., Dan, O., Eshel, Y., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2007). Predicting children's anxiety from early attachment relationships. Journal of anxiety disorders, 21(8), 1061-1068.

Bartholomew, K., & Horowitz, L.M. (1991). Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test of a Four-Category Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61 (2), 226-244.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Volume I. Attachment. London: Hogarth Press.

Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L., & Shaver, P. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In J. A. Simpson & W. S. Rholes (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (p. 46-76). The Guilford Press.

Brennan, K. A., & Shaver, P. R. (1995). Dimensions of adult attachment, affect regulation, and romantic relationship functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 (3), 267-283.

Brown, D. P., Elliott, D. S. (2016). Attachment Disturbances in Adults: Treatment for Comprehensive Repair. New York: W.W. Norton.

Caron, A., Lafontaine, M., Bureau, J., Levesque, C., and Johnson, S.M. (2012). Comparisons of Close Relationships: An Evaluation of Relationship Quality and Patterns of Attachment to Parents, Friends, and Romantic Partners in Young Adults. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 44 (4), 245-256.

Cassidy, J., & Berlin, L. J. (1994). The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Child development, 65 (4), 971-991.

Finzi, R., Cohen, O., Sapir, Y., & Weizman, A. (2000). Attachment styles in maltreated children: A comparative study. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 31 (2), 113-128.

Grady, M. D., Yoder, J., & Brown, A. (2021). Childhood maltreatment experiences, attachment, sexual offending: Testing a theory. Journal of interpersonal violence, 36(11-12), NP6183-NP6217.

Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (3), 511-524.

Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. In I. Bretherton & E. Waters (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1-2), 66-104.

Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In T. B. Brazelton & M. W. Yogman (Eds.), Affective development in infancy. Ablex Publishing.

Warren, S. L., Huston, L., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(5), 637-644.

Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71 (3), 684-689.

Further Information
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological inquiry, 5(1), 1-22. McCarthy, G. (1999). Attachment style and adult love relationships and friendships: A study of a group of women at risk of experiencing relationship difficulties. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 72(3), 305-321. Greater Good Magazine of Berkeley University of California. How to stop attachment insecurity from ruining your love life. BPS Article- Overrated: The predictive power of attachment How Attachment Style Changes Through Multiple Decades Of Life Saul Mcleod, PhD
Educator, Researcher

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How Anxious Ambivalent Attachment Develops in Children

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Children who have an anxious-ambivalent attachment style are described as being distressed when their caregiver leaves them but are then inconsolable on their

# data[].attributes.headline
What We Need To Know To Assess Children’s Attachment Relationships

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What We Need To Know To Assess Children’s Attachment Relationships

# data[].attributes.body
Standard attachment assessments, like the Strange Situation, focus on mother-child relationships and assume universality. However, research shows that caregiving structures vary widely across cultures, often involving multiple attachment figures such as grandparents and siblings. This challenges the validity of applying Western-based methods universally and underscores the need for culturally informed approaches to attachment assessment.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What we Need to Know to Assess Children’s Attachment Relationships

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The study revealed differences in caregiving practices, with the urban sample resembling Western middle-class contexts emphasizing the maternal importance; the two rural samples showing extensive caregiving networks; however, differently composed. Moreover, the three samples revealed culturally specific concepts of potential attachment figures.

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How to Implement Trauma-informed Care to Build Resilience to Childhood Trauma

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How to Implement Trauma-informed Care to Build Resilience to Childhood Trauma

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Children exposed to trauma face increased risks for long-term challenges, but trauma-informed care (TIC) can build resilience. TIC involves all adults in a child’s life recognizing trauma’s impact, responding with supportive practices, and avoiding re-traumatization. Supportive relationships, safe environments, and caregiver training are key to healing. Though research is ongoing, TIC shows promise in improving outcomes for children and the adults who care for them.

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Despite its focus on trauma, TIC is inherently a strengths-based perspective that emphasizes resilience instead of pathology.[50] TIC has been defined and implemented in a number of ways, but the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration has identified four key elements-the Four Rs (see description of each "R" below)-that can be used broadly across programs, institutions, and services.[51]

Applying TIC to real-world settings begins with a child's first contact with a program, institution, or service system. It requires a comprehensive and multi-pronged effort involving the many adults in children's lives. For example, in a school or afterschool program, TIC means increasing trauma-related knowledge and skills among program facilitators, school administrators, bus drivers, food service workers, classroom assistants, administrative staff, volunteers, teachers, leadership, special education professionals, school social workers and psychologists, families, and anyone else who comes into contact with children. However, increasing trauma knowledge is only one aspect of TIC, which also means that the individuals who care for children must be able to:

1. Realize the widespread nature of childhood trauma and how it impacts the child's emotional, social, behavioral, cognitive, brain, and physical development, as well as their mental health. In addition, adults must be aware of the influence of trauma on family members, first responders, service providers, and others who may experience secondary stress (trauma-related reactions to exposure to another person's traumatic experience).[52],[53] In some instances, adults endure the same traumatic events or circumstances as the child (e.g., a natural disaster, community violence, death of a community member) and may benefit from similar supports.

