# data[].attributes.body
Algorithms: Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem.
Analogy: A correspondence in some respects between otherwise dissimilar things.
Backward-reaching transfer: Occurs when the individual looks back to a previous situation for information to solve a problem in a new context.
Belief Perseverance: The tendency to hold on to a belief in the face of contradictory evidence.
Concept Map: A visual presentation of a concept’s connections and hierarchical organization.
Concepts: Ideas that group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.
Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them.
Convergent thinking: Thinking with the aim of producing one correct answer. This is usually the type of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests.
Creativity: The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.
Critical Thinking: Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence.
Decision Making: Evaluating alternatives and making choices among them.
Deductive Reasoning: reasoning from the general to the specific
Divergent thinking: Thinking the aim of producing many answers to the same question. This is characteristic of creativity
Dual-Process Model: States that decision-making is influenced by two systems—one analytical and one experiential—that compete with each other; in this model, it is the experiential system—monitoring and managing actual experiences—that benefits adolescent decision making.
Executive Function: An umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain’s prefrontal cortex. Executive function involves managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and exercise self-control.
Far Transfer: The transfer of learning to a situation that is very different from the one in which the initial learning took place.
Fixation: Using a prior strategy and thereby failing to examine a problem from a fresh, new perspective.
Forward-reaching Transfer: Occurs when the individual looks for ways to apply learned information to a future situation.
Heuristics: Strategies or rules of thumb that can suggest a solution to a problem but don’t ensure that it will work.
High-road transfer: Applying information from one situation to another in a way that is conscious and effortful.
Hindsight bias: The tendency to falsely report, after the fact, having accurately predicted an event.
Inductive reasoning: reasoning form the specific to the general
low-road transfer: The automatic, often unconscious, transfer of learning to another situation
means-end analysis: A heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assesses the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means) to decrease the difference between the two conditions
mental set: A type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past.
mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life’s everyday activities and tasks. Mindful students maintain an active awareness of the circumstances in their lives.
near transfer: The transfer of learning to a situation that is similar to the one in which the initial learning took place.
overconfidence bias: The tendency to have more confidence in judgments and decisions than we should have, based on probability or past experience.
problem solving: Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal.
problem-based learning: Learning that emphasizes authentic problems like those that occur in daily life.
project-based learning: Learning in which students work on real, meaningful problems and create tangible products.
prototype matching: Deciding whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item(s) of the category.
subgoaling: The process of setting intermediate goals that place students in a better position to reach the final goal or solution.
thinking: Manipulating and transforming information in memory, which often is done to form concepts, reason, think critically, make decisions, think creatively, and solve problems.
transfer: Applying previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation.

# data[].attributes.body
Preparing to be a Culturally Responsive Practitioner

culturally responsive teaching isn't a set of engagement strategies you use on students. Instead, think of it as a mindset, a way of looking at the world.

The true power of culturally responsive teaching comes from being comfortable in your own skin because you are not a neutral party in the process. You can never take yourself out of the equation.

developing the right mindset, engaging in self-reflection, checking our implicit biases, practicing social-emotional awareness, and holding an inquiry stance regarding the impact of our interactions on students.

Before you can leverage diversity as an asset in the classroom, you must reflect on the challenges that can interfere with open acceptance of students who are different from you in background, race, class, language, or gender.

Unpacking our Implicit Bias

One challenge is learning how to access and shift you
implicit biases.

I'm afraid that you will have to talk about sensitive issues such as race, racism, classism, sexism, or any other kind of "-ism." I am afraid that this conversation will make you vulnerable and open to some type of emotional or physical attack. But this fear is not real. It is just your amygdala's ploy to get you to stay in your comfort zone.

It thinks that the safest place for us is deep in the center of our comfort zone surrounded by the moat of
our unconscious, implicit biases.

It will try to keep you in check with narratives such as "vou need to be colorblind, not calling attention to racial, cultural, or language differences" or "we are all the same inside. Skin color doesn't matter anymore." accept the challenge of venturing into the unknown with an open mind and heart.

Begin With an Intention

Intention is the starting point for preparing yourself for improving your culturally responsive teaching practice.

The commitment to be an effective educator of culturally diverse dependent learners builds the stamina and courage to persevere when the process gets challenging.

To make the path feel less uncharted, find real and virtual mentors who have already walked the path.

Self-Examination: Making the Familiar Strange

The next stage is to examine your own cultural identity. Culture is like the air we breathe, permeating all we do. And the hardest culture to examine is often our own, because it shapes our actions in ways that seem invisible and normal.

What feels "normal," is molded by deeply ingrained social habits and ways of valuing and evaluating what we are scarcely aware of.

A critical first step for teachers is to understand how their own cultural values shape their expectations in the classroom

A student's different way of being or doing can be perceived as a deviation from the norm and therefore problematic if we don't recognize that it is just different.

This inward reflection means being willing to listen
and change in order to respond positively and constructively to the student who may be culturally different in some way.

teachers have to work through: identifying their cultural frame of reference, widening their cultural aperture, and identifying their key triggers

Identify your Cultural Frames of Reference

The first step in making the familiar strange is to take an inquiry stance toward the examination of your cultural identity.

they ask teachers to investigate aspects of their cultural identity after they have encountered cultural conflict in the classroom, which is often too late

Map your Cultural Reference Points

Create time and space to work your way through aspects of surface, shallow, and deep culture for clues about your own culture.

Don't try to answer these questions in one sitting. Instead, plan to sit with the questions before trying to answer them.

As you develop a greater sense of your cultural frames of reference, you should begin to have a clearer picture of your cultural self

Widen your Interpretation Aperture

We all operate from a set of cultural frames of reference. The challenge is that if we routinely interpret other people's actions solely through our personal cultural frames, we run the risk of misinterpreting their actions or intentions.

The solution is to broaden our body of explanations and interpretations of student actions.

So we have to develop a process that allows us to expand our ability to recognize the different ways things are done in other cultures.

three-part process for widening our interpretative aperture that can serve as an internal protocol: description, interpretation, and evaluation.

Description- The first step is to simply describe what you see.

Interpretation- The next step involves interpreting what is going on.

Evaluation- The last step in the process involves assigning positive or negative significance to the action based on our initial interpretation.

Most culturally responsive teachers recognize the need to develop their observation skills so they can effectively describe what is happening during an interaction with a student or when watching a scenario play out between students and not jump to conclusions.

Some tips to help with ^

1. Spend some time viewing the replay in your mind. Try to

review what happened without judgment.

2. Make a list of your assumptions, reactions, and interpretations of behaviors as the scenario replays.

3. Try on alternative explanations.

4. Check your explanations. Share your alternative explanations with other culturally responsive teachers in your professional learning community or those in your own personal learning circle.

5. Build your cross-cultural background knowledge. Recognize that understanding alternative explanations for student behavior is an ongoing process.

6. Leverage technology and watch positive movies or television series that will allow you to virtually step into another cultural experience.

Identify your Triggers

When we feel a threat of any sort--including threats to our belief systems-we are vulnerable to an amygdala hijack. Remember your RAS acts like the brain's emotional "smoke detector," always scanning for things that might cause social embarrassment or emotional pain when we are communicating cross-culturally.

We all get hijacked at times, but culturally responsive teachers know themselves well enough to anticipate situations that might trigger them.

A key readiness skill or capacity the culturally responsive
the teacher develops the ability to manage her emotions and reframe potential threats.

Recognizing Common Triggers

An important part of identifying your triggers is recognizing universal triggers that are hardwired into the brain.

There are five elements of social interaction that activate strong threats and rewards in the brain, thus influencing how we react in given situations: standing, certainty, connection, control, and equity

Practicing Emotional Self-Management

Self-management involves being aware of one's feelings and the ability to use this awareness as information to manage and adjust one's emotional state.

we know emotions are contagious, so if one person
in the classroom gets emotionally hijacked, it's likely others will be infected with anxiety, resistance, or disengagement.

Ways to calm Amygdala: Identify what sets you off, label your feelings when they come up, Create an "early warning system."

S.O.D.A Strategy

strategy for gaining control of our emotions when we feel triggered or our buttons have been pushed.

Stop. Observe, Detach and Awaken. The strategy is based on neuroscience findings that tell us that if we are able to put as little as 10 seconds in-between the time we get triggered and our reaction.

# data[].attributes.body
Attribution Theory: The theory that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their own behavior and performance

Competence Motivation: The idea that people are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, to master their world, and to process information efficiently

Delay of Gratification: Postponing immediate rewards in order to attain larger, more valuable rewards in the future

Extrinsic Motivation: The external motivation to do something to obtain something else

Failure Syndrome: Having low expectations for success and giving up at the first sign of difficulty

Helpless Orientation: A response to challenges and difficulties in which the individual feels trapped by the difficulty and attributes the difficulty to a lack of ability

Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow's concept that individual needs must be satisfied in this sequence: physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization

Humanistic Perspective: A view that stresses students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities

Incentives: Positive or negative stimuli or events that can motivate a student's behavior

Intrinsic Motivation: The internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself)

Mastery Orientation: A task-oriented response to difficult or challenging circumstances that focuses on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome

Mindset: Dweck's concept that refers to the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves; individuals have one of two mindsets: fixed or growth

Motivation: The processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

Need for Affiliations or Relatedness: The motive to be securely connected with other people

Performance Orientation: A focus on winning rather than achievement outcome; success is believe to result from winning

Self-actualization: The highest and most elusive of Maslow's needs; the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being

Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

Social Motives: Needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world

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Achievement Test: A test that measures what the student has learned or what skills the student has mastered

Alternate-Forms Reliability: Reliability judged by giving different forms of the same test on two different occasions to the same group of students to determine how consistent their scores are

Aptitude Test: A type of test that is used to predict a student's ability to learn a skill or accomplish something with further education and training

Central Tendency: A number that provides information about the average, or typical, score in a set of data

Concurrent Validity: The relation between a test's scores and other criteria that are currently (concurrently) available

Construct Validity: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct. A construct is an observable trait or characteristic of a person, such as intelligence, learning style, personality, or anxiety

Content Validity: A test's ability to sample the content that is to be measured

Criterion Validity: The test's ability to predict a student's performance as measured by other assessments or criteria

Criterion-Referenced Tests: Standardized tests in which the student's performance is compared with established criteria

Descriptive Statistics: Mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize data (information) in a meaningful way

Frequency Distribution: A listing of scores, usually from highest to lowest, along with the number of times each score appears.

Grade-Equivalent Score: A score that indicates a student’s performance in relation to grade level and months of the school year, assuming a 10-month school year.

High-Stakes Testing: Using tests in a way that will have important consequences for the student, affecting such decisions as whether the student will be promoted or be allowed to graduate.

Histogram: A frequency distribution in the form of a graph.

Mean: The numerical average of a group of scores.

Measures of Variability: Measures that tell how much scores vary from one another.

Median: The score that falls exactly in the middle of a distribution of scores after they have been arranged (or ranked) from highest to lowest.

Mode: The score that occurs most often.

Norm Group: The group of individuals previously tested that provides a basis for interpreting a test score.

Normal Distribution: A “bell-shaped curve” in which most of the scores are clustered around the mean and scores that are far above or below the mean are rare.

Norm-Referenced Tests: Standardized tests in which a student’s score is interpreted by comparing it with how others (the norm group) performed.

Percentile-Rank Score: The percentage of a distribution that lies at or below the score.

Predictive Validity: The relation between test scores and the student’s future performance.

Range: The distance between the highest and lowest scores.

Raw Score: The number of items a student answered correctly on the test.

Reliability: The extent to which a test produces a consistent, reproducible score.

Split-Half Reliability: Reliability judged by dividing the test items into two halves, such as the odd-numbered and even-numbered items. The scores on the two sets of items are compared to determine how consistently the students performed across each set.

Standard Deviation: A measure of how much a set of scores varies on average around the mean of the scores.

Standard Score: A score expressed as a deviation from the mean; involves the standard deviation.

Standardized Tests: Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. They assess students’ performance in different domains and allow a student’s performance to be compared with the performance of other students at the same age or grade level on a national basis.

Standards-Based Tests: Tests that assess skills that students are expected to master before they can be promoted to the next grade or permitted to graduate.

Stanine Score: A 9-point scale that describes a student’s performance.

Test-Retest Reliability: The extent to which a test yields the same performance when a student is given the same test on two or more occasions.

Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and whether inferences about the test scores are accurate and appropriate.

Z-Score: A score that provides information about how many standard deviations a raw score is above or below the mean.

