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Consolidated paragraphs of 3 papers publish within the last five years, on the topic of stalking. 

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Consolidated paragraphs of 3 papers publish within the last five years, on the topic of stalking. 

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1.) Eterovic-Soric et al (2017), stalking the stalkers – detecting and deterring stalking behaviours using technology.
Reviewed current literature about the  technologies  used by stalkers and  the disparity of the technologies used to stop stalkers.
2.) Logan and Walker (2016),  paper

Stalking: A Multidimensional Framework for Assessment and Safety Planning added a Multidimensional framework of stalking towards current research by using four different techniques.  1. safety planning, communication and documentation for victim's. 2. Understanding the criteria that would educate in the fear of the victims. 3. demonstrating the  harm of stalking. 4. demonstrating the 12 factors that would influence the multidimensional framework of stalking.

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Playing on the edge: sadomasochism, risk, and intimacy, 2011

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Playing on the edge: sadomasochism, risk, and intimacy, 2011

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Representations of consensual sadomasochism range from the dark, seedy undergrounds of crime thrillers to the fetishized pornographic images of sitcoms and erotica. In this pathbreaking book, ethnographer Staci Newmahr delves into the social space of a public, pansexual SM community to understand sadomasochism from the inside out. Based on four years of in-depth and immersive participant observation, she juxtaposes her experiences in the field with the life stories of community members, providing a richly detailed portrait of SM as a social space in which experiences of "violence" intersect with experiences of the erotic. She shows that SM is a recreational and deeply gendered risk-taking endeavor, through which participants negotiate boundaries between chaos and order. Playing on the Edge challenges our assumptions about sadomasochism, sexuality, eroticism, and emotional experience, exploring what we mean by intimacy, and how, exactly, we achieve it.

(Newmahr, Staci 2011)

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The Stalking and Harassment Behaviour Scale: Measuring the incidence, nature, and severity of stalking and relational harassment and their psychological effects

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The Stalking and Harassment Behaviour Scale: Measuring the incidence, nature, and severity of stalking and relational harassment and their psychological effects

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Summary

1. Stalking is a social phenomena, which unfortunately has become a part of daily lives for many. But the perception of the said behaviour, which may also include harassment, varies depending on the victim. This variation in perceptions leads to further differences in nature and severity of psychological distress.
2. 204 partcipants (176 females, 21 male and 7 non binary people) consiting of age 17-63. Several scales are used to establish the mean distress levels and mean frequencies to associated stalking and harassment levels.
3. Results showed that the participants with a greater range and frequency of unwanted stalking behaviour reported greater levels of overall distress.

Turmanis, S.A. and Brown, R.I. (2006), The Stalking and Harassment Behaviour Scale: Measuring the incidence, nature, and severity of stalking and relational harassment and their psychological effects. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 79: 183-198. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608305X53161

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1.The Abuse of Technology in Domestic Violence and Stalking (Woodlock, 2017)
The study explored the use of technology with the purpose of stalking and abusing. The study found that technologies are used to harass women. However there were many methodological limitations in the study as the sample being small and non representative

2.Stalking Behaviors Presented by ExIntimate Stalkers: A Victim’s Perspective (White et al. 2022)
This study aimed to identify whether there are any patterns of behaviour among ex-intimate stalkers, stranger stalkers and acquaintance stalkers. The study used a quantitative methodology, used a large sample of victims reports and found that ex intimate stalkers presented more behaviours compared to the acquaintance and strangers .

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Stalking the stalkers – detecting and deterring stalking behaviours using technology: A review (Eterovic-Soric, Raymond Choo, Ashman, Mubarak, 2017)

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Stalking the stalkers – detecting and deterring stalking behaviours using technology: A review (Eterovic-Soric, Raymond Choo, Ashman, Mubarak, 2017)

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An analysis found that the rise in smart technology allowed for a correlation rise in stalking. Technologies included GPS trackers, spyware, webcams, mobile stalking apps, bluetooth/AirDrop, and social media, among other things. These were utilised to monitor, track, harass, and impersonate victims.
A further investigation into how victims can combat stalking also analysed various technological advancements and cited ankle monitors, firewalls, privacy guards, and virtual private networks, as effective methods against stalking.