2. Recognize the symptoms of trauma, including how trauma reactions (i.e., symptoms of posttraumatic stress) vary by gender, age, type of trauma, or setting. In addition, the adults in children's lives must understand that a child's challenging behaviors are normal, self-protective, and adaptive reactions to highly stressful situations, rather than viewing that child as intentionally misbehaving. Children's trauma reactions are understood to be adaptive efforts to protect themselves in response to traumatic events. For example, a child may be hypervigilant to an adult's anger or disapproval because, in the past, he or she experienced physical abuse by a parent. Or, a child may disassociate or daydream as a learned response that enables them to avoid feeling or thinking about a traumatic experience.[54] In addition, TIC means recognizing that trauma may influence a child's engagement in activities and services, interactions with peers and adults, and responsiveness to rules and guidelines.[55]

3. Respond by making necessary adjustments, in their own language and behavior, to the child's environment; and to policies, procedures, and practices to support the child's recovery and resilience to trauma.[56]

4. Resist re-traumatization by actively shaping children's environments to avoid triggers (sounds, sights, smells, objects, places, or people that remind an individual of the original trauma) and protect children from further trauma, which can exacerbate the negative impacts of trauma and interfere with the healing process.[57],[58]

Training and professional development on child trauma is an important first step in TIC. Providing adults (staff, leadership, families, and community partners) with training and professional development on childhood trauma is an important component of implementing TIC.[59] It is essential that adults become aware of the prevalence and impact of trauma, and learn to apply a "trauma lens" (i.e., gain the capacity to view children's difficulties in behavior, learning, and relationships as natural reactions to trauma that warrant understanding and sensitive care).[60] In addition, adults can learn key strategies to manage trauma-related problems in childhood. These include creating environments that feel physically and emotionally safe; teaching children self-regulation, language and communication skills, and how to build healthy relationships; learning each child's trauma triggers and how both the child and adults can limit, anticipate, and cope with them; and supporting the development of healthy attachments with parents and other caregivers, as well as positive relationships with peers. Evaluations of TIC initiatives also indicate that when parents, service providers, and programs share a common language and view of trauma, they are better able to work together to meet children's needs.[61]

Training and professional development opportunities are also important for increasing the capacity of adults to attend to other aspects of TIC, including family engagement; practices that are responsive to culture, gender, and sexual orientation; collaboration with community service providers (e.g., mental health providers who can screen for childhood trauma and provide evidence-based treatment); developing and integrating emergency and crisis response protocols; and establishing trauma-informed policies that support positive youth development despite exposure to trauma. Building capacity and maintaining an ongoing commitment to TIC efforts are critical to sustainability.[62], [63] However, although it is a critical component of TIC, training staff and parents on the impact of childhood trauma is not sufficient and does not in and of itself constitute TIC. TIC must also include comprehensive, ongoing professional development and education for parents, families, school staff, out-of-school program staff, and community service providers on jointly addressing childhood trauma.

Parents and service providers who work with children who experience trauma require self-care to prevent and mitigate the effects of secondary traumatic stress. TIC also means attending to the psychological and physical safety and well-being of the adults who care for children who have experienced trauma.[64], [65] Professionals, parents, and other caregiving adults may suffer secondary traumatic stress (trauma-related reactions to exposure to another person's traumatic experience).[66],[67] Psychoeducation (helping others understand the impact of trauma, both on affected individuals and on their service providers, as well as pathways toward recovery),[68] skills training, high-quality supervision, and self-care (e.g., rest, exercise, social support, mindfulness and other stress reduction activities, engaging in pleasurable activities and hobbies, psychotherapy) are critical to ensuring adult well-being and providing sufficient personal resources to work effectively with children who are exposed to trauma. See Figure 4 for specific strategies recommended by the National Child Traumatic Stress Network to combat secondary traumatic stress and reduce related staff burnout and turnover.[69]

Further research is needed on TIC in child-serving programs, institutions, and systems to develop a sufficient evidence base to inform policy and practice. TIC is a relatively new framework for working with individuals who experience trauma, and the evidence base in support of its effectiveness is in the early stages of development. However, a number of promising TIC initiatives in early care and education, schools, child welfare, and behavioral health have demonstrated improvements in trauma-related knowledge and skills among service providers, foster parents, and family members; reductions in children's posttraumatic stress symptoms and problem behaviors; and increases in children's strengths and protective factors.[70],[71],[72],[73],[74] In addition, a growing number of clinical treatment models-including Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,[75],[76] Child-Parent Psychotherapy,[77],[78] Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-up,[79],[80] and Parent-Child Interaction Therapy,[81],[82] -have undergone rigorous evaluation and shown positive outcomes for children from infancy to late adolescence. However, TIC is not limited to mental health professionals. Each child-serving program, institution, or service system can play a role in TIC, including referral to clinical treatment and follow-up with families.

Conclusion

Trauma-informed programs, institutions, and service systems are critical to promoting and fostering resilience in all children, and particularly those who have experienced trauma. TIC requires comprehensive, multi-pronged support from adults in all aspects of children's lives. It includes increasing adults' knowledge of childhood trauma and helping them recognize the symptoms, as well as giving them the resources to support and refer children who have experienced trauma to appropriate services. Additionally, as programs make their services more trauma-informed, it is important that they promote self-care to prevent or address secondary trauma among adults working with children who have experienced trauma.
Endnotes
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[2] Enlow, M., Blood, E., & Egeland, B. (2013). Sociodemographic risk, developmental competence, and PTSD symptoms in young children exposed to interpersonal trauma in early life. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(6), 686-694.

[3] Lieberman (2004). Traumatic stress and quality of attachment: Reality and internalization in disorders of infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 25(4), 336-351.