# data[].attributes.body
affirmation: the practice of intentionally noticing and admiring the uniqueness of culturally and linguistically diverse students. It includes seeing as positive those elements that the dominant culture tries to portray as unattractive or undesirable, such as their hair, skin, color, verbal agility, or energetic style
Alliance: It is the second part of the learning partnership equation. Alliance focuses on helping the dependent learner begin and stay on the arduous path toward independent learning. An alliance is more than a friendship. It is a relationship of mutual support as partners navigate through challenging situations.
Amygdala Hijack: The process when the amygdala is in an active state of stress, fear, or anxiety. It signals the body to release the stress hormone, cortisol. The cortisol blocks rational thinking and temporarily reduces the capacity of the working memory making learning difficult.
Autonomic Nervous System: This is the portion of the nervous system comprised of the spinal cord and brain. It includes the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the polyvagal nervous system.
Cognitive Insight: It is the third part of the learning partnership. It is the teacher's ability to understand a student's internal learning process. Formative assessments and instructional conversation are key tools for gaining insight into a student's learning moves.
Cortisol: Cortisol is the primary stress hormone. Chronic exposure to cortisol because of the stress reduces working memory and suppresses the body's immune system.
Cultural Archetype: It is a set of similar beliefs, values, or behaviors that show up in different cultures.
Culturally Responsive Teaching: The process of using familiar cultural information and processes to  scaffold learning. Emphasizes communal orientation. Focused on relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social awareness.
Dendrites: Treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help increase its surface area. These tiny tentacles receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation. Dendrites grow in response to learning, especially a challenging task. The more dendrites the neuron generates the more brainpower it creates.
Dopamine: A chemical in the brain associated with attention and reward-stimulated learning. Our brains release dopamine when we are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving acknowledgment (e.g., praise) for achievement.
Fixed Mindset: Fixed mindset students believe their basic abilities, their intelligence, and their talents are just fixed traits. For high achievers, their goal becomes to look smart all the time and never risk looking dumb. For low achievers, their goal is to avoid challenging work so as not to confirm their low intelligence.
Formative assessments: Also called assessment for learning. It is the process of using simple tools to determine how well content has been learned so that the learner can make adjustments to his learning moves in the moment.
Gray Matter: Gray matter refers to the brownish-gray color of the nerve cell bodies (neurons). The wrinkled appearance of the brain results from the overgrowth of gray matter in the small skull cavity.
Growth Mindset: In a growth mindset, students understand that their talents and abilities can be developed through the effort, active learning, and persistence.
Implicit bias: Refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our responses to certain groups especially around race, class, and language. Implicit bias operates involuntarily, often without one's awareness or intentional control. Implicit bias is not implicit racism.
Instructional Conversation:  Classroom discourse that is focused on having students talk about their learning process and learning moves. It is an extension of information processing and feedback
Intellective Capacity: Refers to a student's malleable information processing power. Also called fluid intelligence or intellectual competence. Intellective capacity grows through neuroplasticity.
Internalized oppression: When people are targeted, discriminated against, or oppressed over a period of time, they often internalize (believe an make part of their internal view of themselves) the myths and misinformation that society holds about their group
Learned helplessness: the victim mentality a learner adopts when repeatedly subjected to negative stimulus. Over time the learner stops trying to avoid the stimulus and believes he is helpless to change the situation. Includes a lack of confidence in one's ability and a belief that effort is useless.
Learning Partnership: The learning partnership is a teacher-student relationship in which the teacher builds trust and becomes the student's ally in order to help the student reach  a higher level of achievement.
Limbic region: The limbic is the second brain layer. Also called the Malian brain. It is involved in regulation of emotion, memory and processing complex socioemotional communication. The amygdala is located here.

# data[].attributes.body
Long-Term memory: Long-term memory is created when short-term memory is strengthened through review and meaningful association with existing funds of knowledge. this strengthening result in a physical change in the structure of neuronal circuits, creating more gray matter in the brain.
Mental Model: A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought process about how something works in the real world. It is one's internal representation of the surrounding world. Mental models share our behavior, decision making, and relating to others. See also Schema.
Microaggressions: They are small, subtle verbal insults or nonverbal actions directed at people of color that intentionally or unintentionally communicate mistrust or hostility, such as clutching one's purse if a person of color gets into an elevator or when store personnel follow a person of color around a store while he is shopping.
Mindset: A set of mental attitudes that determines how one will interpret and respond to situations. See also fixed mindset and Growth mindset.
Myelin: The fatty substance that covers and protects nerves. Myelin acts like a conductor in an electrical system, ensuring that messages sent along the neuron are not lost as they travel to the next neuron and dendrites.
Myelination: The formation of the myelin sheath around the body of a neuron to increase the speed of electrical impulses contained information.
Negativity Bias: The brain's innate tendency to pay more attention to overreact to negative events, information, and experiences. Believed to be part of the stereotyping feature of our safety-threat system charged with keeping us safe.
Neocortex region: It is the newest layer of the brain. Also called the prefrontal cortex (PFC). It is the hub of neural networks that directs intake and output to almost all other regions of the brain. Through executive functions in the PFC, the brain moves information to the working memory to be mentally manipulated so it becomes long-term knowledge. This area of the brain also controls conscious decision making, organizing, analyzing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, reflection, and problem solving.
Neuroception: Describes the process our brain uses to distinguish whether situations or people are safe, dangerous, or life threatening. The autonomic nervous system, particularly the polyvagal nerve, is responsible for controlling neuroception. See also safety-threat detection system.
Neurons: Specialized cells in the brain and throughout the nervous system the control storage and processing of information to, from, and within the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons are composed of a varying number of dendrites to pass along coded information throughout the nervous system.
Neuroplasticity: Refers to the capacity of the brain to change its structure and recognize itself in response to injury, experience, or challenge. Associated with expanded learning capacity.
Oxytocin: Oxytocin is a neurotransmitter that stimulates our sense of connection with others. It is called the bonding hormone.
Productive Struggle: When the learner has developed the necessary strategies for working through something difficult. The mental activity that takes place when students are in their zone of proximal development.
Rapport: A close and harmonious relationship between people characterized by a sense of connection, person regard, and trust.
Relaxed Alertness: It is the optimum learning state of the brain. The brain experiences low threat while it is alert and paying attention with anticipating. The term can also apply to the emotional tone of the class room that creates a social and intellectually safe environment
Reticular Activating System (RAS): Located in the reptilian region of the brain, it is the portal through which nearly all information enters the brain. (Smells are the exception; they go directly into your brain's emotional area.) It filters all incoming stimuli and decides what to pay attention to and what to ignore. Novelty, curiosity, changes in the environment, surprise, danger, and movement all capture the attention of the RAS. It sends signals to the amygdala when it detects a social or physical threat.
Safety-threat detection system: Our brains system to help carry our its prime directive: Minimize threats and maximize well-being. See also Neuroception.
Schema: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment. However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to instead focus only on things that confirm our preexisting beliefs and ideas.
Self-Efficacy: One's internal belief and self-confidence that one has the power and skills to shape the direction of one's learning experience.
Sociopolitical context: A term used to describe the series of mutually reinforcing policies and practices across social, economic, one political domains that contribute to disparities and unequal opportunities for people of color in housing, transportation, education, and health care, to name a few. These unequal opportunities result in unequal outcomes along racial and class lines.
Stereotype threat: Refers to a student's fear of confirming a negative stereotype about his racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic group (i.e., African Americans aren't smart) by his actions (such as failing a test). This anxiety triggers an amygdala hijack, releasing stress hormones and shitting down all learning, making it more likely that he will fail.
Structural racialization: Refers to the ways in which supposedly race neutral and practices across social, political, and economic institutions created radicalized outcomes. See also sociopolitical context.
Validation: Refers to the explicit recognition and acknowledgment of historical institutional racism, negative stereotyping, and generalizations that impact culturally and linguistically diverse students.
Warm Demander: A teacher who communicates personal warmth toward students while at the same time demands they work toward high standards. Provides concrete guidance and support for meeting the standards, particularly corrective feedback, opportunities for information processing, and culturally relevant meaning making.
Wise Feedback:  Wise feedback is a way of giving feedback that reassures the student that he is not viewed in light of a negative stereotypes. We assume rather than doubt his intellectual abilities. Wise feedback converts faith in the potential of the student while being honest about where he is right now.
Working Memory: The working memory is the area in the brain where new information is coupled with existing knowledge. The elaboration stage of information processing take place mainly in the working memory.
Zone of proximal development: The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he can do with help. Because learning in the zone of proximal development is a stretch for a student, the brain responds by growing more neurons and dendrites. Also called the ZPD.

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Action Research: Research used to solve a specific classroom or a school problem, improve teaching and other educational strategies, or make a decision at a specific location
Case Study: An in-depth look at an individual
Constructivist Approach: A learner-centered approach to learning that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher.
Control Group: In an experiment, a group whose experience is treated in every way like the experimental group except for the manipulated factor.
Correlational research: Research that describes the strength of the relation between two or more events or characteristics.
critical thinking: Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence.
Dependent Variable: The factor that is measured in an experiment
Differentiated Instruction: Involves recognizing individual variations in students’ knowledge, readiness, interests, and other characteristics, and taking these differences into account when planning curriculum and engaging in instruction.
Direct Instruction Approach: A structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students’ progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.
Educational Psychology: the branch of psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in educational settings
Ethnographic Study: In-depth description and interpretation of behavior in an ethnic or cultural group that includes direct involvement with the participants.
Experimental group: The group whose experience is manipulated in an experiment.
Experimental Research: Research that allows the determination of the causes of behavior and involves conducting an experiment, which is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied is manipulated and all others are held constant.
Independent Variable: The manipulated, influential, experimental factor in an experiment.
laboratory: A controlled setting from which many of the complex factors of the real world have been removed.
mixed methods research: Involves research that blends different research designs or methods.
Naturalistic Observation: Observation conducted in the real World rather than in a laboratory
Participant observation: Observation conducted while the teacher-researcher is actively involved as a participant in the activity or setting.
Program Evaluation Research:  Research designed to make decisions about the effectiveness of a particular program.
Qualatative Research:Involves obtaining information using descriptive measures such as interviews, case studies, personal journals and diaries, and focus groups, as well as using thematic analysis rather than statistics to analyze textual data.
Quantitative Research: Employs numerical calculations in an effort to discover information about particular topic.
Random Assignment: In experimental research, the assignment of participants to experimental and control groups by chance.
Standardized tests: Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. They assess students’ performance in different domains and allow a student’s performance to be compared with the performance of other students at the same age or grade level on a national basis.
Teacher-as-researcher: Also called teacher-researcher, this concept involves classroom teachers conducting their own studies to improve their teaching practice.

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Altruism: an unselfish interest in helping another person
Authoritarian Parenting: A restrictive and punitive parenting style in which there is little verbal exchange between parents and children; this style is associated with children’s social incompetence.
Authoritative parenting: A positive parenting style that encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions, allows extensive verbal give-and-take, and is associated with children’s social competence.
Care Perspective:A moral perspective that focuses on connectedness and relationships among people; Gilligan’s approach reflects a care perspective.
character education:A direct approach to moral education that involves teaching students basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others.
Cognitive moral education:An approach to moral education based on the belief that students should value things such as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops; Kohlberg’s theory has served as the foundation for many cognitive moral education efforts.
Conventional reasoning: The second, or intermediate, level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others such as parents or the laws of society (external). The conventional level consists of two stages: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (stage 3) and social systems morality (stage 4).
Developmentally appropriate education:Education that focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (individual appropriateness).
Domain theory of moral development:Theory that moral development includes the domains of social knowledge and reasoning.
Ecological theory:Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Emotions:Feelings, or affect, that occur when an individual is engaged in an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being.
Gratitude:A feeling of thankfulness and appreciation, especially in response to someone doing something kind or helpful.
Hidden Curriculum: Dewey’s concept that every school has a pervasive moral atmosphere even if it does not have a program of moral education.
Identity Achievement:The identity status in which individuals have explored meaningful alternatives and made a commitment.
Identity Diffusion: The identity status in which individuals have neither explored meaningful alternatives nor made a commitment.
Identity foreclosure:The identity status in which individuals have made a commitment but have not explored meaningful alternatives.
Identity moratorium:The identity status in which individuals are in the midst of exploring alternatives but have not yet made a commitment.
Indulgent parenting:A parenting style that includes parental involvement but places few limits or restrictions on children’s behavior; linked with children’s social incompetence.
Justice perspective:A moral perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; Kohlberg’s theory is a justice perspective.
Montessori Approach:An educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.
Moral development:Development with respect to the rules and conventions of just interactions between people.
Neglectful parenting: A parenting style of uninvolvement in which parents spend little time with their children; associated with children’s social incompetence.
Post conventional Reasoning: The third and highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level, morality is more internal. The postconventional level consists of two stages: social contract or utility and individual rights (stage 5) and universal ethical principles (stage 6).
pre conventional reasoning: The lowest level in Kohlberg’s theory. At this level, morality is often focused on reward and punishment. The two stages in preconventional reasoning are punishment and obedience orientation (stage 1) and individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange (stage 2).
self-esteem: Also called  self-image and  self-worth, the individual’s overall conception of herself or himself.
Service learning:A form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community.
social convention reasoning:Focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus to control behavior and maintain the social system.
values clarification:An approach to moral education that emphasizes helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for; students are encouraged to define their own values and understand the values of others.

# data[].attributes.body
Between-class ability grouping (tracking): grouping students based on their ability or achievement
Big Five factors of personality:Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).
Culture-fair tests:Tests of intelligence that are intended to be free of cultural bias.
Deep/surface styles:Involve the extent to which students approach learning materials in a way that helps them understand the meaning of the materials (deep style) or as simply what needs to be learned (surface style).
Difficult child:A temperament style in which the child tends to react negatively, cries frequently, engages in irregular routines, and is slow to accept new experiences.
Easy child:A temperament style in which the child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, and easily adapts to new experiences.
Emotional intelligence:The ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively, to understand emotion and emotional knowledge, to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions and feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.
Goodness of fit:The match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with.
impulsive/reflective styles:Involves a student’s tendency either to act quickly and impulsively or to take more time to respond and reflect on the accuracy of the answer.
Intelligence:Problem-solving skills and ability to adapt to and learn from experiences.
Intelligence quotient (IQ):A person’s mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100.
Joplin plan: A standard nongraded program for instruction in reading.
Learning and thinking styles:Individuals’ preferences in how they use their abilities.
Mental Age (MA):An individual’s level of mental development relative to others.
Nature-Nurture issue:Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to environmental influences. The “nature” proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development; the “nurture” proponents claim environmental experiences are the most important.
Nongraded (Cross-age) program:A variation of between-class ability grouping in which students are grouped by their ability in particular subjects, regardless of their age or grade level.
Normal distribution: A “bell-shaped curve” in which most of the scores are clustered around the mean and scores that are far above or below the mean are rare.
optimistic/pessimistic styles:Involves having either positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) expectations for the future.
personality:Distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.
person-situation interaction:The view that the best way to conceptualize personality is not in terms of personal traits or characteristics alone, but also in terms of the situation involved.
Slow-to-warm-up child:A temperament style in which the child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
stereotype threat:Anxiety regarding whether one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group.
temperament:A person’s behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding.
Triarchic theory of intelligence:Sternberg’s view that intelligence comes in three main forms: analytical, creative, and practical.
Within-class ability grouping:Placing students in two or three groups within a class to take into account differences in students’ abilities.