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1) Becker, A., Ford, J., & Valshtein, T. (2020). Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women. Sex Roles, 85(1-2), 73-87.
The paper examines peoples perceptions of the cyberstalking of women focusing on gender and stalking. They highlight the idea of romanticising and stalking occasionally being intertwined with each other and normalised in the US.  They looked at gender, stalking contexts, and individual differences such as gender and sexuality beliefs. Findings show that women found cyberstalking less socially acceptable than men. They also found that they were more likely to label stranger stalking as less socially acceptable than ex-boyfriend stalking. Discussed that their research is not only driven by gender but  stalking narratives is culturally accepted.

2) Taylor-Dunn, H., Bowen, E., & Gilchrist, E. (2021). Reporting Harassment and Stalking to the Police: A Qualitative Study of Victims’ Experiences. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11-12), NP5965-NP5992.
The study looks at how victims described the response of the police
35 people shared their experiences of reporting harassment and stalking to the police. These were analysed thematically and themes were identified. It suggests that the majority described poor response from the police even after the legislation had changed making stalking a criminal offence. They felt police inaction or inappropriate action, feeling blamed, and not taken seriously. The study calls for police training to shift the focus of the investigation from the behaviour of the offender to emotional impact on the victim.

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Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women (Becker, Ford, & Valshtein, 2020)

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Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women (Becker, Ford, & Valshtein, 2020)

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This study explored how observers’ genders and sexist attitudes combine to enable the normalization of men’s cyberstalking of women. They found that women found cyberstalking less socially acceptable than men and were more likely to explicitly and correctly label the behaviour as ‘cyberstalking’. Most notably, participants were less likely to describe stalking behaviours as ‘stalking’ if the male (Paul) and female (Kim) characters used were not strangers, for example if Paul was Kim’s ex-boyfriend. The findings suggest that cyberstalking can become normalized as a result of an observer’s gender, but also due to a hierarchy that has been culturally accepted. In other words, stalking is not always considered stalking if the victim and perpetrator are known to each other. This study was able to relate the research conducted on real-life stalking to stalking conducted online, which has valuable implications given the increase in social media use and general internet interactions.

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McEwan, T., Simmons, M., Clothier, T., & Senkans, S. (2021). Measuring stalking: The development and evaluation of the Stalking Assessment Indices (SAI). Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 28(3), 435-461.

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McEwan, T., Simmons, M., Clothier, T., & Senkans, S. (2021). Measuring stalking: The development and evaluation of the Stalking Assessment Indices (SAI). Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 28(3), 435-461.

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This study aimed to get an accurate measurement of stalking. With background literature showing and proving that this had been proven difficult. This was due to the fact that stalking has been characterised by the cumulative effects of a pattern of behaviour. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a new measure of stalking that tries to overcome the observed shortcomings of pre-existing tools of stalking. The study created a stalking Assessment Indices (SAI).  From the study 73 participants reported stalking victimisation whilst 51 participants reported stalking perpetration. The results of the study suggested that the SAI could provide a consistent and inclusive measure of stalking for use across different research settings.

Woodlock, D. (2017). The Abuse of Technology in Domestic Violence and Stalking. Violence against Women, 23(5), 584-602.

The study had a focus on technology facilitating stalking along with other forms of abuse. Surveys with 152 domestic violence advocates and 46 victims show that technology was commonly used in intimate partner stalking. the results of the study found that technology-facilitated stalking should be treated as a serious offense, and effective practice, policy, and legal responses must be developed.

White, E., Longpré, N., & Stefanska, E. (2022). Stalking Behaviors Presented by Ex-Intimate Stalkers: A Victim’s Perspective. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(7-8), NP5074-NP5093.

The study looked at and tried to identify patterns of stalking behaviours from a victim’s perspective, specifically, whether there are any patterns of behaviour among the ex-intimate stalkers, in comparison with acquaintance or stranger stalkers. The  results of the study found that individual stalking behaviours experienced by victims have been found to differ in every case, specifically dependent on their stalker–victim relationship.