[5] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. SAMHSA's concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. HHS publication no. (SMA) 14-4884. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

[10] National Survey of Children's Health. (2011/12). Data query from the Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative, Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health website. Retrieved June 8, 2018 from www.childhealthdata.org.

[11] U.S Department of Health & Human Services Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. (2019). Child maltreatment 2017. Washington, DC: Children's Bureau. Retrieved June 8, 2018 from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/child-maltreatment-2017

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[13] U.S. Department of Health & Human Services Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau. (2019).

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How to Implement Trauma-informed Care to Build Resilience to Childhood Trauma - Child Trends

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Despite its focus on trauma, TIC is inherently a strengths-based perspective that emphasizes resilience instead of pathology.[50] TIC has been defined and implemented in a number of ways, but the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration has identified four key elements-the Four Rs (see description of each "R" below)-that can be used broadly across programs, institutions, and services.[51] Applying TIC to real-world settings begins with a child's first contact with a program, institution, or service system.

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The Healing Power of Play: Supporting Children Impacted by Traumatic Events

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The Healing Power of Play: Supporting Children Impacted by Traumatic Events

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Following traumatic events like wildfires or loss, play offers children a powerful path to healing. It helps reduce stress, build emotional resilience, and restore a sense of normalcy. Activities like art, movement, sensory play, and roleplay allow children to safely express emotions and regain control. Digital tools and family involvement can further support recovery. Play isn’t just fun—it’s essential for helping children process trauma and feel safe again.

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The Healing Power of Play: Supporting Children Impacted by Traumatic Events - The Good Play Guide

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Discover how play helps children process trauma, rebuild resilience, and find emotional stability

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Children’s problems include adapting to a new classroom, bullying by classmates, or abuse at home, but resilience is the ability to thrive despite these challenges.

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Resilience guide for parents and teachers

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Resilience guide for parents and teachers

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Children face numerous challenges, including bullying, academic stress, and family struggles; however, resilience is the ability to adapt and thrive despite adversity. Parents and teachers can help build resilience by fostering connection, encouraging routines, supporting emotional expression, and teaching self-care. Children benefit from being heard, feeling safe, setting achievable goals, and maintaining hope. Resilience manifests differently at each stage of life, from play and closeness in early childhood to perspective-taking and honest communication in adolescence. With guidance and support, all children can develop the strength to overcome challenges and grow from difficult experiences.

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Children's problems include adapting to a new classroom, bullying by classmates, or abuse at home, but resilience is the ability to thrive despite these challenges.

Cite this

American Psychological Association. (2012, January 24). Resilience guide for parents and teachers. https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience/guide-parents-teachers

We tend to idealize childhood as a carefree time, but youth alone offers no shield against the emotional hurts, challenges, and traumas many children face. Children can be asked to deal with problems ranging from adapting to a new classroom or online schooling to bullying by peers or even struggles at home. Add to that the uncertainties that are part of growing up in a complex world, and childhood can be anything but carefree. The ability to thrive despite these challenges arises from the skills of resilience.
The good news is that resilience skills can be learned.
Building resilience-the ability to adapt well to adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or even significant sources of stress-can help our children manage stress and feelings of anxiety and uncertainty. However, being resilient does not mean that children won't experience difficulty or distress. Emotional pain, sadness, and anxiety are common when we have suffered major trauma or personal loss, or even when we hear of someone else's loss or trauma.

10 tips for building resilience in children and teens

1. Make connections
Teach your child the importance of engaging and connecting with their peers, including the skill of empathy and listening to others. Find ways to help children foster connectivity by suggesting they connect to peers in-person or through phone, video chats, and texts. It's also important to build a strong family network. Connecting with others provides social support and strengthens resilience.

2. Help your child by having them help others
Children who may feel helpless can feel empowered by helping others. Engage your child in age-appropriate volunteer work or ask for assistance yourself with tasks that they can master. At school, brainstorm with children about ways they can help others in their class or in grades below.

3. Maintain a daily routine
Sticking to a routine can be comforting to children, especially younger children who crave structure in their lives. Work with your child to develop a routine, and highlight times that are for school work and play. Particularly during times of distress or transition, you might need to be flexible with some routines. At the same time, schedules and consistency are important to maintain.

4. Take a break
While some anxiety can motivate us to take positive action, we also need to validate all feelings. Teach your child how to focus on something that they can control or can act on. Help by challenging unrealistic thinking by asking them to examine the chances of the worst case scenario and what they might tell a friend who has those worries. Be aware of what your child is exposed to that can be troubling, whether it's through the news, online, or overheard conversations. Although schools are being held accountable for performance or required to provide certain instruction, build in unstructured time during the school day to allow children to be creative.

5. Teach your child self-care
Teach your child the importance of basic self-care. This may be making more time to eat properly, exercise, and get sufficient sleep. Make sure your child has time to have fun, and participate in activities they enjoy. Caring for oneself and even having fun will help children stay balanced and better deal with stressful times.

6. Move toward your goals
Teach your child to set reasonable goals and help them to move toward them one step at a time. Establishing goals will help children focus on a specific task and can help build the resilience to move forward in the face of challenges. At school, break down large assignments into small, achievable goals for younger children, and for older children, acknowledge accomplishments on the way to larger goals.

7. Nurture a positive self-view
Help your child remember ways they have successfully handled hardships in the past and help them understand that these past challenges help build the strength to handle future challenges. Help your child learn to trust themselves to solve problems and make appropriate decisions. At school, help children see how their individual accomplishments contribute to the wellbeing of the class as a whole.