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Applied Behavior Analysis: Application of the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.
Associative Learning: Learning that two events are connected (associated).
Behaviorism: The view that behavior should be explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes.
Classical Conditioning: A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
Cognitive-Behavioral approaches:Changing behavior by getting individuals to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external factors.
Contracting:Putting reinforcement contingencies into writing
Learning:A relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, which comes about through experience.
Mental Processes:Thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be observed by others
Negative reinforcement: Reinforcement based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is removed.
Observational Learning:Learning that involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others.
Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.
Positive Reinforcement: Reinforcement based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.
Premack Principle:The principle that a high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity.
Prompt:An added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response that increases the likelihood the response will occur.
Punishment: A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.
Reinforcement (reward): A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.
Response cost:Taking a positive reinforcer away from an individual.
Schedules of reinforcement: Partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced.
Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
Self-instructional methods:Cognitive-behavioral techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior.
Self-regulatory learning: The self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal.
Shaping: Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior.
Social Cognitive theory: Bandura’s theory that social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning.
Systematic desensitization:A method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-provoking situations.
Time-out:Removing an individual from positive reinforcement.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin Model:A model of memory that involves a sequence of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Attention:The focusing of mental resources
Automaticity:The ability to process information with little or no effort.
Chunking:Grouping, or “packing,” information into “higher-order” units that can be remembered as single units.
Cue-Dependent forgetting:Retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues.
Decay Theory:The theory that new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical “memory trace,” which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting.
Declarative Memory:The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.
Divided attention:Concentrating on more than one activity at a time.
Elaboration:The extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding.
Encoding:The process by which information gets into memory.
Encoding specificity principle: The principle that associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues.
Episodic Memory:The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings.
Executive Attention:Involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
Fuzzy Trace Theory:States that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace and (2) fuzzy trace, or gist. In this theory, older children’s better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information.
Information-processing approach:A cognitive approach in which children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this approach are cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and thinking.
Interference theory:The theory that we forget not because we actually lose memories from storage but because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember.
Levels of processing theory:The theory that processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.
Long-term memory:A type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion.
Memory:The retention of information over time, which involves encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Memory Span:The number of digits an individual can report back without error in a single presentation.
Metacognition:Cognition about cognition, or “knowing about knowing.”
Network theories:Theories that describe how information in memory is organized and connected; they emphasize nodes in the memory network.
Procedural memory:Nondeclarative knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations. Procedural memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts.
Rehearsal:The conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory.
Schema:Information—concepts, knowledge, information about events—that already exists in a person’s mind.
Schema theories:Theories that when we construct information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind.
Script:A schema for an event.
Selective attention:Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.
Semantic memory:An individual’s general knowledge about the world, independent of the individual’s identity with the past.
Sensory memory:Memory that holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant.
Serial position effect:The principle that recall is better for items at the beginning and the end of a list than for items in the middle.
Short-term memory:A limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer.
Strategy construction:Creation of a new procedure for processing information
Sustained Attention: Maintaining attention over an extended period of time; also called vigilance.
Theory of mind:Awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others.
Working memory:A three-part system that holds information temporarily as a person performs a task. A kind of “mental workbench” that lets individuals manipulate, assemble, and construct information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language.

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William James (1842-1910)
- Launched the first psychology textbook
- James argued that laboratory psychology experiments often can't tell us how to teach children effectively
- He emphasized the importance of observing teaching and learning in classrooms for improving education
- Recommended to start lessons at a point just beyond the child's level of knowledge and understanding to stretch the child's mind.

John Dewey (1859-1952)
- Established the first major educational psychology laboratory in the US
- Dewey argued that children learn best by doing
- He reasoned that children should not be just narrowly educated in academic topics but should learn how to think and adapt to a world outside school / how to be reflective problem solvers
- The belief that children deserve to have access to education
- Dewey pushed for a quality education for all children-girls and boys-as well as children from different socioeconomic and ethnic groups

E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
- Focused on assessment and measurement and prompted the scientific underpinnings of learning
- argued that one of schooling's most important tasks is to hone children's reasoning skills
- prompted the idea that educational psychology must have scientific base and should focus strongly on measurement

Diversity and Early Educational Psychology
- Mamie and Kenneth Clark; conducted research on African American children's self-conceptions and identity
- George Sanchez; Conducted research showing the intelligence tests were culturally biased against ethnic minority children
- Leta Hollingworth ; was the first individual to use the term gifted to describe children who attained exceptionally high scores on intelligence tests

The Behavioral Approach
- In American Psychology, B.F. Skinner's (1938) view, which built on Thorndike's ideas, strongly influenced educational psychology in the middle of the century
- Skinner argued that the mental processes proposed by psychologists such as James and Dewey were not observable and therefore could not be appropriate subject matter for a scientific study of psychology, which he defined as the science of observable behavior and its controlling conditions.
- In the 1950s, Skinner (1954) developed the concept of programmed learning, which involved reinforcing the student after each of a series of steps until the student reached a learning goal. In an early technological effort, he created a teaching machine to serve as a tutor and reinforce students for correct answers

The Cognitive Revolution
- 1950s, Benjamin Bloom created a taxonomy of cognitive skills that included remembering, comprehending, synthesizing, and evaluating, which he suggested teachers should help students develop and use.
-by the 1980s and ushered in an era of enthusiasm for applying the concepts of cognitive psychology-memory, thinking, reasoning, and so on-to help students learn.
- More recently, educational psychologists have increasingly focused on the socioemotional aspects of students' lives. For example, they are analyzing the school as a social context and examining the role of culture in education

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Accommodation: Piagetian concept of adjusting schemas to fit new information and experiences.
Amygdala:  The seat of emotions in the brain.
Assimilation: Piagetian concept of incorporation of the new information into existing knowledge (schemas).
Centration: Focusing, or centering, attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others; characteristic of pre operational thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage: Piaget’s third cognitive developmental stage, occurring between about 7 and 11 years of age. At this stage, the child thinks operationally, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought but only in concrete situations; classification skills are present, but abstract problems present difficulties.
Conservation: The idea that some characteristic of an object stays the same even though the object might change in appearance; a cognitive ability that develops in the concrete operational stage, according to Piaget.
Continuity-discontinuity issue: The issue regarding whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
Corpus Callosum: The brain region where fibers connect the left and right hemispheres.
Development: The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also eventually involves decay (dying).
Early-later experience issue: Involves the degree to which early experiences (especially infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of the child's development.
Epigenetic view: Development is seen as an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment.
Equilibration: A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought.
Formal operational stage: Piaget’s fourth cognitive developmental stage, which emerges between about 11 and 15 years of age; thought becomes more abstract, idealistic, and logical.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning:Piaget’s formal operational concept that adolescents can develop hypotheses to solve problems and systematically reach a conclusion.
Intuitive thought substage: The second substage of preoperational thought, lasting from about 4 to 7 years of age. Children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answer to all sorts of questions. They seem sure about their knowledge in this substage but are unaware of how they know what they know.
Language:  form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, that is based on a system of symbols.
Lateralization: Specialization of functions in each hemisphere of the brain.
Limbic system: Brain region that is the seat of emotions and in which rewards are experienced.
Metalinguistic awareness: Knowledge of language
Morphology: Refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation.
Myelination: The process of encasing many cells in the brain with a myelin sheath that increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.
Nature-nurture issue: Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to environmental influences. The “nature” proponents claim biological inheritance is the most important influence on development; the “nurture” proponents claim environmental experiences are the most important.
neo-piagetians: Developmental psychologists who believe that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision; they emphasize information processing through attention, memory, and strategies.
Neuroconstructivist view: Emphasizes that brain development is influenced by both biological processes and environmental experiences; the brain has plasticity and depends on experience; and brain development is linked closely with cognitive development.
organization: Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories.
Phonology: A language's sound system
pragmatics: the appropriate use of language in different contexts.
prefrontal cortex: the from region of the frontal lobes; involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control.
pre operational stage: the second piagetian stage, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, when symbolic thought increases and operational thought is not yet present.
Scaffolding: A technique that involves changing the level of support for learning. A teacher or more advanced peer adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance.
Schemas: In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences
Sensorimotor stage:The first Piagetian stage, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, when infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor actions.
Seriation: A concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along some quantitative dimension.
Social constructivist approach: Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed; Vygotsky’s theory exemplifies this approach.
Splintered development: The circumstances in which development is uneven across domains.
symbolic function substage: The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring between about 2 and 4 years of age; the ability to represent an object not present develops and symbolic thinking increases; egocentrism is present.
syntax: The ways that words must be combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
Transitivity: The ability to reason and logically combine relationships.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children.

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Professional Knowledge and Skills:
-What makes an effective teacher?

1. they have excellent strategies supported by methods of goal setting, instructional planning, and classroom management

2. they know how to motivate, communicate, and work effectively with students who have different levels of skills and come from different diverse backgrounds

3. understand how to use appropriate levels of technology in the classroom

Subject-Matter Competence:
- Having a thoughtful, flexible, conceptual understanding of subject matter is indispensable for being an effective teacher
-knowledge of subject matter includes more than just facts, terms, and general concepts. It also includes knowledge about organizing ideas, connections among ideas, ways of thinking and arguing, patterns of change within a discipline, beliefs about a discipline, and the ability to carry ideas from one discipline to another.

Instructional Stategies:
- At a broad level, two major approaches characterize how teachers teach: constructivist and direct instruction. The constructivist approach was at the center of James's and Dewey's philosophies of education. The direct instruction approach has more in common with Thorndike's view.
*  view key terms list for Constructivist Approach
- The constructivist approach is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not attempt to simply pour information into children's minds. Rather, children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher
- TODAY, constructivism may include an emphasis on collaboration-children working with each other in their efforts to know and understand
- A teacher with a constructivist instructional philosophy would not have children memorize information rotely but would give them opportunities to meaningfully construct knowledge and understand the material while guiding their learning
* View keys terms for  Direct Instruction Approach
- * a structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum. An important goal in the direct instruction approach is maximizing student learning time
Argument;  Some experts in educational psychology emphasize that many effective teachers use both a constructivist and a direct instruction approach rather than relying exclusively on one or the other, it all depends on the circumstances.

Thinking Skills:
* View key terms to refer to Critical Thinking
- Thinking critically also means being open-minded and curious on the one hand, yet being careful to avoid making mistakes in interpreting something.

Goal Setting and Instructional Planning:
- As they plan, effective teachers reflect and think about how they can make learning both challenging and interesting.
- Good planning requires consideration of the kinds of information, demonstrations, models, inquiry opportunities, discussion, and practice students need over time to understand particular concepts and develop particular skills.
- research has found that all of these features can support learning, the process of instructional design requires that teachers figure out which things students should do when, in what order, and how

Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practices:
- Competent teachers have a good understanding of children's development and know how to create instructional materials appropriate for their developmental levels
- At any grade level, there is usually a two- or three-year span of ages with an even wider span of skills, abilities, and developmental stages.

Understanding developmental pathways and progressions is extremely important for teaching in ways that are optimal for each child

Classroom Management Skills:
- Effective teachers establish and maintain an environment in which learning can occur. To create this optimal learning environment, teachers need a repertoire of strategies for establishing rules and procedures, organizing groups, monitoring and pacing classroom activities, and handling misbehavior

Motivational Skills:
- Educational psychologists increasingly stress that this is best accomplished by providing real-world learning opportunities of optimal difficulty and novelty for each student. Students are motivated when they can make choices in line with their personal interests.
- Effective teachers give them the opportunity to think creatively and deeply about projects.
- High expectations for children's achievement need to come from teachers and parents. Too often children are rewarded for inferior or mediocre performance, and as a result they do not reach their full potential.
- When high expectations are created, a key aspect of education is to provide children-especially low-achieving children-effective instruction and support to meet these expectations.
- Communication skills are critical not only in teaching but also in interacting with parents. Effective teachers use good communication skills when they talk "with" rather than "to" students, parents, administrators, and others; keep criticism at a minimum; and have an assertive rather than aggressive, manipulative, or passive communication style.