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Is this stalking? Perceptions of stalking behaviour among young male and female adults in Hong Kong and Mainland China - Chan et al., 2018

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Is this stalking? Perceptions of stalking behaviour among young male and female adults in Hong Kong and Mainland China - Chan et al., 2018

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Studies focusing on the concept of stalking primarily take place within individualistic cultures, as a result little is known about stalking within collectivist cultures. This study was conducted in Hong Kong and focused on perceptions of stalking behaviour, reasoning for stalking as well as coping strategies adopted by stalking victims and their relationship to gender and culture. It was found that gender was strongly associated with perceptions of stalking behaviour and less associated with reasoning for stalking behaviour. All findings were consistent with previous studies focusing on individualist cultures, therefore suggesting that stalking is universal in nature. Although this is a step forward in stalking research, this study suggests that legislation around stalking should be extended to non-Western individualised countries.

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The training of Kaingang teachers in the south of Brazil 

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The training of Kaingang teachers in the south of Brazil 

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This paper discusses an historical movement that breaks the through the domination and tutelage practices that have deepened throughout the colonial period which were enforced upon the natives by the colonization by the Portuguese.  The study concluded that as the natives have become more integrated into a more modern society or moreover they developed a more pro social stance towards genders it has become less ands less frequent.

(Bergamaschi, Aparecida, Antunes et el 2020)

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Confusing stalking for romance: Examining the labelling and acceptability of men’s (cyber) stalking of women – Becker et al., 2021. 

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Confusing stalking for romance: Examining the labelling and acceptability of men’s (cyber) stalking of women – Becker et al., 2021. 

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Perceptions of lay observers of the cyberstalking of women was the focus of this study with a specific focus on gender, types of stalking and individual differences in attitudes regarding gender and sexuality. This study was conducted due to romance taking place online more regularly and as a result stalking has been romanticised and normalised through cultural institutions. In comparison to men, women were more likely to label cyberstalking and to deem this act less socially acceptable. Whereas all participants thought ex-boyfriend stalking and relative to stranger stalking are more acceptable within society. This study concluded that the normalisation of cyberstalking is driven by culturally accepted hierarchy of stalking narrative as well as gender.

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Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labelling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women - (Becker et al, 2021)

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Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labelling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women - (Becker et al, 2021)

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Becker et al (2021): This paper places a predominant focus on a contemporary stalking culture within the United States - a culture where stalking has been minimised, romanticised and deemed as a social norm across American societies. The current study  investigates the phenomenon in relation the concept of romantic cyber relations that are increasingly taking place in this era. the study uses  data from an original quantitative study via an Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) survey (n=727) which investigated whether (a) observer’s gender, (b) four types of stalking contexts (ex-boyfriend, coworker, one-time date, and stranger), and (c) individual differences in observers’ attitudes regarding gender and sexuality beliefs (sexual double standards, benevolent sexism, and hostile sexism) impact individuals' perceptions of cyberstalking. Findings displayed that stranger stalker was deemed as the least acceptable by participants, whereas, the other three scenarios were less likely to be identified as stalking, by participants.  Findings also display that in comparison to men, women are more likely to label cyberstalking and to deem cyberstalking as less socially acceptable.

Critical Analysis:
- Findings were solely focused on male-female stalking, it must b considered whether results would be different if female-male stalking was also included.

- The large sample size was very beneficial as it reflects sufficient external validity, where the findings can be generalised to he wider Western population. However, these findings could not be generalised to non-western societies.

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A Behavior Sequence Analysis of Victims’ Accounts of Stalking Behaviors (Quin-Evans et al. 2019)

This paper is about victims accounts of stalking behaviours with the aim to map the dynamics of stalking over time. Participants were 39 females who reported their accounts of experiences with stalking on online forums. The design was a sequence analysis where behaviours were observed temporally.
Results showed that the most frequently occuring behaviours was reporting to police, victim dismissed by authority and phone calls to victims.