8. Keep things in perspective and maintain a hopeful outlook
Even when your child is facing very painful events, help them look at the situation in a broader context and keep a long-term perspective. Although your child may be too young to consider a long-term look on their own, help them see that there is a future beyond the current situation and that the future can be good. An optimistic and positive outlook can enable children to see the good things in life and keep going even in the hardest times. In school, use history to show that life moves forward after bad events, and the worst things are specific and temporary.

9. Look for opportunities for self-discovery
Tough times are often when children learn the most about themselves. Help your child take a look at how whatever they're facing can teach them "what am I made of." At school, consider leading discussions of what each student has learned after facing a tough situation.

10. Accept change
Change often can be scary for children and teens. Help your child see that change is part of life and new goals can replace goals that have become unattainable. It is important to examine what is going well, and to have a plan of action for what is not going well. In school, point out how students have changed as they moved up in grade levels and discuss how that change has had an impact on the students.

Resilience and preschool children

Very young children will only recently have mastered the skills of walking and talking, and they may not be able to express their anxieties and fears. Although you may think they are too young to understand what is happening, even very young children can absorb frightening events from the news or from conversations they overhear.

Watch your children for signs of fear and sadness they may not be able to put into words. Have your children become extra clingy or needing more hugs than usual? Have your children started old habits after you thought they had outgrown the behavior? Are they suddenly more irritable? They may be feeling the pressure of what is going on in the world around them. Use play to help your children express their fears and encourage them to use art or pretend games to express what they may not be able to put into words.

Use family time like a security blanket for your children: wrap them up in family closeness and make sure your children have lots of family time. During times of stress and change, spend more time with your children playing games, reading to them, or just holding them close.

Resilience and elementary school children

Elementary school children may be starting to form new friend groups and participate in new activities as they come into their own. As they start to study subjects about the world outside of their homes, they look to teachers as well as to parents to make them feel safe and to help sort it all out.

Make sure your child has a place where they can feel safe, whether that is home or school (ideally, both would feel safe).

Talk to your children. When they have questions, answer them honestly and with reassurance that includes simple statements that let them know you are taking actions to keep them safe and are there to take care of them. Listen to their concerns and fears when they address them with you and let them know you are there for them.

When there is a situation outside of the home that is frightening, limit the amount of news your children watch or listen to. There is always the possibility that they misinterpret what they see or hear on the news. You don't need to hide what's happening in the world from your children, but neither do they have to be exposed to constant stories that fuel their fears. Check in on their understanding of what they have been exposed to.

Realize that extra stressors may heighten normal daily stresses. Your children might normally be able to handle a failed test or teasing, but be understanding that they may respond with anger or bad behavior to stress that normally wouldn't rattle them. Reassure them that you just want what is best for them and that you are there for them.

Resilience and middle school children

Even without larger traumas, middle school can be an especially difficult time for many children as they struggle to meet extra academic demands and avoid new social pitfalls. They look to teachers and friends as well as to parents to make them feel safe.

Reinforce empathy and help your child keep perspective. If your child falls into the shifting of social groups that form in middle school, help them understand that other children may be feeling just as lonely and confused, and help them to see beyond the current situation.

Talk with your child about your own feelings during times of extraordinary stress. Your children may be old enough to appreciate hearing about your own thoughts and feelings, but also the ways in which you cope. Share how the ways you cope are helpful to you, but also find techniques that may benefit your child.

Resilience and high schoolers

Although your teens may tower over you, they still are young and can keenly feel the fear and uncertainty of both the normal stresses of being a teen, as well as events in the world around them. Emotions may be volatile and close to the surface during teen years, and finding the best way to connect to your teen can be difficult.

Talk with them whenever you can, even if it seems they don't want to talk. Sometimes the best time to talk may be when you are in the car together; sometimes it may be when you are doing chores together, allowing your teen to focus on something else while they talk. When they have questions, answer them honestly but with reassurance. Ask them their opinion about what is happening and listen to their answers.

Find a place that your teen can create as their safe place, whether it's their bedroom or somewhere they find comfort. In high school, emotions can intensify, and rejection, taunting, or bullying can also be present. A space of their own can serve as a constant and a place for them to have as their own. Your children may prefer to be with their friends rather than spend time with you, but be ready to provide lots of family time for them when they need it and set aside family time that includes their friends.

When stressful things are happening in the world at large, encourage your teen to take "news breaks," whether they are getting news from the television, magazines or newspapers, or online. Use what they're seeing and hearing as a catalyst for discussion. Teens may act like they feel immortal, but at bottom they still want to know that everything will be ok. Having honest discussions of your fears and expectations can help your high schooler learn to express their own fears. If your teen struggles with words, encourage them to use journaling or art to express emotions.

Many teens are already feeling extreme highs and lows because of hormonal levels in their bodies; added stress or trauma can make these shifts seem more extreme. Be understanding of feelings and emotions, but also be firm when teens respond to stress with angry or sullen behavior. Reassure your child that they will be ok and you are looking out for their best interest

The journey of resilience

Developing resilience is a personal journey, and you should use your knowledge of your own children to guide them on their journey. An approach to building resilience that works for you or your child might not work for someone else.

If your child seems stuck or overwhelmed and unable to use these tips, you may want to consider talking to someone who can help, such as a psychologist or other mental health professional. Turning to someone for guidance may help your child strengthen resilience and persevere during times of stress or trauma.

