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- Dates Alive: 100 – 170 AD
-He supported the Geocentric Model, which is an Earth-centered universe, and other planets, the Sun, and the moon revolve around it.
- Type of Evidence: Naked Eye Observations
- Evidence: The Sun, Moon, planets, and stars could be seen moving about Earth along circular paths day after day. It appeared reasonable to assume that Earth was stationary, for nothing seemed to make it move. Furthermore, the fact that objects fall toward Earth provided what was perceived as support for the geocentric theory.
- Laws of Astronomy: Ptolemy wrote the Almagest, the work that defined the laws of astronomy for over 1,000 years. The Almagest included a catalog of over a thousand stars, recording their positions, constellations, and relative brightnesses; and a mathematical model predicting the movements of the planets.

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- Dates Alive: 1473 - 1543
- He was the first to create a mathematical Heliocentric Model, which is a Sun-centered universe, and all planets revolve around it.
- Type of Evidence: Mathematics and Telescope observations.
- Evidence:  In order to explain the exact movements of the planets, it was necessary to add more and more spheres along which the planets move. Copernicus noticed that all of the planets, apart from the sun, have the same annual movement, and he thought that this movement might be explained by the annual movement of the earth around the sun. His hypothesis that all the planets revolve around the sun was reinforced by the unique characteristics of the sun, which gives light and heat to all the other planets. Hence, it was plausible that the sun served as the center of the planetary system. He could estimate the relative distances of the planets from the Sun and each other.
- Laws of Astronomy: Copernicus' groundbreaking argument that Earth and the planets revolve around the sun led him to make a number of other major astronomical discoveries. It changed the way we view the solar system.

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- Dates Alive: 1546 - 1601
- He believed in a model of the Universe with the Sun orbiting the Earth, but the other planets orbiting the Sun (Geoheliocentric).
- Type of Evidence: Mathematical Data
- Evidence: Believed the sun orbited earth but other planets orbited the sun. He had decades of mathematical data to support this idea. He still followed the law of the perfect circle.
- Laws of Astronomy: Still believed in perfect circles and objects revolving around a celestial body.

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- Dates Alive: 1571-1630

- He supported the Heliocentric model of the universe, which is a Sun-centered model, and all the planets revolve around it.
- Type of Evidence: Used Tycho's mathematical data

- Evidence: He came up with mathematical, empirical rules to describe HOW planetary orbits in a heliocentric system. Empirical science describes how something works, not why.
- New Supporting Evidence:

Planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus.

A line between the Sun and the planet ‘sweeps’ out equal areas in equal times. (i.e. planets go faster when they are closer to the Sun)

The squares of the orbital periods of the planets are directly proportional to.

- Laws of Astronomy:

1. Kepler’s law of Motion #1

2. Kepler’s Law of Motion #2

3. Kepler’s Law of Motion #3

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- Dates Alive: 1564 - 1642

- He supported the Heliocentric model of the universe, which is a Sun-centered model, and all the planets revolve around it.
- Type of Evidence: Telescope Observations

- Evidence:

Earth’s moon

Jupiter and its moons

Phases of Venus

- New Supporting Evidence:

Galileo saw “imperfections” on the Sun & the moon with his telescope – additional evidence that the old “perfect heavens” model was inaccurate.

Found four moons in orbit around Jupiter showing that Earth was not the center of the Universe

Saw that Venus had phases. Evidence for Heliocentric Model because the Geocentric model  can’t explain when Venus is full or mostly lit up (“Full”)

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Explain how even incorrect conclusions are an important part of the practices of science.

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Explain how even incorrect conclusions are an important part of the practices of science.

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The Practices of Science:

1. Question

2. Hypothesis

3. Investigate

4. Collect Data and Observations

5. Look for Patterns/ Analyze Data

6. Claim, Evidence, Reasoning

7. Communicate your findings to others

- Why Ptolemy was wrong:
Ptolemy’s geocentric model of the universe profoundly influenced the field of astronomy. Although, his model was disproven by Galileo discovering moons orbiting around Jupiter. Ptolemy's findings were still able to influence the way in which people thought about the world around them and would go on for the next 1000 years until challenged.
- Why Brahe was wrong:
Brahe supported both the geocentric and heliocentric models and created a hybrid of both. He spent decades collecting astronomical data by using naked-eye observations and mathematical data. Brahe believed that the Sun orbited Earth, but the other planets orbited the Sun. Unfortunately, he was unable to make sense of the data and fell short. His assistant Kepler used Brahe’s data and he was able to come up with mathematical and empirical rules to describe how planets orbited in a heliocentric system and not in a hybrid of both. If it wasn't for Brahe's claims, Kepler would have not been able to use his data to come up with a simpler explanation of the Earth's orbit.