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Taylor-Dunn, Bowen & Gilchrist (2018); Reporting Harassment and Stalking to the Police: A Qualitative Study of Victims’ Experiences

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Taylor-Dunn, Bowen & Gilchrist (2018); Reporting Harassment and Stalking to the Police: A Qualitative Study of Victims’ Experiences

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Summary:
- Stalking was legally clarified as an offence in the UK in 2012, with little research having been conducted to review victim experiences in reporting this to the police
- Qualitative study, 35 participants, using a mixture of online questionnaires (N = 14) and interview (N=21).Thematic analysis was used to pick out key themes
- Results found that participants had poor experiences with reporting stalking to the police, reporting inaction or inappropriate action, while also being made to feel blamed nor taken seriously
- The paper outlines how this could be improved, to include police training in how to react with a victim and how to provide emotional support where needed

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Post-relationship stalking (PRS) and intimate partner abuse in a sample of Australian adolescents

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Post-relationship stalking (PRS) and intimate partner abuse in a sample of Australian adolescents

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This was a quantitative study. 423 participants which consisted of 14-18 year olds were recruited from Australian secondary schools.  Results showed that PRS was prevalent, with 19% (n = 33) reporting victimisation and 18% (n = 31) perpetration.  The findings add to the small body of literature on adolescent stalking which make it a worthwhile study.  (Cloonan-thomas 2021)

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In 2020 Becker et al. conducted a study assessing attitudes toward cyberstalking behaviour. It also looks at how these attitudes changed depending on the form of stalking, the observer’s gender, and attitudes of observers towards sexuality and gender. To achieve this the study uses secondary data drawn from 727 participants. Women were more likely to label cyberstalking as such, as well as finding stranger stalking the most socially unacceptable, when compared to other conditions. They also found that people with hostile sexist attitudes where less likely to recognise cyberstalking behaviours as stalking.

Becker, A., Ford, J., & Valshtein, T. (2020). Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women. Sex Roles, 85(1-2), 73-87.

Bailey and Morris investigated the impact of cognitive appraisals on the development of depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in victims of stalking (Bailey & Morris, 2021). A quantitative longitudinal design was used to assess 82 participants four times over a three month period. Self-report questionnaires were used to obtain data. Results showed that negative views of the world were correlated with increased depressive and PTSD symptoms. Whilst negative self-views only related to higher levels of depressive symptoms. Self-blame was not associated in any way.

Bailey, B., & Morris, M. (2021). Longitudinal Associations Among Negative Cognitions and Depressive and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Women Recently Exposed to Stalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(11-12), 5775-5794.

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Perspectives on stalking: victims, perpetrators and cyberstalking- by Roland D. Maiuro- 2015

This book contains a collection of peer reviewed articles relating to cyberstalking, how to identify stalking, research related to the victims and stalkers, contextualised to a variety of different settings but with a prominent focus on college campus stalking culture. The main finding imply  gendered roles, whereby women typically are the stalked and males commit the anti-social stalking behaviour.

The Abuse of Technology in Domestic Violence and Stalking- Delanie Woodlock-2017

The report focused upon emerging technological advances to facilitate newer forms of stalking tendencies in the context of domestic violence . Th paper surveyed
152 domestic violence advocates and 46 victims. The report shows that technology is commonly used in intimate partner stalking. It is implied in cyberstalking that technology creates a sense of the perpetrator’s omnipresence, isolates and punishes the victims. Technology-facilitated stalking needs to be treated as a serious offense, and effective practice, policy, and legal responses must be developed.

Risk factors for stalking violence, persistence, and recurrence- 2017

This study investigated risk factors and persistence and reoccurrence of stalking behaviour using a retrospective design. Results showed that diverse risk factors are associated with different types of stalking outcomes. Consistent with previous research, stalking violence was more likely to occur when the victim was an ex-intimate, when explicit threats had been made and where there had been previous property damage. Personality disorder, older age, criminal versatility, a prior acquaintanceship and erotomania delusions predicted stalking recurrence. Finally, previous acquaintanceship, the presence of delusional beliefs and the absence of a history of physical or sexual violence were associated with stalking persistence. These results clearly show that effective assessment and management of stalking requires consideration of different stalking outcomes and the diversity of associated risk factors.