Acknowledgments

APA gratefully acknowledges the following experts: Mary K. Alvord, PhD, Robin Gurwitch, PhD, Jana Martin, PhD, and Ronald S. Palomares, PhD.

Information presented here should not be used as a substitute for professional health and mental health care or consultation. Individuals who believe they may need or benefit from care should consult a psychologist or other licensed health/mental health professional.

Recommended Reading

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Resilience guide for parents and teachers

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Children's problems include adapting to a new classroom, bullying by classmates or abuse at home, but resilience is the ability to thrive despite these challenges.

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Resilience is the ability to adapt well in the face of adversity, trauma, or stress, and it's a skill anyone can develop. The APA emphasizes four key components for building resilience: connection, wellness, purpose, and healthy thinking. Strategies include nurturing supportive relationships, practicing mindfulness and self-care, setting small achievable goals, embracing change, and learning from past experiences. Resilience isn't about avoiding pain but about growing through it. With time, reflection, and support from loved ones or professionals, individuals can emerge from challenges stronger and more empowered than they were before.

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We all face trauma, adversity and other stresses. Here’s a roadmap for adapting to life-changing situations, and emerging even stronger than before.

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Trauma causes biological changes in the nervous system, often leaving it in a state of constant activation, survival mode, regardless of the environment. This overactivation can lead to anxiety, disrupted sleep, and difficulty regulating emotions or bodily functions. The fight, flight, or freeze responses are automatic reactions to perceived danger and can persist long after the trauma has occurred. Treatments like Dual Sympathetic Reset (DSR), which utilizes Stellate Ganglion Block (SGB), target these biological roots by calming the nervous system and restoring balance. This innovative approach has shown significant success in reducing symptoms like PTSD, anxiety, and depression.

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Stella | How Does Trauma Affect the Nervous System? Expert Insights & Solutions

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Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD) occurs when the brain has difficulty receiving and responding to information from the senses. Children with SPD may be overly sensitive (avoiding noise, touch, or light) or under-responsive (constantly seeking movement or pressure). These challenges can impact behavior, learning, and emotional regulation. SPD is standard in children with autism, but it can affect others as well. Support includes occupational therapy, sensory diets, and environmental adjustments to help children feel safe and function better at home and school.

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How Trauma Impacts the Brain and Emotional Well-Being - Supportive Care

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Trauma affects the brain by altering the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, leading to heightened fear responses, memory difficulties, and emotional dysregulation. These changes can result in anxiety, depression, and PTSD. ￼

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Sensory Processing and Behavioral Implications for Children Who Have Experienced Maltreatment

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Sensory Processing and Behavioral Implications for Children Who Have Experienced Maltreatment

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This study explored how trauma affects sensory processing and behavior in children ages 0–15. Out of 476 participants with trauma histories, over 45% showed significant sensory avoidance. These children also exhibited higher rates of behavioral challenges. The research underscores the link between trauma and sensory difficulties, highlighting the need for trauma-sensitive, sensory-informed care in supporting affected children.

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Sensory Processing and Behavioral Implications for Children Who Have Experienced Maltreatment

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Maltreatment harms the developing brain, and more work is needed to understand the affect on sensory processing. This chart review included a trauma screen to capture the type of trauma experienced…

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Developmental trauma refers to repeated early trauma, such as neglect, abuse, or attachment disruption, that impacts a child’s brain and emotional development. Even infants and unborn babies can be affected if exposed to violence, neglect, or maternal stress. This trauma can lead to sensory sensitivities, emotional dysregulation, poor self-concept, behavioral outbursts, and problems with learning, relationships, and identity.

Traumatized children often live in a constant state of fight, flight, or freeze, even in safe environments, making everyday tasks feel threatening. They may struggle with attention, memory, emotions, or trust. Healing is possible through consistent, secure relationships and strategies like co-regulation, sensory activities, and emotional repair. With the right support, a child's brain can recover and develop new pathways for resilience.

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Assessing Complex Trauma in Young Children
Complex trauma in infants and young children involves repeated exposure to harm, often in relationships, and can severely impact emotional, behavioral, and physical development. Early, accurate assessment is critical and should examine trauma history, developmental delays, caregiver relationships, and trauma-related symptoms. Best practices include using behavioral observations, interviews, and standardized tools while gathering input from caregivers, teachers, and professionals. A multi-disciplinary, trauma-informed approach ensures children get support tailored to their early experiences and developmental needs.

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Emotional Dysregulation is a brain-related symptom that makes it difficult to manage emotions appropriately. It can lead to intense mood swings, impulsive behavior, irritability, or emotional outbursts that seem disproportionate to the situation at hand. Often linked to mental health conditions (like ADHD, PTSD, or borderline personality disorder) or neurodivergent traits, it reflects difficulty in how the brain regulates emotional responses. While not a standalone diagnosis, it's treatable through therapy, medication, and supportive care. Early intervention, especially in children, can significantly improve emotional control and daily functioning.

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What is emotional dysregulation?

Emotional dysregulation is a mental health symptom that involves trouble controlling your emotions and how you act on those feelings. To those around you, your emotions and reactions will seem out of proportion compared to what you're reacting to. It's similar and closely linked to executive dysfunction.

When you manage or regulate your emotions, you can steer and direct how you feel and react. Most people learn how to do this as children and develop it as they get older. It's also a key part of being adaptable or resilient to challenges, learning and more.