Paying more than Lip Service to individual Variations:
* View Key Terms for Differentiated Instruction
- recognizing individual variations in students' knowledge, readiness, interests, and other characteristics, and taking these differences into account in planning curriculum and engaging in instruction
- differentiated instruction advocates discovering "zones" or "ballparks" in which students in a classroom cluster, thus providing three or four types/levels of instruction rather than 20 to 30

Working Effectively with Students from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds:
- In today's world of increasing intercultural contact, effective teachers are knowledgeable about people from different cultural backgrounds and are sensitive to their needs
- Effective teachers encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse students and think of ways to create such settings. They guide students in thinking critically about cultural and ethnic issues, forestall or reduce bias, cultivate acceptance, and serve as cultural mediators
-Effective teachers also consider culturally relevant education, which is "committed to collective empowerment and social justice
- An effective teacher also needs to be a broker, or middle person, between the culture of the school and the culture of certain students, especially those who are unsuccessful academically

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Assessment Knowledge and Skills:
- During instruction, you might want to use ongoing observation and P monitoring to determine whether your instruction is at a level that challenges students and to detect students who need your individual attention
- Give feedback about their achievements
- State mandated testing; annual testing in math, ela, and science. It also holds states accountable for the success and failure of their students.
- Common Core State Standards Initiative (2009), specifies what students should know and the skills they should develop at each grade level in various content areas
- Every Student Succeeds Act (2015);  annual testing for reading and writing success in grades 3 to 8 then once again in high school.
- The new law also allows states to scale back the role that tests have played in holding schools accountable for student achievement. And schools must use at least one nonacademic factor-such as student engagement-when tracking schools success.
- require states and districts to improve their lowest-performing schools and to ensure that they improve their work with historically underperforming students, such as English-language learners, students who are ethnic minorities, and students with a disability.
- Many educational psychologists stress that the challenge is to teach creatively within the structure imposed by the legislation
- Before you become a teacher, your subject-matter knowledge and teaching skills are also likely to be assessed by the state in which you plan to teach. A large majority of states now use the PRAXIS ™M test to determine whether prospective teachers are qualified to teach.

Technological Skills:
- Conditions that support the effective use of technology in education include vision and support from educational leaders; teachers skilled in using technology for learning; content standards and curriculum resources; assessment of effectiveness of technology for learning; and an emphasis on the child as an active, constructive learner
- Students benefit from teachers who increase their knowledge of technology and integrate computers appropriately into classroom learning
- This integration should match up with students learning needs, including the need to prepare for tomorrow's jobs, many of which will require technological expertise and computer-based skills
- effective teachers are knowledgeable about various assistive devices to support the learning of students with disabilities

Empowered Learner. Students actively use technology to reach learning goals.

Digital Citizen. Students demonstrate responsibility and are ethical in their use of technology.

Knowledge Constructor. Students use a variety of resources and digital tools to construct knowledge, become more creative, and engage in meaningful learning.

Innovative Designer. Students use various technologies to solve problems and craft useful and imaginative solutions to these problems.

Computational Thinker. Students develop strategies in using technology to create solutions and test them.

Creative Communicator. Students communicate effectively and think creatively in their use of digital tools to attain goals.

Global Collaborator. Students use technology to widen their perspectives and enhance their learning by connecting with others locally and globally.

- concerns based on media multitasking and how it could impair a child's ability to focus on their academic tasks.

Commitment, motivation, and caring:
-Commitment and motivation help get effective teachers through the tough moments of teaching. Effective teachers have confidence in their own self-efficacy, refuse to let negative emotions diminish their motivation, and bring a positive attitude and enthusiasm to the classroom
- These qualities are contagious and help make the classroom a place where students want to be. Recent research on mindfulness practices has shown that self-care interventions also can have beneficial effects for teachers and their students
- The better teacher you become, the more rewarding your work will be. And the more respect and success you will achieve in the eyes of your students, the better you will feel about your commitment to teaching.
- Effective teachers care for their students
- Effective teachers also help students find ways to consider others' feelings and care about each other.

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Why Research is so Important:
- your own experience and experiences that teachers, admins, and experts share will help you become a better teacher
- When we base information only on personal experiences, our conclusions can be biased because we sometimes make judgments that protect out ego and self-esteem
- when so many voices are telling you the "best way" to educate your students it is hard to know which one you should listen to. Every educator has different experiences with different situations so everyone is going to have different ways that worked for them and their situations. The best way to find a method that works best for you depends on the situation, the clarity of it and to look closely at research on the topic.

Research Methods:
- Collecting info and research is an important aspect of research
Descriptive Research -

Descriptive data collection involves observing and recording behavior.

Ex; an educational psychologist might observe the extent to which children are aggressive in a classroom or interview teachers about their attitudes toward a specific teaching strategy.
-Alone, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomena, but it can reveal important information about people's behavior & attitudes.
- Scientific observation is highly systematic; in context of quantitative research, it requires knowing what you are looking for, trying to conduct observations in an unbiased manner, accurately recording and categorizing what you see, and effectively communicating your observations
- ways to observe; write them down, tape recorders, video cameras, special coding sheets, one-way mirrors, and computers
* Check Key Terms for Laboratory, Naturalistic Observation & Participant Observation

Interviews and Questionnaires:
- "Sometimes the quickest and best way to get information about students and teachers is to ask them for it. Educational psychologists use interviews and questionnaires to find out about children's and teachers' experiences, beliefs, and feelings" (pg. 17)
- Interviews can be done face-to-face, over the phone or on the internet
- Questionnaires can be done by hand, mail or the internet
- Good interviews and surveys in quantitative research involve concrete, specific, and unambiguous questions and some means of checking the authenticity of the respondents' replies
- One crucial limitation is that many individuals give socially desirable rather than expressing how they truly think or feel
- responses are crucial to obtaining accurate information
- a problem that could occur is untruthful answers giving invalid and inaccurate results

Standardized Tests:
- These tests assess students' aptitudes or skills in different domains.
- many of these tests are compared with the performance of other students at the same age or grade level, in many cases on a national basis.
- these tests can provide outcome measures for research studies, information that helps psychologists and educators make decisions about an individual student, and comparisons of students' performance across schools, states, and countries.

- standardized tests also play an important role in a major contemporary educational psychology issue - accountability, which involves holding teachers and students responsible for student performance

Physiological Measures:
- Nueroimaging; A physiological measure that is increasingly being used
- functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); uses electromagnetic waves to construct images of a person's brain tissue and biochemical activity
- Heart rate has been used as an indicator of children's development of perception, attention, and memory along with being used as an index of different aspects of emotional development, such as inhibition, anxiety, and depression
- Cortisol; a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that is linked to the body's stress level and has been measured in studies of temperament, emotional reactivity, peer relations, and child psychopathology.
- as puberty unfolds, the blood levels of certain hormones increase; to determine the nature of these hormonal changes, researchers analyze blood samples from adolescent volunteers.
- genetic and environmental influences on children's and adolescent development; researchers have become more capable of assessing actual genes, they increasingly are examining how specific genes or combinations of genes might influence such education-related topics as intelligence, ADHD, autism, and many other areas

Case Studies:
- Case studies are often used when unique circumstances in a person's life cannot be duplicated, for either practical or ethical reasons
Ex; the study of Brandi Binder, she had severe epilepsy that surgeons had to remove the right side of her brain's cerebral cortex when she was 6 years old.

Brandi lost virtually all control over the muscles on the left side of her body, the side controlled by the right side of her brain. At age 17, however, after years of therapy ranging from leg lifts to mathematics and music training, Brandi is an A student. She loves music and art, which usually are associated with the right side of the brain. Her recuperation is not 100 percent-for example, she has not regained the use of her left arm-but her case study shows that if there is a way to compensate, the human brain will find it. Brandi's remarkable recovery also provides evidence against the stereotype that the left side (hemisphere) of the brain is solely the source of logical thinking and the right hemisphere exclusively the source of creativity. Brains are not that neatly split in terms of most functioning, as Brandi's case illustrates.
- you should be cautious when interpreting case studies, each study is unique and is made up of its own genetic makeup and set of experiences that no one else shares.

Ethnographic Studies:
- consists of in-depth description and interpretation of behavior in an ethnic or a cultural group that includes direct involvement with the participations; can include observations in naturalistic setting as well as interviews

Focus Groups:
- Focus groups involve interviewing people in a group setting, in most cases to obtain information about a particular topic or issue (Nel et al., 2015). Focus groups typically consist of five to nine people in which a group facilitator asks a series of open-ended questions. Focus groups can be used to assess the value of a product, service, or program, such as a newly developed school Web site or the benefits of a recently instituted after-school program for middle school students.

Personal Journals and Diaries:
- Individuals can be asked to keep personal journals or diaries to document quantitative aspects of their activities (such as how often the individual uses the Internet) or qualitative aspects of their lives (such as their attitudes and beliefs about a particular topic or issue). Increasingly, researchers are providing digital audio or video recorders to participants in a study rather than have them write entries in a personal journal or diary.

Correlation Research-
- the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics; useful because the more strongly two events are correlated (related or associated)
Ex; if researchers find that low-involved, permissive teaching is correlated with a student's lack of self-control, it suggests that low-involved, permissive teaching might be one source of the lack of self-control

Experimental Research-
- allows educational psychologists to determine the causes of behaviors
- by using an experiment that factors can influence the behavior being studied is manipulated and all other factors are held constant
- Cause is the event that is being manipulated and Effect is the behavior that changes because of the manipulation
- involve an Independent and Dependent variable
- Could include a group experiment
- can also include random assignment groups
- To summarize the experimental study of peer tutoring and studentachievement, each student is randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group (the experimental group) is given peer tutoring; the other (the control group) is not. The independent variable consists of the differing experiences (tutoring or no tutoring) that the experimental and control groups receive.After the peer tutoring is completed, the students are given a nationally standardized achievement test (dependent variable)

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The Teacher-as-Researcher

Program Evaluation Research, Action Research, and the Teacher-As-Researcher:

Program Evaluation Research-

- designed to make decisions about the effectiveness of a particular program related to its implementation and outcomes

- It often focuses on a specific location or type of program. Because program evaluation research often is directed at answering a question about a specific school or school system, its results are not intended to be generalized to other settings.

- Questions a program evaluation researcher might ask;

has a gifted program started two years ago been implemented as proposed?

What challenges to implementing a new technology program were faced and how were they addressed?

What differences in students' reading skills are observed when comparing those who participated in the two different reading programs used by the school system?

Action Research-

- the goal of action research is to improve educational practices immediately in one or two classrooms, at one school, or at several schools.

- Action research is carried out by teachers and administrators rather than educational psychology researchers.

- guidelines can be put into play to avoid bias and misinterpretation

- can be carried out school-wide or in more limited settings by a smaller group of teachers and administrators; it can even be accomplished in a single classroom by an individual teacher.

The Teacher-as-Researcher-

- the idea that classroom teachers can conduct their own studies to improve their teaching practices

- methods; participant observation, interviews and case studies

- to create a comfortable environment educators can ask questions in a nonthreatening manner

- the teacher also might conduct several clinical interviews with students and discuss their situation with the Childs' parents

- they could also consult with the school psychologist about the students behavior

- the teacher could also create and intervention strategy that improves the student's behavior

- "learning about educational research methods not only can help you understand the research that educational psychologist conduct but also has another practical benefit. The more knowledge you have about research in educational psychology, the more effective you will be in the increasingly popular teacher-researcher role"

Quantitative and Qualitative Research:
- Quantitative Research consists of using numerical calculations to discover information about a particular topic
Ex; Experimental and correlational research designs reflect quantitative research

Observations, interviews, surveys, and standardized tests when statistics are used to analyze the data collected

- Qualitative Research involves obtaining information using descriptive measures such as interviews, case studies, ethnographic studies, focus groups and personal journals and diaries, which usually generate textual data that can be analyzed thematically rather than statistically
- Mixed Methods Research blends different research designs or methods
Ex; researchers might use both quantitative and qualitative research methods

They might use an experimental design and statistically analyze the data (quantitative) and also use a focus group or case study (qualitative) to obtain greater breadth and depth of information about a particular topic.

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Biological, Cognitive, and Socio-emotional Processes:
Biological Processes - Produce change in the child's body and underlie brain development, height and weight gains, motor skills, and puberty's hormonal changes. Genetic inheritance plays a large part.
Cognitive Processes -  Involve changes in the child's thinking, intelligence, and language/ Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize a poem, imagine how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy, or speak meaningfully connected sentences.
Socio-Emotional Processes -  Involve changes in the child's relationships with other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. Parents' nurturance toward their child, a boy's aggressive attack on a peer, a girl's development of assertiveness, and an adolescent's feelings of joy after getting good grades all reflect socio-emotional processes in development.

developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain (Johnson, 2020).
For example, later in this chapter you will learn about connections between developmental changes in regions of the brain and children's thinking.

developmental social neuroscience, which examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain (Hoehl & Markova, 2018). Later in this chapter you will read about developmental changes in the brain and adolescents' risk-taking behavior and peer relations.