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Psychopathology of Stalking Offenders: Examining the Clinical, Demographic, and Stalking Characteristics of a Community-Based Sample

The study researched the connection between stalking behaviour and psychopathy among stalking offenders. A total of 137 stalking offenders were interviewed and diagnosed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I and Axis II Disorders. Seenty two% of those interviewed met criteria for a clinical diagnosis with high rates of comorbidity.

Nijdam-Jones, A., Rosenfeld, B., Gerbrandij, J., Quick, E., & Galietta, M. (2018). Psychopathology of stalking offenders: Examining the clinical, demographic, and stalking characteristics of a community-based sample. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(5), 712-731.

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The Wheel of Change Moves On: Assessing the Severity of Stalking Behavior

This paper’s aim was to define the severity of stalking and develop a scale that shows the severity level of each stalking behaviour. The sample used were a randomly selected idividuals from the database of the National Stalking Helpline. The results showed that behaviour such as text messages and phone calls is classified as lower on the severity scale, while criminal damage ad death threats were classified as high severity.

Stefanska, E. B., Longpré, N., & Harriman, R. S. (2022). The wheel of change moves on: Assessing the severity of stalking behavior. Journal of interpersonal violence, 37(15-16), NP14672-NP14694.

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Is This Stalking? Perceptions of Stalking Behavior Among Young Male and Female Adults in Hong Kong and Mainland China

This research paper examined the perceptions of stalking behaviour, potential motivation or the behaviour and various strategies that stalking victims might use to cope. Connections between these variables were examined alongside gender and culture. Associations were found with gender, but connection to culture was small. The research showed that women perceived a bigger amount of actions as stalking than men. This could be due to women more commonly being victims of stalking  (Baum et al., 2009; Sheridan, Blaauw, & Davies, 2003)

Chan, H. C., & Sheridan, L. (2020). Is this stalking? Perceptions of stalking behavior among young male and female adults in Hong Kong and Mainland China. Journal of interpersonal violence, 35(19-20), 3710-3734.

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McEwan, T.,  Daffern, M., James, R. MacKenzie, R. D. (2017). Risk factors for stalking violence, persistence, and recurrence. This study used a retrospective design to investigate risk factors associated with violence during a stalking episode, persistence (increased duration of stalking) and recurrence (multiple subsequent separate stalking episodes) in 157 people (91% male, mean age 35 years) with an established history of stalking behaviour. Results showed that diverse risk factors are associated with different types of stalking outcomes. Consistent with previous research, stalking violence was more likely to occur when the victim was an ex-intimate, when explicit threats had been made and where there had been previous property damage. However, limitatons were also present: the number of the female candidates was much more reduced than the males, poor reliability and poor ethics. Messing, J., Gray, M.,  Brown, M. L., & Durfee, A. (2020). Intersections of Stalking and Technology-Based Abuse: Emerging Definitions, Conceptualization, and Measurement. - This article describes stalking and technology-based abuse across three samples of intimate partner violence survivors. Over a period of 6 years (2012–2018), data were collected from survivors of intimate partner violence (n = 1137) receiving services from domestic violence programs (including shelter). Three forms of data collection were employed across two studies: pen-and-paper surveys, web-based surveys, and qualitative semi-structured interviews. The presented strengths: modern methodology, great number of participants, it reflected the candidates’ voices and emotions through the mixed designs. However, no reliability checks were implemented. Boehneil, T., Kretschmar, J., Regoeczi, W., & Smialek, J. (2020). Responding to Stalking Victims: Perceptions, Barriers, and Directions for Future Research. – Qualitative design. Key findings include the significant discrepancy perceived between the public’s view of stalking and actual stalking behavior, the varied views of what constitutes a typical stalking victim, the wide range of needs of stalking victims, the challenges to charging and prosecuting stalking cases, and the burden placed on victims in these cases. Limitations: no ehthics section and the total number of participants is missing.