You can think about emotional regulation like volume control for your feelings. When you use the volume control for a device, you can keep it from being too loud. With emotional dysregulation, your brain can't regulate emotion signals. In effect, your volume control doesn't work like it should, making your emotions "louder" and harder to manage.

An example of learned emotional regulation is how children eventually outgrow temper tantrums. During childhood, tantrums are normal and an expected part of your child's development. As children get older, they generally learn how to manage their emotions. That's why tantrums become less frequent and eventually stop.

What does emotional dysregulation look like?

The effects of emotional dysregulation are most visible in what you say and how you act. Some examples of emotional dysregulation include:

Having trouble steering your moods, causing you to feel stuck or unable to make yourself feel better, especially with negative moods and emotions like depression, anxiety, etc.

Becoming easily frustrated by small inconveniences or annoyances.

Mood swings.

Impulsive behavior.

Mania or hypomania.

Trouble with emotions interfering with how you pursue goals and achieve desired outcomes.

Being prone to losing your temper.

Persistent irritability or anger between outbursts.

When does emotional regulation become a problem?

When emotional dysregulation is severe, it can cause symptoms that disrupt your life, social relationships, career and more.

Some of the more severe effects can include:

Verbal outbursts (shouting, yelling, screaming or crying).

Aggressive or even violent behavior (towards objects, animals or people).

Trouble maintaining friendships, relationships or other forms of social connection.

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Emotional dysregulation: How to feel about managing feelings

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Emotional dysregulation is a symptom that makes it difficult to manage emotions. It's possible with many medical and mental health conditions and is often treatable.

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Your Eight Senses: Beyond the Basics,

humans have eight sensory systems that help us understand and respond to the world:

1. Visual – Processes what we see (occipital lobe).

2. Auditory – Processes sounds (temporal lobe).

3. Olfactory – Detects smells (olfactory bulb, near the base of the brain).

4. Gustatory – Identifies tastes (insular cortex).

5. Tactile – Registers touch, pain, temperature (parietal lobe).

6. Vestibular – Controls balance and spatial orientation (inner ear; connects to eyes, muscles, and posture centers).

7. Proprioception – Senses body position and movement through muscles and joints.

8. Interoception – Senses internal bodily states like hunger, thirst, heart rate, and emotional awareness (insula region of the brain).

These sensory systems work together to help us stay safe, regulate emotions, and interact with others. Disruptions in any of these can affect learning, behavior, and emotional responses, especially in children with trauma or sensory processing challenges.

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(Please note: figures below are from Wikipedia)
DESCRIPTION OF THE EIGHT SENSORY SYSTEMS The five basic sensory systems: 1. Visual 2. Auditory 3. Olfactory (smell) System 4. Gustatory (taste) System 5. Tactile System The three sensory systems Ayres focused on in describing sensory integration dysfunction: 5. Tactile System (see above) 6. Vestibular (sense of head movement in space) System 7. Proprioceptive (sensations from muscles and joints of body) System The most recently discussed set of sensations related to internal organs 8. Interoception A. The five basic sensory systems:
The visual system is responsible for seeing.

The primary visual area of the brain is the occipital lobe (see figure). Projections are received from the retina (through the thalamus) where different types of information are encoded. Types of visual information include: color, shape, orientation, and motion. From the ventral stream in the occipital lobe information projects to the temporal lobe to process what objects are. From the dorsal stream, information goes to the parietal lobes to process where objects are located.

The auditory system is responsible for hearing.

The primary auditory cortex is located in the superior temporal gyrus of the brain (see figure). Specific sound frequencies can be mapped precisely onto the primary auditory cortex. Particular areas in the auditory cortex process changes in sound frequency or amplitude, while other areas process combinations of sound frequencies. The major area involved in comprehending language, (called Wernike's area) is located in the left hemisphere in most people.

3. Olfactory (smell) System

The olfactory system is responsible for processing smell.

The olfactory bulb is located in the most forward part of the brain on the bottom side of the brain (see figure). The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell. Unlike the other sensory systems, the olfactory bulb has only one source of sensory input (neurons of the olfactory epithelium) and one output. Thus it is assumed to be more of a filter than an associative circuit that has many inputs and many outputs.

4. Gustatory (taste) System

The Gustatory system is responsible for the sense of taste.

It allows us to discriminate between safe and harmful foods. Usually, individuals prefer sweet and salty tastes to sour or bitter tastes. Detecting salt is critical to keeping a regulated and stable internal body environment. This taste is perceived positivity because it facilitates re-uptake of water into the blood. Since it helps survival, salt is perceived as a pleasant taste by most humans.

Sour taste can be good in small quantities, but when it gets too sour it becomes unpleasant to taste. This has occurred through evolution to protect us from eating over-ripe fruit, rotten meat, and other spoiled foods (dangerous because of bacteria which grow in these environments).

The bitter taste is almost completely unpleasant to humans. This is because many pharmacological agents taste bitter, including caffeine, nicotine, and strychnine. Some bitter tastes can be overcome (note how popular Starbucks is world wide! Also note how many medicines when chewed, have a bitter taste, apparently being interpreted by our bodies as poisons.)

Sweet taste signals that carbohydrates are present. Carbohydrates have a high calorie count and are desirable (humans in the distant past did not know when their next meal would occur, so they evolved to want/need to eat sweet tastes.)

The tactile system is responsible for processing touch information from the body.