Periods of Development:
Infancy- (sometimes called the "preschool years") extends from the end of infancy to about 5 years. During this period, children become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness skills (such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters), and spend many hours with peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.
Middle and Late Childhood- (sometimes called the "elementary school years") extends from about 6 to 11 years of age. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and math, achievement becomes a more central theme, and self-control increases. In this period, children interact more with the wider social world beyond their family.
Adolescence- the development period that goes from childhood to adulthood, beginning around ages 10 to 12 and ending in the late teens. Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including height and weight gains and development of sexual functions. Adolescents intensely pursue independence and seek their own identity. Their thought becomes more abstract, logical, and idealistic.
Emerging Adulthood- occurs from approximately 18 to 25 years of age--has been described (Arnett, 2006; Gilmore, 2019). Experimentation and exploration characterize the emerging adult. At this point in their development, many individuals are still exploring which career path they want to follow, what they want their identity to be, and which lifestyle they want to adopt

Developmental Issues:
Nature and Nurture- Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance and nurture refers to its environmental experiences

Epigenetic View- States that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment
- During childhood, environmental experiences such as nutrition, stress, learning, child care, and encouragement can modify genetic activity and the activity of the nervous system that directly underlies behavior.
- Heredity and environment thus operate together - or collaborate - to produce a child's intelligence, temperament, health, ability to read, and so on
Continuity and Discontinuity:
Early-later experience issue - focuses on the degree to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of the child's development
- hotly debated
- some argue that unless infants experience warm, nurturing care during the first year or so of life, their development will never quite be optimal
- others argue that children are malleable throughout development and that later sensitive caregiving is just as important as earlier sensitive caregiving
Evaluating the Developmental Issues:
- Most developmentalist recognize that development is not only nature or nurture and not all continuity and discontinuity or early or later experiences
Development and Education:
- A challenge that could occur in developmentally appropriate teaching is that you will likely have students with and age range of several years and a range of abilities and skills in the classes you teach
-Competent teachers are aware of these differences
- they don't categorize their students
* Look at key terms for Splintered Development

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The Brain:
- The brain has plasticity and its development depends on contexts and experiences children engage in
Neuroconstructivist View-

a biological processes and environmental experiences influence the brain's development

the brain has plasticity (the ability to change) and depends on experience

development of the brain is linked closely with cognitive development

- these factors constrain or advance the construction of cognitive skills; what children do can change the development of their brains
Development of Neurons and Brain Regions:
- Myelination in brain areas important in focusing attention is not complete until about 10y/o
- the most extensive increase in myelination, which occurs in the brain's frontal lobes where reasoning and thinking occurs
- the increase in connections between neurons is another important aspect of the brain's development at the cellular level
- rapid growth in the temporal lobes (language processing) and parietal lobes (spatial location) occurs from age 6 through puberty
Brain development in Middle and Late Childhood:
- the brain pathways and circuitry involving the prefrontal are linked to children's improves attention, reasoning, and cognitive control
- research suggests; that the prefrontal cortex likely orchestrates the functions of many other brain regions during development
- the prefrontal cortex can provide an advantage to neural networks and connections that includes the prefrontal cortex
- Links between the changing brain and children's cognitive development involve activation of some brain areas, with some areas increasing in activation of some brain areas, with some areas increasing in activation while others decrease
- The increased focal activation is linked to improved cognitive performance, especially in cognitive control, which involves flexible and effective control in a number of areas; controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions, and flexibility in switching between competing choices
Brain Development in Adolescence:
- The connections between neurons are "pruned" as children and adolescents develop; as a result by the end of adolescence individuals have fewer, stronger connections between neurons
Corpus Callosum- Where fibers connect the brain's left and right hemisphere, thickens in adolescence, and this improves adolescents ability to process information
- the prefrontal cortex doesn't finish maturing until the emerging adult years, approximately 18-25 years or later
Limbic System-  the seat of emotions and where rewards are experienced

matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex and is almost completely developed in early adolescence

the limbic system structure that is especially involved in emotion is the amygdala

- impulsive behavior is still under construction during adolescence
Early activation of strong 'turbo-charged'-
- feelings with a relatively unskilled set of 'driving skills' or cognitive abilities to modulate strong emotions and motivations
Laterization:
The Cerebral Cortex- the outer surface of the brain the tis at eh highest level of the central nervous system is divided into two halves or hemisphere

left hemisphere; speech and grammar

right hemisphere; understanding such aspects of language as appropriate use of language in different contexts, evaluation of the emotional expressiveness of language,, and the much of humor

- people commonly use "left brained" & "right brained" to talk about their dominant hemisphere. BUT the brain is much more complex than that!
Plasticity:
- children's experiences can affect how their brains develop
- by engaging students in optimal learning environments, you can stimulate brain development.
The brain and children's education:

Both early and later experiences, including educational experiences, are very important in the brain's development. Significant changes continue to occur at the cellular and structural level in the brain through adolescence.

Synaptic connections between neurons can change dramatically as a consequence of the learning experiences children and adolescents have. Connections between neurons that are used when children focus their attention, remember, and think as they are reading, writing, and doing math are strengthened;

those that aren't used are replaced by other pathways or disappear.

Development at the highest level of the brain -the prefrontal cortex, where such important cognitive processes as thinking, reasoning, and decision making primarily occur -continues at least through the emerging adult years (Nwe et al., 2021). This development in the prefrontal cortex moves from being more diffuse to more focal and involves increased efficiency of processing information (de Haan & Johnson, 2016). As activation in the prefrontal cortex becomes more focused, cognitive control increases. This is exemplified in children being able to focus their attention more effectively and ignore distractions while they are learning as they become older.

Despite the increased focal activation of the prefrontal cortex as children grow older, changes in the brain during adolescence present a challenge to increased cognitive control. In adolescence, the earlier maturation of the limbic system and the amygdala, which are involved in processing of emotions, and the more drawn-out development of the prefrontal cortex, provide an explanation of the difficulty adolescents have in controlling their emotions and their tendency to engage in risk-taking behavior

- education and adolescent years can their learning and cognitive development
Piaget's Theory:
- Piaget stressed that processes are especially important in this regard: schemas, assimilation and accommodation, organization and equilibration
4 Stages of Piagetian:

Sensorimotor- The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought

toward the end of the stage

Birth - 2 years old

constructing an understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences; reaching & touching

Preoperational Stage- The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action

2-7 years old

the Symbolic Function Substage occurs roughly between 2 and 4 years of age

expanded us of language an pretend play

Intuitive thought substage - second substage of pre operational thought, starting at about 4 and lasting until 7 years old

Piaget called this substage "intuitive"

Centration; focuses or centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others

Ask a lot of questions

Concrete Operational Stage- The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets

7-11 years old

involves using operations

logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning

a reversible mental action pertaining to real, concrete objects

allows children to coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object

classifying/dividing things into different sets or subsets and considering their interrelationships

Ex; family trees

*Look at terms Seriation & Transitivity & hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Formal Operational Stage- The adolescents reason in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways

11-adulthood

At this stage, adolescents engage in extended speculation about the idea qualities they desire in themselves and others. These ideas may be expressed in fantasy.

* look at terms hypothetical-deductive reasoning

A form of egocentrism also emerges in adolescence

occurs more commonly in middle school than high school

many adolescents dont consider themselves invulnerable

social media serves as an amplification tool for adolescent egocentrism

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Piaget, Constructivism, and Technology:

Constructivism- students learn best when they are actively constructing information and knowledge

- Piaget's theory is strongly constructivist view

Ex; robotic kits, beets, sensor-based blocks, etc.

Evaluating Piaget's Theory:

Contributions

assimilation and accommodation

object permanence

egocentrism

conservation

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Criticism

Estimates of children's competence. Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought, others later (Monahan et al., 2016; Quinn & Bhatt, 2016). Conservation of numbers has been demonstrated as early as age 3, although Piaget did not think it emerged until age 7. Young children are not as uniformly "pre-" this and "pre-" that (precausal, preoperational) as Piaget thought (Flavell et al., 2002). Other cognitive abilities can emerge later than Piaget thought. Many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to master formal operations (Kuhn, 2009).

Stages. Cognitive development is not as stage-like as Piaget envisioned (Müller & Kerns, 2015). Piaget conceived of stages as unitary structures of thought. Some concrete operational concepts, however, do not appear at the same time. For example, children do not learn to conserve at the same time as they learn to cross-classify.

Training children to reason at a higher level. Some children who are at one cognitive stage (such as preoperational) can be trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage (such as concrete operational). However, Piaget argued that such training is only superficial and ineffective, unless the child is at a maturational transition point between the stages (Gelman & Opfer, 2004).

Culture and education. Culture and education exert stronger influences on children's development than Piaget envisioned (Gauvain, 2016). For example, the age at which children acquire conservation skills is related to the extent to which their culture provides relevant practice (Cole, 2006). An outstanding teacher can guide students' learning experiences that will help them move to a higher cognitive stage.

V ygotsky's Theory:

- cognitive development is shaped by the cultural context in which they live

The Zone of Proximal Development:

- Vygotsky believed that in the importance of social influences, especially instruction, on children's cognitive development is reflected in his concept of the zone of proximal development

-ZPD is Vygotsky's term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children

- the lower limit of the ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently

- the upper limit of the ZPD is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor

- ZPD captures the child's cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can be accomplished only with the assistance of a more skilled person

Scaffolding:

-  The changing level of support

- when teaching you have to adjust the amount of guidance you give to fit the child's task

- ask probing questions
Language and Thought:
- in Vygotsky's view, language plays and an important role in child's development
- children use speech not only for social communication but to help them solve tasks
Private speech = Self Regulation
- Vygotsky said that language and thought initially develop independently from each other and then merge
- children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus inward on their own thoughts.
- from ages 3-7 begins the transition that they start talking to themselves
- after self talk becomes natural children have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of Inner Speech, which becomes their thoughts
- Vygotsky also argued that children who use private speech are more socially competent then those who don't
- Piaget held that self talk is egocentric and reflects immaturity
- research have found support for vygotskys view that private speech plays a positive role in children's development
- children who use self speech are;

more attentive

improve their performance more then those who dont

use more frequent planning & motivational private speech have higher task accuracy during a constructive task

Evaluating Vygotsky's Theory:
- from Piaget to Vygotsky the shift is from the individual to collaboration, social interaction, social interaction, and socio-cultural activity
- Piaget; end goal is formal operational thought

children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge

children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge

- Vygotsky; end goal can differ depending on which skills are considered to be the most important in a particular culture

children construct knowledge through social interaction

students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers

OVERALL- in both theories, teachers serve as facilitators and guides, rather than as directors and molders of learning

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What is language:

Phonology:

Phonology is the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined. A phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language; it is the smallest unit of sound that affects meaning.

Morphology:

Morphology, refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation. A
morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning; it is a word or a part of a word that
cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts. Every word in the English
language is made up of one or more morphemes.

Syntax:

Syntax involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and
sentences

Semantics:

Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences. Every word has a set of semantic features, or required attributes related to meaning. Words have semantic restrictions on how they can be used in sentences

Pragmatics :

The appropriate use of language in different contexts.

When you take turns speaking in a discussion, you are demonstrating knowledge of pragmatics.

Biological and Environmental Influences:

Some language scholars view the remarkable similarities in how children acquire language all over the world, despite the vast variation in language input they receive, as strong evidence that language has a biological basis

Children are neither exclusively biological linguists nor exclusively social architects of language.

How Language Develops:
Infancy

Babbling occurs in the middle of the first year and infants usually utter
their first word at about 10 to 13 months.

In this two-word stage, they quickly grasp the importance of language in communication, creating phrases such as "Book there, "My candy." "Mama walk," and "Give Papa.

Early Childhood

The transition from simple sentences expressing a single proposition to complex sentences begins between 2 and 3 years of age and continues into the elementary school years

In terms of phonology, most preschool children gradually become sensitive to the sounds of spoken words. They notice rhymes, enjoy poems, make up silly names for things by substituting one sound for another

they overgeneralize these rules, applying them to words that do not follow the rules. For example, a preschool child might say "foots" instead of "feet" or "goed" instead of "went."

Middle and Late Childhood

increased use of language to talk about things that are not physically present, learning what a word is, and learning how to recognize and talk about sounds.

During middle and late childhood, changes occur in the way mental vocabulary is organized.

The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary.
Children's vocabulary increases from an average of about 14,000 words at age 6 to an average of about 40,000 words by age 11

Early Literacy

instruction should be built on what children already know about oral language, reading, and writing. Further, early precursors of literacy and academic success include language skills, phonological and syntactic knowledge, letter identification, and enjoyment of books

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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory

The ecological theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner primarily
focuses on the social contexts in which children live and the people who influence their development.

ecological theory identifies five environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-based influences of culture. The five systems are the microsystem (family, friends, peers, school), mesosystem (family experience and school experience), exosystem (school board park board in the community), macrosystem (societies values and customs), and chronosystem (children experiences are different then they parents and grandparents).

Erikson's Life-Span Development Theory

In Erikson's theory, eight stages of development unfold as people go
through the human life span. Trust vs Mistrust (infancy), Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3), Initiative vs. guilt (3-5), Industry vs. Inferiority (6-puberty), Identity vs. Identity confusion (10-20), Intimacy vs. isolation (20s,30s), Generativity vs. stagnation (40s,50s), Integrity vs despair (60s and up).

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Authoritarian parenting

is restrictive and punitive. Authoritarian parents exhort children to follow their directions and respect them. They place firm limits and controls on their children and allow little verbal exchange. For example, an authoritarian parent might say, "Do it my way or else. There will be no discussion!" Children of authoritarian parents often behave in socially incompetent ways. They tend to be anxious about social comparison, fail to initiate activity, and have poor communication skills.

Authoritative parenting

encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are nurturant and supportive. Children whose parents are authoritative often behave in socially competent ways. They tend to be self-reliant, delay gratification, get along with their peers, and show high self-esteem. Because of these positive outcomes, Baumrind strongly endorses authoritative parenting.

Neglectful parenting

is a parenting style in which parents are uninvolved in their children's lives. Children of neglectful parents develop the sense that other aspects of their parents' lives are more important than they are. Children of neglectful parents often behave in socially incompetent ways. They tend to have poor self-control, don't handle independence well, and aren't motivated to achieve.

Indulgent parenting

is a parenting style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few limits or restrictions on their behaviors. These parents often let their children do whatever they want because they believe the combination of nurturant support and lack of restraints will produce a creative, confident child. The result is that these children usually don't learn to control their own behavior. Indulgent parents do not take into account the development of the whole child.

The Changing Family in a Changing Society:
Working parents

work can produce positive and negative effects on parenting

when parents have poor working conditions, such as long hours, overtime work, stressful work and lack autonomy at work, are likely to be more irritable ar home and engage in less effective parenting than their counterparts who have better considitons

Children In Divorced Families

children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in non divorced families

effects of divorce are complex and depends on the child's age, strengths and weaknesses at the time of the divorce, the type of custody, socio-economic status, and post divorce family functioning

research suggests that cooperative coparenting between divorced spouses is linked to children having fewer adjustment problems

School-Family Linkages

parents can serve as gatekeepers and provide guidance as children assumer more responsibility for themselves

parents also play a role in stimulating children's academic achievement

Peers

Lots of children worry about whether they are popular or not. they don't want to be average or neglected.