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McEwan, T.,  Daffern, M., James, R. MacKenzie, R. D. (2017). Risk factors for stalking violence, persistence, and recurrence. This study used a retrospective design to investigate risk factors associated with violence during a stalking episode, persistence (increased duration of stalking) and recurrence (multiple subsequent separate stalking episodes) in 157 people (91% male, mean age 35 years) with an established history of stalking behaviour. Results showed that diverse risk factors are associated with different types of stalking outcomes. Consistent with previous research, stalking violence was more likely to occur when the victim was an ex-intimate, when explicit threats had been made and where there had been previous property damage. However, limitatons were also present: the number of the female candidates was much more reduced than the males, poor reliability and poor ethics. Messing, J., Gray, M.,  Brown, M. L., & Durfee, A. (2020). Intersections of Stalking and Technology-Based Abuse: Emerging Definitions, Conceptualization, and Measurement. - This article describes stalking and technology-based abuse across three samples of intimate partner violence survivors. Over a period of 6 years (2012–2018), data were collected from survivors of intimate partner violence (n = 1137) receiving services from domestic violence programs (including shelter). Three forms of data collection were employed across two studies: pen-and-paper surveys, web-based surveys, and qualitative semi-structured interviews. The presented strengths: modern methodology, great number of participants, it reflected the candidates’ voices and emotions through the mixed designs. However, no reliability checks were implemented. Boehneil, T., Kretschmar, J., Regoeczi, W., & Smialek, J. (2020). Responding to Stalking Victims: Perceptions, Barriers, and Directions for Future Research. – Qualitative design. Key findings include the significant discrepancy perceived between the public’s view of stalking and actual stalking behavior, the varied views of what constitutes a typical stalking victim, the wide range of needs of stalking victims, the challenges to charging and prosecuting stalking cases, and the burden placed on victims in these cases. Limitations: no ehthics section and the total number of participants is missing.

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A Behavior Sequence Analysis of Victims’ Accounts of Stalking Behaviors 

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A Behavior Sequence Analysis of Victims’ Accounts of Stalking Behaviors 

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1. (Quinn-Evans et.al., 2019) The study is the first to use behaviour systems analysis to examine accounts of stalking written in online forums. Results show multiple patterns of stalker's behaviours and highlighted the difficulty in predicting stalking behaviours form initial starting points.

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Becker, Ford & Valshtein (2020); Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women

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Becker, Ford & Valshtein (2020); Confusing Stalking for Romance: Examining the Labeling and Acceptability of Men’s (Cyber)Stalking of Women

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Summary:
- In USA culture, cyberstalking has become normalised and romanticised, with romantic relationships being increasingly started via online platforms
- The study itself reviews the perceptions of cyberstalking between genders, where the victim is either a ex partner, colleague, first date of stranger
- Participants read an extract detailing a scenario between a man or a woman as well as viewing social media screenshots, before advising whether they believe the scenario to be a form of stalking, and also rating how appropriate they deemed it to be
- Results found that females were more likely to deem cyber staking inappropriate vs. males, and that cyber-stalking strangers was most inappropriate
- Stalking an ex partner was deemed the least inappropriate

Critical analysis:
- Study was conducted in 2020, which is quite recent and takes into account how romance is now often started online
- Study contains a large sample size with a even percentage of males/females
- Sample has a large age range (18-72). 72 year olds may not be entirely familiar with online dating, as well as having a different romantic culture to now - things that were appropriate historically are no longer deemed as such and vice versa
- Would results be different if it was female-male stalking? Rather than focussing solely on male-female scenarios.

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1: (Woodlock, 2016)The use of technology in stalking. 152 domestic violence advocates and 46 victims were surveyed. Technology helped stalkers gain increase their control over victims. 2: (White et al. 2022) Identified patterns of stalking behaviours. National Stalking Helpline data was analysed through ANOVA. 3: (Matos et al 2022) Investigated Prevalence of Stalking Among Justice Professionals in Portugal. 24.8% of sample of 270 reported at least once instance of being stalked. Raised issue awareness.