The body sends tactile information to the somatosensory cortex through neural pathways to the spinal cord, the brain stem, and the thalamus. The primary somatosensory cortex is the primary receptive area for touch sensations and is located in the lateral postcentral gyrus, a prominent structure in the parietal lobe of the human brain.

Due to its many connections to other brain areas, the somatosensory cortex is the part of the nervous system that integrates touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

The tactile system is extremely important in SPD. Many individuals with the disorder have tactile symptoms such as tactile defensiveness or under-responsivity to touch and pain. The touch system is one of the three foundational systems used in sensory integration treatment.
B. The three sensory systems Ayres focused on in describing the treatment of sensory integration dysfunction:
5. Tactile system (see description above)

The vestibular system contributes to balance and orientation in space. It is the leading system informing us about movement and position of head relative to gravity.

Our movements include two positions rotations and linear directionality. Thus, the vestibular system has two related components: the semicircular canal system, (related to detecting rotation) and the otoliths, (related to detecting linear acceleration/deceleration).

The vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural parts of the brain that control our eye movements, and that keep us upright.

The vestibular system contains three semicircular canals, which are approximately at right angles to each other:

the horizontal canal, which detects rotation around a vertical axis (as when you do spins in ice skating),

the anterior semicircular canal, detects movement in forward/backward plane as in a nodding movement,

the posterior canal, detects movement in a frontal plane as in when cartwheeling.

The canal on each side has an almost parallel counterpart on the other side. Each pair of canals works in a push-pull fashion: when one is stimulated, its partner is inhibited. Together the partners allow us to sense rotation in all directions.

Emphasis on the function of the vestibular system comes from Ayres influence when she identified sensory processing disorders as a new condition. This sensory system has a broad influence in many parts of the brain projecting to:

The cerebellum (to effect movements of the head, eyes, and posture).

Cranial nerves III, IV, and VI (to permit the eyes to fix on a moving object while staying in focus).

Reticular formation (to signal how to adjust circulation and breathing when the body assumes a new position).

Spinal Cord (to allow quick reflex reactions related to balancing).

Thalamus (to control head and body motor responses).

The information above is only a simple introduction to the role of the vestibular system as it relates to SPD. The figure below depicts the complex vestibular system. This figure is in the public domain from Gray's Anatomy (book).

Proprioception (sense of muscle and/or joint movements) System

The proprioceptive system (sometimes abbreviated as "prop" by therapists when they talk about it) senses the position, location, orientation, and movement of the body muscles and joints. Proprioception provides us with the sense of the relative position of neighboring parts of the body and effort used to move body parts.

Two types of proprioception exist:

Proprioception was felt by Ayres to be the foundation (with vestibular impairments) of SPD. It is one of the three sensory systems used by SI trained therapists as the cornerstone of the sensory aspect of advanced treatment.

Temporary proprioceptive impairment is reported during times of quick growth, mostly during adolescence. Other large increases or drops in bodyweight/size due to fluctuations of fat (e.g., liposuction) and/or muscle content (e.g., body-building) also affect proprioception.

Temporary impairment of proprioception has also been known to occur from an overdose of vitamin B6 and or by cytotoxic factors such as chemotherapy.
Free interoception download Watch this video explanation
The eighth, often neglected, but frequently problematic sensory system in SPD is the Interoceptive System. Interoception refers to sensations related to the physiological/physical condition of the body. Interoceptors are internal sensors that provide a sense of what our internal organs are feeling. Hunger and thirst are examples of interoception.

Interoception detects responses that guide regulation, including hunger, heart rate, respiration and elimination. The Interoceptive stimulation is detected through nerve endings lining the respiratory and digestive mucous membranes. Interoception works the vestibular and proprioceptive senses to determine how an individual perceives their own body. Well-modulated interoception helps the individual detect proprioceptive and vestibular sensation normally. For example, if a person feels his/her heart pounding, while it is not comfortable, trauma from the stimulation is not likely; nor will the stimulation be craved. The same is true for hunger and thirst, as well as the feeling of the need to urinate or have a bowel movement.

Interoception is associated with autonomic motor control, and is different than mechano-reception (in the skin) and proprioception (in the muscles and joints). Interoception is located in the dorsal posterior insula and it creates distinct feelings from the body including pain, temperature, itch, muscular and visceral sensations, vasomotor activity, hunger, thirst, and the need for air. In humans, the primary interoceptive activity occurs in the right anterior insula, which provides the basis for subjective feelings of ones' emotional awareness.

Some researchers believe that our perceptions of well-being, energy and stress are based on sensations representing the physiological condition of our bodies. They suggest that interoception is a foundation subjective feelings, emotion and self-awareness. There is evidence that the anterior insula-cingulate system may integrate Interoceptive information with emotional salience to form a subjective representation of the body; while the mid-cingulate cortex, are more likely involved in environmental monitoring, response selection, and body orientation (see Taylor KS, Seminowicz DA, Davis KD (2009). Two systems of resting state connectivity between the insula and cingulate cortex. Human brain mapping, 30(9), 2731-2745).

See below for general diagram of the neuroanatomical locations noted in above descriptions. The brains depicted below are shown from a side view with the nose pointing to the left.

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(Please note: figures below are from Wikipedia) DESCRIPTION OF THE EIGHT SENSORY SYSTEMS The five basic sensory systems: 1. Visual 2. Auditory 3. Olfactory (smell) System 4. Gustatory (taste) System 5. Tactile System The three sensory systems Ayres focused on in describing sensory integration dysfunction: 5. Tactile System (see above) 6.