Friendships influence children's attitudes toward school and how successful they are in the classroom

students who did not have a friend engaged in less prosocial behavior, had lower grades, and were more emotionally distressed than students who had at least one friend, and they continued to have higher levels of emotional distress in eighth grade. researchers have found that school friendships and perceptions of belongingness helped protect middle school students against substance use and aggression

Schools

social contexts vary throughout all ages, they also change very much through the schools you attend.

Developmentally appropriate education is based on knowledge of the typical development of children within an age span as well as the uniqueness of the child. It emphasizes the importance of creating settings that encourage children to be active learners and reflect children's interests and capabilities.

The Montessori approach is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.

Project Head Start was designed to provide young children from low-income families opportunities to acquire the skills and experiences that are important for success in school.

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The Self and Identity:
Self Esteem

self esteem refers to an individuals' overall view of him or herself; also referred to as self-worth or self-image

persistent low self-esteem is linked with low achievement, depression, eating disorders and delinquency

researchers have found that self-esteem changes as children develop

self-esteem drops drastically from childhood to early adolescence

Ex; one study found that self-esteem may affect the life-span trajectories of affect and depression, relationship and job satisfaction, and health. However, much of the research on self-esteem is correlational rather than experimental.

Keep in mind that correlation does not equal causation. Thus, if a correlational study finds an association between children's low self-esteem and low academic achievement, low academic achievement could cause the low self-esteem as much as low self-esteem causes low academic achievement, or some other factor may cause both.

Self esteem for students' varies across different domains, such as academic, athletic, physical appearance, social skills, and so on

Identity Development:
Identity Statuses -

Identity diffusion

occurs when individuals have not yet experienced a crisis (i.e., they have not yet explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, but they are also likely to show little interest in such matters.

Identity foreclosure

occurs when individuals have made a commitment but have not yet experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, more often than not in an authoritarian manner. In these circumstances, adolescents have not had adequate opportunities to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own.

Identity moratorium

occurs when individuals are in the midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent or only vaquely defined.

Identity achievement

occurs when individuals have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.

Ethnic Identity

is an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership

Researchers are increasingly finding that a positive ethnic identity is related to positive outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents

Strong ethnic affiliation and connection serve a protective function in reducing risk for psychiatric problems

Moral Development:

concerns rules and conventions about just interactions between people

Kohlberg's Theory

that moral development primarily involved moral reasoning and occurs in stages

a ket concept in understanding progression through the levels and stages is that their morality becomes more internal or mature

their reasons for their moral decision or values begin to go beyond the external or superficial reasons they gave when they were younger

Level 1: Pre-conventional Reasoning

Stage 1. Punishment and obedience orientation is the first Kohlber stage of moral development. At this stage, moral thinking is often tied to punishment. For example, children and adolescents obey adults because adults tell them to obey.

Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of Kohlberg's theory. At this stage, individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same. Thus, what is right involves an equal exchange. People are nice to others so that others will be nice to them in return.

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning

Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents' moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of by their parents as a "good girl" or a "good boy.

Stage 4. Social systems morality is the fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.
For example, adolescents may say that, for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.

Level 3: Post-conventional Reasoning

Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and examines social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values.

Stage 6. Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person will follow conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk

Domain Theory:
Domain Theory of Moral Development

States that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning

an important distinction is between moral and social conventional domains

Children's and adolescent's moral and social conventional domains emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience

Social Conventional Reasoning

focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus to control behavior and maintain the social system

Cheating

academic cheating can include; plagiarism, "cheat sheets", copying from a neighbor, purchasing papers, falsifying lab results

Why? pressure to get high grades, time pressures, a self-perception that they don't have the ability to succeed, poor teaching, lack of interest, and perceiving a low likelihood of being caught and punished.

Prosocial Behavior

caring about the welfare and rights of others, feeling concern and empathy for them, and acting in a way that benefits others are all components of prosocial behavior

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Moral Education:
The hidden curriculum

John Dewey recognized that even when schools do not have specific programs in moral education, they provide moral education through a "hidden curriculum"

every school has a persuasive moral atmosphere even if it does not have a program of moral education

Ex; classroom rules and peer relations at school transmits attitudes about cheating, lying, stealing, and showing consideration for other. Through its rules and regulations, the school administration infuses the school with a value system.
Character Education

a direct approach to moral education that involves teaching students basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others

the argument is that behaviors such as lying, stealing, and cheating are wrong, and that students should be taught this throughout their education

Values Clarification

helping people to clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for

Cognitive Moral Education

an approach based on the belief that students should learn to value ideals such as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops

Service Learning

a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community

in service learning students engage in activities like; tutoring, helping elders, working in hospitals, assisting in child-care centers, learning up and etc.

the goal if to make students less self-centered and more motivated to help others

doing this can increase grades, goals setting, self-esteem and etc.

Emotional Development:
Development of Emotions-

Early Childhood

When children are 4 to 5 years of age, they show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They also begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Moreover, they show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards (Eisenberg et al., 2016). And, by 5 years of age, most children can accurately identify emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress (Blair et al., 2016; Cole, 2016).

Middle and Late Childhood

During the elementary school years, children show marked improvement in their ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions. Although a boy may feel sad that a friend does not want to play with him, he may decide not to share those feelings with his parents.

In this time frame, children also use self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop strategies to cope with their emotional lives. Children can more effectively manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts. A boy may be excited about his birthday party that will take place later in the afternoon, but still be able to concentrate on his schoolwork during the day.

Also in middle and late childhood, children develop a capacity for genuine empathy. For example, two girls may see another child in distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help.

Adolescence

have high emotions

it is important for adults to recognize the moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence and to understand that most adolescents make it through these moody times to become competent adults

Social-Emotional Education Programs

Second Step focuses on the following aspects of social-emotional learning from pre-K through the eighth grade: (1) pre-K: self-regulation and executive function skills that improve their attention and help them control their behavior; (2) K-grade 5: making friends, self-regulation of emotion, and solving problems; and (3) communication skills, coping with stress, and decision making to help them avoid engaging in problem behaviors.

CASEL targets five core social and emotional learning domains: (1) self-awareness (e.g., recognizing one's emotions and how they affect behavior); (2) self-management (e.g., self-control, coping with stress, and impulse control); (3) social awareness (perspective taking and empathy); (4) relationship skills (e.g., developing positive relationships and communicating effectively with individuals from diverse backgrounds); and (5) responsible decision making (e.g., engaging in ethical behavior and understanding the consequences of one's actions).

Coping With Stress

Reassure children (numerous times, if necessary) of their safety and security.

Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them.

Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings, reassuring them that such feelings are normal after a stressful event.

Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma-for example, by limiting discussion of the event in front of the children.

Help children make sense of what happened, keeping in mind that children may misunderstand what took place. For example, young children "may blame themselves, believe things happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc.
Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event" (p. 10).

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Intelligence Tests

The two main intelligence tests that are administered to children on an individual
basis today are the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler scales.

Binet

developed the concept of mental age (MA), an individual's level of mental development relative to others.

The Wechsler scales

not only provide an overall IQ score and scores on a number of subtests but also yield several composite indexes

Group Intelligence Tests

include Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence test & Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT)

benefits; more convenient and economical than individual tests

drawback; when the test is given to a large group, the examiner cannot establish rapport, determine the student's anxiety and etc. Students could also get distracted by the others

Theories of Multiple intelligence
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical

Gardner's Eight Frames of Mind
Verbal skills:

The ability to think in words and to use language to express meaning (authors, journalists, and speakers)

Mathematical skills:

The ability to carry out mathematical operations (scientists, engineers, and accountants)

Spatial skills:

The ability to think three-dimensionally (architects, artists, and sailors)

Bodily-kinesthetic skills:

The ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept (surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, and athletes)

Musical skills:

A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone (composers, musicians, and music therapists)

Intrapersonal skills:

The ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one's life (theologians and psychologists)

Interpersonal skills:

The ability to understand and effectively interact with others (teachers and mental health professionals)

Naturalist skills:

The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems (farmers, botanists, ecologists, and landscapers)

Emotional Intelligence

the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively (such as taking the perspective of others), to understand emotion and emotional knowledge (such as understanding the roles that emotions play in friendship and other relationships), to use feelings to facilitate thought (such as being in a positive mood, which is linked to creative thinking), and to manage emotions in oneself and others

emotional intelligence abilities were linked to academic performance above
and beyond intelligence and personality factors however, caution that there is limited evidence to support that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance is causal

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Impulsive/Reflective Styles:

Research shows rear reflective students are more likely to do well at the following tasks

reflective students are also more likely to set their own learning goals and concentrate on relevant information

reflective students usually have higher standards for performance

Deep/Surface Styles

involves how students approach learning materials

Students who approach learning with a surface style fail to tie what they are learning into a larger conceptual framework.

Deep learners are more likely to actively construct what they learn and give meaning to what they need to remember. Thus, deep learners take a constructivist approach to learning.

Deep learners also are more likely to be self-motivated to learn, whereas surface learners are more likely to be motivated to learn because of external rewards, such as grades and positive feedback from the teacher

Optimistic/Pessimistic Styles

involve having either a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) outlook on the future.

A study of adolescents found that having an optimistic style of thinking predicted a reduction in suicidal ideation for individuals who had experienced negative and potentially traumatic life events

Another study revealed that adolescents with an optimistic thinking style had a lower risk of developing depressive symptoms than their pessimistic counterparts

This concept emphasizes that positive academic outcomes will occur if teachers (1) believe they can make a difference in their students' academic achievement; (2) trust students and parents to cooperate in this objective; and (3) believe in their ability to overcome problems and be resilient in the face of difficulties

Criticisms of Learning and Thinking Styles

Criticisms have been leveled at the concept of learning and thinking styles. A survey of researchers in the field of learning and thinking styles revealed that the three most common criticisms of these styles involve (1) low reliability of the styles (lack of consistency when they are assessed); (2) low validity of the styles (whether the tests that are used actually measure the styles purportedly being assessed); and (3) confusion in the definitions of styles

Two research reviews supported these criticisms, finding that scientific support for learning style theories is lacking

Moreover, there is strong evidence that matching instruction to students' learning styles or preferences does NOT improve learning

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Personality

Personality refers to distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

some researchers argue that they have identified the "big five" factors of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability)

the importance of the Big Five factors indicates that they are related
to such important aspects of children's, adolescents', and adults' lives as health, intelligence and cognitive functioning, achievement and work, and relationships

Indeed, research supports that conscientiousness is the most important personality predictor of academic achievement

The "Big Five" Personality Factors

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).

Person-Situation Interaction

person-situation interaction, the best way to characterize an individual's personality is not in terms of personal traits or characteristics alone, but also in terms of the situation involved.

don't think of personality traits as always dooming a student to behave in a
particular way across all situations

Temperament:
Temperament Classifications

An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.

A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

Temperament is a person's behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding. Some students are active; others are calm. Some respond warmly to people; others fuss and fret.

An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes reqular
routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.

A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular
daily routines, and is slow to accept change.

A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and
displays a low intensity of mood.

Individual differences emerge in the development of children's temperament styles, such as effortful control. some children develop effortful control while others don't

Goodness of Fit

The match between an individual's temperament and the environmental demands the individual must cope with, called goodness of fit, can be important to his or her adjustment.

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Approaches to Learning:
Behavioral
Behaviorism

is the view that behavior should be explained by observable

experiences, not by mental processes.
Mental processes

are defined by psychologists as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot be observed by others.

four main cognitive approaches to learning in this book: social cognitive (behavior, environment, and person); information-processing (attention, memory, thinking and other processes); cognitive constructivist (knowledge and understanding); and social constructivist (collaboration with others for knowledge and understanding).

Five main approaches to learning: Behavioral, social, cognitive, information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist

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Classical Conditioning

is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect, or associate, stimuli.

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

understand two types of stimuli and two types of responses: unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).

An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning. An unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the UCS.

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the US.

A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after UCS-CS pairing.

Among the things in the child's schooling that produce pleasure because they have become classically conditioned are a favorite song and feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be.

Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

Generalization in classical conditioning involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response.

Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to
certain stimuli but not others.

Extinction in classical conditioning involves the weakening of the conditioned
response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Systematic Desensitization

Systematic desensitization is a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations.

Desensitization involves a type of counterconditioning. The relaxing feelings that the student imagines (UCS) produce relaxation (UCR).

Chances are you will have students who fear speaking in front of the class or have other anxieties, and there may be circumstances in your own life where you might benefit from replacing anxiety with relaxation.

Evaluating Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning excels in explaining how neutral stimuli become
associated with unlearned, involuntary responses.

It is not as effective in explaining voluntary behaviors, such as why a student studies hard for a test or likes history better than geography.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur and punishment is a consequence that decreases the
probability a behavior will occur.

In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction

Generalization in operant conditioning means giving the same response to a stimulus similar to the one for which it was originally reinforced.

Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.

extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.

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What Is Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied behavior analysis involves applying the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.

Three uses of applied behavior analysis are especially important in education: increasing desirable behavior, using prompts and shaping, and decreasing undesirable behavior. These are used to target specific behaviors and help change them.

Increasing Desirable Behavior:

Choose Effective

Applied behavior analysts recommend that teachers find out what reinforcers work best with which children-that is, individualize the use of particular reinforcers.

To find out the most effective reinforcers for a child, you can examine what has motivated the child in the past

The Premack principle states that a high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. Can be used with one student or the whole class

Make Reinforcers Contingent and Timely

For a reinforcer to be effective, the teacher must give it only after the child performs the particular behavior. Applied behavior analysts often recommend that teachers make "If ... then" statements.

Reinforcers are more effective when they are given in a timely way, as soon as
possible after the child performs the target behavior. This helps children see the contingency connection between the reward and their behavior.

Select The Best Schedule of Reinforcement

schedules of reinforcement, which are partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced. The four main schedules of reinforcement are fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval.

fixed-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.

variable-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced on an unpredictable basis like in gambling.

fixed-interval schedule, the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced.

variable-interval schedule, a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

Initial learning is usually faster with continuous rather than partial reinforcement.

Consider Contracting

Contracting involves putting reinforcement contingencies in writing. If problems arise and children don't uphold their end of the bargain, the teacher can refer the children to the contract they agreed to.

Use Negative Reinforcement Effectively

in negative reinforcement, the frequency of response increases because the response removes an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

Using negative reinforcement has some drawbacks. Sometimes when teachers try to use this behavioral strategy, children throw a tantrum, run out of the room, or destroy materials. These negative outcomes happen most often when children don't have the skills or capabilities to do what the teacher asks of them.

Use prompts and shaping:
Prompts

A prompt is an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response that increases the likelihood that the response will occur. Instructions can be used as prompts

Instruction can be used as prompts

Ex; Some prompts are presented visually, as when the teacher places her hand on her ear when a student is not speaking loudly enough.

Shaping

Shaping involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior.

shaping can be an important tool for the classroom teacher because most students need reinforcement along the way to reaching a learning goal

Ex; Suppose you have a student who has never completed 50 percent or more of her math assignments. You set the target behavior at 100 percent, but you reinforce her for successive approximations to the target. You initially might provide a reinforcer (e.g., some type of privilege) when she completes 60 percent, then the next time only when she completes 70 percent, then 80, then 90, and finally 100 percent.
Decreasing Undesirable Behavior:

1.  Use differential reinforcement.

2.  Terminate reinforcement (extinction).

3.  Remove desirable stimuli.

4.  Present aversive stimuli (punishment).

Use Differential Reinforcement

In differential reinforcement, the teacher reinforces behavior that is more
appropriate or that is incompatible with what the child is doing.

Terminate Reinforcement (Extinction)

The strategy of terminating reinforcement involves withdrawing positive reinforcement from a child's inappropriate behavior.

Applied behavior analysts point out that this can occur even when the teacher gives attention to an inappropriate behavior by criticizing, threatening, or yelling at the student.

Remove Desirable Stimuli

A third option is to remove desirable stimuli from the student. Two strategies for accomplishing this are "time-out" and "response cost.'

Time-Out

In other words, take the student away from positive reinforcement.

Response Cost

which refers to taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when the student loses certain privileges.

Present Aversive Stimuli

an aversive stimulus is punishment only if it decreases the undesirable behavior. All too often, though, aversive stimuli are not effective punishments, in that they do not decrease the unwanted behavior and indeed sometimes increase the unwanted behavior over time.

The most common types of aversive stimuli that teachers use are verbal
reprimands.

there are lots of ongoing debates on whether or not it effects children development if they are punished

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The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach 

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The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach 

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The Information-Processing Approach

The information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

children develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills

Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed Of Processing Information

As children grow and mature, and as they experience the world, their information-processing abilities increase. These changes are likely influenced by increases in both capacity and speed of processing. These two characteristics are often referred to as cognitive resources.

Both biology and experience contribute to growth in cognitive resources.

As children grow and mature, important biological developments occur both in brain structures, such as changes in the frontal lobes, and at the level of neurons, such as the blooming and pruning of connections between neurons that produces fewer but stronger connections

Mechanisms Of Change
Encoding

is the process by which information gets stored in memory.

Automaticity

refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort.

Strategy construction

is the creation of new procedures for processing information.

metacognition

which means "knowing about knowing." One example of metacognition is what children know about the best ways to remember what they have read.

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What is Attention

Attention is the focusing of mental resources.

Selective attention

is focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant. Focusing on one voice among many in a crowded room or a noisy restaurant is an example of selective attention.

Divided attention

involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time. If you are listening to music while you are reading this, you are engaging in divided attention.

Sustained attention

is the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time. Sustained attention is also called vigilance. Staying focused on reading this chapter from start to finish without interruption is an example of sustained attention. A study found that sustained attention in preschoolers was linked to a greater likelihood of completing college by 25 years of age (McClelland et al., 2013).

Executive attention

involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances. An example of executive attention is effectively deploying attention to carry out the aforementioned cognitive tasks while writing a 10-page paper for a history course.

Developmental Changes

The length of time children can pay attention increases as they get older.

Preschool children's ability to control and sustain their attention is related to
school readiness and achievement later in childhood.

Sustained attention improves rapidly from 5 to 10 years of age, and this increased attention is linked to better performance on cognitive tasks

Control over attention shows important changes during childhood. External stimuli are likely to determine the target of the preschooler's attention; what is salient, or obvious, grabs the preschooler's attention.

Attention to relevant information increases steadily through the elementary and secondary school years. Processing of irrelevant information decreases in adolescence.

As children grow up, their abilities both to direct selective attention and to divide attention also improve. Older children and adolescents are better than younger children at tasks that require shifts of attention.

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What is Memory?

Memory is the retention of information over time. Without memory you would not be able to connect what happened to you yesterday with what is going on in your life today.

memory focuses on three things: encoding (the process by which info get into memory), storage (the retention of information over time), and retrieval (taking info out of storage).

Encoding

By focusing their attention, as children listen to a teacher, do homework, write a paper, read a book, watch a movie, listen to music, or talk with a friend, they can encode the information into memory. it consists of many processes: rehearsal, deep processing, elaboration, constructing images, and organization.

Rehearsal

Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory. Rehearsal does not work well for retaining information over the long term because it often involves just rote repetition of information without imparting any meaning to it.

Deep Processing

levels of processing theory states that the processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

Elaboration

Elaboration is the extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding. Thus, when you present the concept of democracy to students, they likely will remember it better if they come up with good examples of it.

To remember a piece of information, such as a name, an experience, or a fact about geography, students need to search for the code that contains this information among the mass of codes in their long-term memory.

Constructing Images

When we construct an image of something, we are elaborating the information.

Researchers have found that encouraging children to use imagery to remember verbal information works better for older children than for younger children

Organization

If students organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits

When you present information in an organized way, your students are more likely to remember it. This is especially true if you organize information hierarchically or outline it.

Chunking

is a beneficial organizational memory strategy that involves grouping, or "packing," information into "higher-order" units that can be remembered as single units.

Storage:

some kids can remember information for half a second, half a minute, others for minutes, hours, years, or even a lifetime

there are three types of memory: sensory (several seconds), short-term (around 30 seconds), and long-term (lasts up to a lifetime)

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time a student is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other sensations.

sounds last up to several seconds when visual images last of only about one-fourth of a second

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed or
otherwise processed further, in which case it can be retained longer. compared to sensory memory it is limited in capacity but is longer in duration.

They say the limit is 7+2 This has to do with memory span, the number of digits an individual can report back without error from a single presentation. How many digits individuals can report back depends on how old they are.

Working memory

is a three-part system that temporarily holds information as people perform tasks. Working memory is a kind of mental "workbench" where information is manipulated and assembled to help us make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language.

working memory develops gradually and is linked to many aspects of children development

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds enormous amounts of
information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion.

typical humans's long term memory capacity is staggering, often only taking moment to find information

A Model of the Three Memory Stores

According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory involves a sequence of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory stages.

Atkinson and Shiffrin claimed that the longer information is retained in short-term memory through the use of rehearsal, the greater its chance is of getting into long-term memory.

people argue that memory doesn't always work in neatly packaged three-stage sequence and say that working memory uses long term memory and it is more flexible

Long-Term Memory's Contents

memory can be differentiated on the basis of its contents. long-term memory is divided into the subtypes of declarative and procedural memory. Declarative memory is subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory.

Declarative & Procedural Memory

Declarative memory is the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.

declarative memory could include recounting an event they have witnessed or describing a basic principle of math.

Procedural memory is non declarative knowledge in the form of skills and
cognitive operations. Procedural memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts.

Episodic and Semantic Memory

Episodic memory is the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings.

Semantic memory is a student's general knowledge about the world. Semantic memory is independent of the person's identity with the past.

Representing Information In Memory

Network theories describe how information in memory is organized and connected. They emphasize nodes in the memory network. The nodes stand for labels or concepts.

Schema Theories

Schema theories state that when we reconstruct information, we fit it into
information that already exists in our mind.

A schema is information-concepts, knowledge, information about events-that already exists in a person's mind

Unlike network theories, which assume that retrieval involves specific facts,
schema theory claims that long-term memory searches are not very exact.

schema theory accurately predicts that people don't always coldly store
and retrieve bits of data in a computer-like fashion.

A script is a schema for an event. Scripts often have information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences.

Fuzzy Trace Theory

fuzzy trace theory, which states that when individuals encode information it creates two types of memory representations: (1) a verbatim memory trace, which consists of precise details; and (2) a fuzzy trace, or gist, which is the central idea of the information

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Retrieval and Forgetting:

Retrieval

When we retrieve something from our mental "data bank," we search our store of memory to find the relevant information.

An item's position on a list also affects how easy or difficult it will be to remember it. In the serial position effect, recall is better for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle.

The primacy effect is that items at the beginning of a list tend to
be remembered. The recency effect is that items at the end of the list also tend to be remembered. it also applies not only to lists but also with events

Another factor that affects retrieval is the nature of the cues people use to prompt their memory

Another consideration in understanding retrieval is the encoding specificity principle, which says that associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues.

The concept of encoding specificity is compatible with our earlier discussion of elaboration: The more elaboration children use in encoding information, the better their memory of the information will be.

Yet another aspect of retrieval is the nature of the retrieval task itself. Recall is a memory task in which individuals must retrieve previously learned information, as students must do for fill-in-the-blank or essay questions.

Forgetting

Cue-dependent forgetting is retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues. The notion of cue-dependent forgetting can explain why a student might fail to retrieve a needed fact for an exam even when he is sure he "knows" the information.

with interference theory, which states that we forget not because we actually lose memories from storage but rather because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember.

decay theory, new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical "memory trace," which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting. memories decay at different speeds like if a memory has emotional ties it will last longer

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Expertise and Learning:

Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of Organization

Experts are better at noticing important features of problems and contexts that
novices may ignore. Experts also have superior recall of information in their area of expertise.

In areas where children are knowledgeable and competent, their memory is often extremely good. In fact, it often exceeds that of adults who are novices in that content area.

Expert teachers recognize features and patterns that are not noticed by novice
teachers

Organization and Depth of Knowledge

Experts' knowledge is organized around important ideas or concepts more than novices' knowledge is. This provides experts with a much deeper understanding of knowledge than novices have

Experts in a particular area usually have far more elaborate networks of
information about that area than novices do

The implications for teaching are that too often a curriculum is designed in a way that makes it difficult for students to organize knowledge in meaningful ways. This especially occurs when there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic.

Fluent Retrieval

Retrieval of relevant information can range from taking a lot of effort to being
fluent and almost effortless. Experts retrieve information in an almost effortless, automatic manner, whereas novices expend a great deal of effort in retrieving information

Students' fluency or automaticity is an important issue for teachers to attend to when designing instructional tasks. This is due to cognitive load or the amount of working memory used to complete a task

cognitive load theory suggests that there are three kinds of cognitive load teachers should consider that may impact whether the student learns the material or not. These are intrinsic load (related to the complexity of the task/material), germane load (related to the working memory resources needed to learn the material), and extrinsic load (related to the load imposed by the instructional procedures).

Adaptive Expertise

An important aspect of expertise "is whether some ways of organizing knowledge are better" than others for helping people to be "flexible and adaptive to new situations"

innovation and efficiency are the two main dimensions of one model of
adaptive expertise

Experts characterized by efficiency can quickly retrieve and apply information in skillful ways to explain something or solve a problem. Experts characterized by innovation are able to move away from efficiency, at least on a short-term basis, and unlearn previous routines.

adaptive experts possess a balance of efficiency and innovation

Adaptive experts are motivated to learn from others. This may not be that difficult when the learning involves making a teacher's existing routines and practices more efficient.

adaptive expertise is a critical aspect of being an outstanding teacher.

Strategies

Experts use effective strategies in understanding the information in their area of expertise and in advancing it

acclimation to describe the initial stage of expertise in a particular domain (such as English, biology, or mathematics). At this stage, students have limited and fragmented knowledge that restricts their ability to detect the difference between accurate and inaccurate and relevant and tangential information.

teachers need to guide students in determining what content is central and what is peripheral, as well as what is accurate and well supported and what is inaccurate and unsupported.

Spreading Out and Consolidating Learning

a students learning benefits when a teacher talks with them about the importance of reviewing what they are learning. they did better studying over time then just cramming

Asking themselves Questions

When children ask themselves questions about what they have read or about an activity, they expand the number of associations with the information they need to retrieve.