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Emotional dysregulation occurs when a person struggles to manage intense emotions, such as anger, sadness, or frustration. Reactions may seem disproportionate to the situation and can impact relationships, decision-making, and self-control. It is often linked to conditions like ADHD, trauma, or mood disorders. With therapy, coping strategies, and support, emotional regulation skills can be improved over time.

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Emotional Dysregulation: Examples and Treatment

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Emotional dysregulation describes intense emotional states. It appears in mood, substance abuse, and personality disorders. Find example symptoms here.

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Human Sensory Reception

Human sensory reception is how the body detects and responds to changes in both the external and internal environment. While traditionally limited to the five senses sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch modern science recognizes additional senses such as balance (vestibular), movement (kinesthetic), and internal body signals (interoception). Each sense relies on specialized receptors and neural pathways to transmit information to the brain, where it is processed to help us move, communicate, feel, and survive. These systems work together to guide perception, behavior, and emotional regulation.

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Human sensory reception, means by which humans react to changes in external and internal environments.

Ancient philosophers called the human senses "the windows of the soul," and Aristotle described at least five senses-sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Aristotle's influence has been so enduring that many people still speak of the five senses as if there were no others. Yet the modern sensory catalog now includes receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints, which give rise to the kinesthetic sense (that is, the sense of motion), and receptors in the vestibular organs in the inner ear, which give rise to the sense of balance. Within the circulatory system, sensory receptors are found that are sensitive to carbon dioxide in the blood or to changes in blood pressure or heart rate, and there are receptors in the digestive tract that appear to mediate such experiences as hunger and thirst. Some brain cells may also participate as hunger receptors. This is especially true of cells in the lower parts of the brain (such as the hypothalamus) where some cells have been found to be sensitive to changes in blood chemistry (water and other products of digestion) and even to changes in temperature within the brain itself.

General considerations of sensation

Basic features of sensory structures

One way to classify sensory structures is by the stimuli to which they normally respond; thus, there are photoreceptors (for light), mechanoreceptors (for distortion or bending), thermoreceptors (for heat), chemoreceptors (e.g., for chemical odours), and nociceptors (for painful stimuli). This classification is useful because it makes clear that various sense organs can share common features in the way they convert (transduce) stimulus energy into nerve impulses. Thus, auditory cells and vestibular (balance) receptors in the ear and some receptors in the skin all respond similarly to mechanical displacement (distortion). Because many of the same principles apply to other animals, their receptors can be studied as models of the human senses. In addition, many animals are endowed with specialized receptors that permit them to detect stimuli that humans cannot sense. The pit viper, for instance, boasts a receptor of exquisite sensitivity to "invisible" infrared light. Some insects have receptors for ultraviolet light and for pheromones (chemical sex attractants and aphrodisiacs unique to their own species), thereby also exceeding human sensory capabilities.

Regardless of their specific anatomical form, all sense organs share basic features:

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(1) All sense organs contain receptor cells that are specifically sensitive to one class of stimulus energies, usually within a restricted range of intensity. Such selectivity means that each receptor has its own "adequate" or proper or normal stimulus, as, for example, light is the adequate stimulus for vision. However, other energies ("inadequate" stimuli) can also activate the receptor if they are sufficiently intense. Thus, one may "see" pressure when, for example, the thumb is placed on a closed eye and one sees a bright spot ( phosphene) in the visual field at a position opposite the touched place.

(2) The sensitive mechanism for each modality is often localized in the body at a receiving membrane or surface (such as the retina of the eye) where transducer neurons (sensory cells) are located. Often the sensory organ incorporates accessory structures to guide the stimulating energy to the receptor cells; thus, the normally transparent cornea and lens within the eye focus light on the retinal sensory neurons. Retinal nerve cells themselves are more or less shielded from nonvisual sources of energy by the surrounding structure of the eye.

(3) The primary transducers or sensory cells in any receptor structure normally connect ( synapse) with secondary, ingoing ( afferent) nerve cells that carry the nerve impulse. In some receptors, such as the skin, the individual primary cells possess threadlike structures ( axons) that may be yards long, winding from just beneath the skin surface through subcutaneous tissues until they reach the spinal cord. Here, each axon from the skin terminates and synapses with the next (second-order) neuron in the chain. By contrast, each primary receptor cell in the eye has a very short axon that is contained entirely in the retina, which synapses with a network of several types of second-order neurons called internuncial cells, which, in turn, synapse with third-order neurons called bipolar cells-all still in the retina. The bipolar-cell axons extend afferently beyond the retina, leaving the eyeball to form the optic nerve, which enters the brain to make further synaptic connections. If this visual system is considered as a whole, the retina may be said to be an extended part of the brain on which light can directly fall.

From such afferent nerves, still higher-order neurons make increasingly complex connections with anatomically separate pathways of the brainstem and deeper parts of the brain (e.g., the thalamus) that eventually end in specific receiving areas in the cerebral cortex (the convoluted outer shell of the brain). Different sensory receiving areas are localized in particular regions of the cortex-e.g., occipital lobes in the back of the brain for vision, temporal lobes on the sides for hearing, and parietal lobes toward the top of the brain for tactile function.

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Human sensory reception, means by which humans react to changes in external and internal environments. Ancient philosophers called the human senses "the windows of the soul," and Aristotle described at least five senses-sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Aristotle's influence has been so