Taking Good Notes

Taking good notes from either a lecture or a text benefits learning. Give children some practice in taking notes and then evaluate their note taking.

good strategies would be summarizing, outlining, and using concept maps

Using a Study System

one of the earliest systems was called SQ3R which stand for Survey, question, read, recite, and review then another R was added to it: "Reflect"

Acquiring Expertise:

Practice Motivation

Deliberate practice involves practice that is at an appropriate level of difficulty for the individual, provides corrective feedback, and allows opportunities for repetition

Many individuals give up on becoming an expert because they won't put forth the effort required to engage in extensive deliberate practice over a number of years.

extensive practice requires considerable motivation. Students who are not
motivated to practice for long hours are unlikely to become experts in a particular area.

Talent

A number of psychologists who study expertise stress that it requires not only
deliberate practice and motivation but also talent. A number of abilities-music and athletic, for example-seem to have a heritable component

Expertise and Teaching:

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge includes ideas about common difficulties that
students have as they try to learn a content area; typical paths students must take to understand the area; and strategies for helping students overcome the difficulties they experience.

Expert teachers are good at monitoring students' learning and assessing
students' progress. They also know what types of difficulties students are likely to encounter, are aware of students' existing knowledge, and use this awareness to teach at the right level and to make new information meaningful.

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Metacognition

Another way that you can help children process information more
effectively is by encouraging them to examine what they know about how their
mind processes information

Metacognitive knowledge involves monitoring and reflecting on one's current or recent thoughts. This includes both factual knowledge, such as knowledge about the task, one's goals, or oneself, and strategic knowledge, such as how and when to use specific procedures to solve problems.

Metacognitive activity occurs when students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking.

Metacognition helps children to perform many academic tasks more effectively. Metacognitive skills also have been taught to students to help them solve problems

Developmental Changes:

Childhood

there are many studies focused on children's metamemory, the knowledge of how memory works

Metamemory

young children's metamemory is limited. They don't understand that related items are easier to remember than unrelated ones or that remembering the gist of a story is easier than remembering information verbatim

Preschool children also have little appreciation for the importance of memory
cues, such as "It helps when you can think of an example of it."

Theory of Mind

theory of mind, which refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Studies of theory of mind view the child as "a thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people's thoughts, feelings, and utterances"

Researchers are increasingly discovering that children's theory of mind is linked to cognitive processes and disabilities.

Language development likely plays a prominent role in the increasingly reflective nature of theory of mind as children go through the childhood years. Researchers have found that differences in children's language skills predict
performance on theory of mind tasks

Among other factors that influence children's theory of mind development are
advances in prefrontal cortex functioning, engaging in make-believe play, and various aspects of social interaction

children's theory of mind changes as they go through childhood and adolescence. Adolescents have more resources available to them then children do which makes them more skilled at directing those resources

The Good Information-Processing Model

Michael Pressley and his colleagues developed a metacognitive model called the Good Information-Processing model. It emphasizes that competent cognition results from a number of interacting factors. These include strategies, content knowledge, motivation, and metacognition.

It has three main steps: 1. Children are taught by parents or teachers to use a particular strategy. With practice, they learn about its characteristics and advantages for learning specific knowledge. 2. Teachers mav demonstrate similarities and differences in multiple strategies in a particular domain, such as math, which motivates students to see shared features of different strategies. This leads to better relational knowledge. 3. At this point, students recognize the general benefits of using strategies, which produces general strategy knowledge.

Strategies and Metacognitive Regulation

the key to education is helping students learn a rich repertoire of strategies that produce solutions to problems. Good thinkers routinely use strategies and effective planning to solve problems. Good thinkers also know when and where to use strategies

Presley and his colleagues argue that when students are given instruction about effective strategies, they often can apply strategies that they previously have not used on their own. They emphasize that students benefit when the teacher models the appropriate strategy and overtly verbalizes its steps.

Just having students practice the new strategy is usually not enough for them to continue to use the strategy and transfer it to new situations. For effective
maintenance and transfer, encourage students to monitor the effectiveness of the new strategy relative to their use of old strategies by comparing their performance on tests and other assessments

An important aspect of metacognition is monitoring how well one is performing
on a task. This might involve becoming aware that one
has not studied enough for a test or needs to reread a particular section of a
chapter to understand it better.

Learning how to use strategies effectively often takes time. Initially, it takes time to learn to execute the strategies, and it requires guidance and support from the teacher. Practice means that students use the effective strategy over and over again until they perform it automatically.

Most children benefit from generating a variety of alternative strategies and experimenting with different approaches to a problem and discovering what works well, when, and where.

teachers' use of strategy instruction is far less complete and intense than what is needed for students to learn how to use strategies effectively.

many strategies depend on prior knowledge.

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Culturally responsive teachers have to understand their own cultural reference points to be effective

They must practice self-management to maintain their emotional intelligence and grow their cultural I.Q.

Culturally responsive teachers learn to expand their interpretations of student behavior to include different cultural displays of learning and social interaction

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Supporting dependent learners to become independent thinkers:

the goals of education is not just simply filling students heads with facts and information but it help then learn how to learn

Productive Struggle: When the learner has developed the necessary strategies for working through something difficult. The mental activity that takes place when students are in their zone of proximal development.

a dependent learner is not able to do complex, school-oriented learning tasks without lots of support

they don't struggle because their race, language, or poverty but because they aren't given the opportunities in the classroom to develop the habits of mind to prepare then for harder classes

Mindset: A set of mental attitudes that determines how one will interpret and respond to situations. See also fixed mindset and Growth mindset.

Culturally Responsive Teaching: The process of using familiar cultural information and processes to  scaffold learning. Emphasizes communal orientation. Focused on relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social awareness.

Another definition for CRT: an educator's ability to recognize students' cultural displays of learning and meaning making and respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge as a scaffold to connect what students know to new concepts and content.

Information Processing: the brain's process of turning inert facts and content into usable knowledge. includes three stages: input, elaboration, and application. Active information processing stimulates brain growth

There have been many different studies performed that say that CRT can strengthen student connectedness with school and enhance learning.

some schools teach cross-cultural, language, and academic development certification and they support teachers in their first years but they have little to no continued support

Some people look at CRT as a way to reduce behavior problems or as a way to motivate students but ignores the support to cognitive development

The Marriage of Neuroplasticity and Culturally Responsive Teaching

culturally responsive teaching is not just a "bag of tricks" or a "cheat sheet" it is an approach that is rooting in a learning theory and cognitive science

Intellective Capacity: Refers to a student's malleable information processing power. Also called fluid intelligence or intellectual competence. Intellective capacity grows through neuroplasticity.

ready for rigor framework is designed to help teachers who are struggling to understand the basic concepts of CRT and learning the instructional moves associated with them. RFR uses the aid of neuroscience to deepen understanding

RFR organizes key ideas of teaching capacity building that helps help students move from being dependent learners to independent learners

The Four Practice Areas of Culturally Responsive Teaching

The RFR framework has four separate practice areas: Awareness, learning partnerships, information processing, and community building. when put together they create the conditions where students can actively engage and take ownership of their learning process

Awareness

successfully teaching students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, involves more than just applying specialized teaching techniques

placing instruction within the larger sociopolitical context

It helps teachers: locate their own socio-political position, sharpen and tune their cultural lens, and learn to manage their own social-emotional response to student diversity.

Learning Partnerships

building trust with students across differences so that the teacher is able to create social-emotional partnership for deeper learning

Teachers build the capacity to: establish a connection with students that build mutual trust and respect, leverage the trust bond to help students rise to higher expectations, give feedback in emotionally intelligent ways so students are able to take it in and act on it, and hold students to high standards while offering then new intellectual challenges

Information Processing

knowing how to strengthen and expand students intellective capacity so that they can engage in deeper, more complex learning

in this area teachers learn how to: understand how culture impacts the brain's information processing, orchestrate learning so it builds student's brain power in culturally congruent ways, use brain-based information processing strategies common to oral cultures

Community Building

creating an environment that feels socially and intellectually safe for dependent learners to stretch themselves and take risks.

In this area, teachers understand to: integrate universal cultural elements and themes into the classroom. use cultural practices and orientations to create a socially and intellectually safe space, and set up rituals and routines that reinforce self-directed learning and academic identity

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The achievement gap has denied underserved students of color and English learners opportunities to develop the cognitive skills and processes that help them become independent learners

Culturally responsive teaching is a powerful tool to help dependent learners develop the cognitive skills for higher order thinking

Culturally responsive teaching uses the brain principles from neuroscience to mediate learning effectively

The ready for rigor frame work helps us operationalize culturally

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Understanding the Deep Roots of Culture

just as students needs to have rich background for comprehension and problem-solving, teachers need an adequate background knowledge and useable information in order to know how to apply CRT tools and strategies

teachers also have to be aware of their beliefs regarding equity and culture

Understanding Culture

Culture is the way that every brain makes sense of the world. everyone regardless of race or ethnicity has a culture

Levels of Culture

there are three levels: Surface, shallow, and deep

Surface Culture

made up of observable and concrete elements of culture such as food, dress, music, and holidays.

has a low emotional charge so that changes don't create anxiety in a person or group

Shallow Culture

Made up of unspoken rules around everyday social interactions and norms, such as: courtesy, attitudes towards elders, nature of friendship, concepts of time, personal space between people, nonverbal communication, rules about eye contact, or appropriate touching.

nonverbal communication builds rapport and trust between people comes out of shallow culture

Rapport: A close and harmonious relationship between people characterized by a sense of connection, personal regard, and trust.

some people can interpret these things as disrespectful, hostile, or offensive

Deep Culture

made up of tacit knowledge and unconscious assumptions that govern our worldview. also contains cosmology (view of good or bad) that guides ethics, spirituality, health, and theories of group harmony. it also governs how we all learn

Mental Model: A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought process about how something works in the real world. It is one's internal representation of the surrounding world. Mental models share our behavior, decision making, and relating to others. See also Schema.

deep level culture, the brain encodes itself with the worldview we see. the worldview guides out behaviors even when we change our geography

Schema: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment. However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to instead focus only on things that confirm our preexisting beliefs and ideas.

the key to understanding how culture guides the brain during CRT kids in focusing on deep culture. rather than focusing on the visible aspects of culture we have to focus on the roots: worldview, core beliefs and group values.

Cultural Archetype: It is a set of similar beliefs, values, or behaviors that show up in different cultures.

while there may be a number of different cultures in a classroom, when we look closer, we can see the patterns that unite some cultures

Cultural Archetypes

there are two different archetypes for CRT: Collectivism and Individualism

Collectivism and Individualism reflect the different ways that the brain organizes itself

our brains were wired to favor being in a community but have since switched over to working and living cooperatively. people liked living individually

the archetypes collectivism and individualism as a way of understanding the general cultural orientation among diverse students in the classroom. simply a starting point for building on the shared culture of the students

Oral and Written Traditions

some cultures relay on spoken word over written words to convey, preserve, and reproduce knowledge from generation to generation

oral: telling stories, songs, chants, proverbs, and poetry. groups with oral tradition record and sustain their cultures by word of mouth

written does not require person-to-person interaction

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Naming the Sociopolitical Context

teachers also have to be able to name and acknowledge the larger sociopolitical context schools operate within

Sociopolitical context: A term used to describe the series of mutually reinforcing policies and practices across social, economic, and political domains that contribute to disparities and unequal opportunities for people of color in housing, transportation, education, and health care, to name a few. These unequal opportunities result in unequal outcomes along racial and class lines.

There are two key components of the sociopolitical context: implicit racial bias and structural racialization. Together they reinforce each other like bookends and hold a system of inequality in place that doesn't require overt racism or any racist actors at all to maintain it.

inequality takes the form of seemingly benign institutional practices or structures that reduce and limit opportunities for people of color, poor people, and immigrants.

Implicit bias: Refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our responses to certain groups especially around race, class, and language. Implicit bias operates involuntarily, often without one's awareness or intentional control. Implicit bias is not implicit racism.

implicit bias is not just overt racism that's hidden on purpose. Implicit bias is not implicit racism.

Structural racialization: Refers to the ways in which supposedly race neutral practices across social, political, and economic institutions created radicalized outcomes. See also sociopolitical context.

If we look at our society as a complex system of
organizations, institutions, individuals, processes, and policies, we can see how many factors interact to create and perpetuate social, economic, and political structures that are harmful to people of color and to our society
as a whole.

The impact of structural radicalization across institutions over time creates a domino effect that leads to unearned disadvantages that obscure the real source of the inequity.

We designed No Child Left Behind to focus on closing the gap in test scores between Black and White students because we believed we needed to help children of color and English learners better prepare for the test.

Policy makers were not willing to look beyond that overly simplistic symptom of the achievement gap, test scores. Research findings pointed to the domino effect resulting from the lack of federally funded quality childcare and preschool for children of color.

Structural radicalization doesn't happen just outside of school. The school-to-prison pipeline is actually a manifestation of structural radicalization.

Yet, in education, we subject our neediest dependent learners to inadequate instruction given their needs, or we allow them to lose valuable instructional time because of questionable discipline practices.

Over time, because of structural racialization in education, we have seen a new type of intellectual apartheid happening in schools, creating dependent learners who cannot access the curriculum and independent learners who have had the opportunity to build the cognitive skills to do deep learning on their own.

Sociopolitical Context Versus the Culture of Poverty

Some educators confuse the concept of the sociopolitical context with the popular notion of a culture of poverty. As a part of being aware as a culturally responsive teacher it is critical to understand the difference.

The idea of a culture of poverty reinforces stereotypes of poor families, a disproportionate number who are families of color, as unmotivated, not caring about education, or involved in illegal activities as a lifestyle choice. There's considerable research that clearly states that people in poverty are not, in fact, lazier. less likely to value education, or more likely to be substance abusers than their wealthier counterparts. Yet, implicit racial bias reinforces the notion of people of color willingly living in poverty or unmotivated to change their circumstances.

Poverty is not a culture. Most families are trapped in poverty and do not willingly embrace it as a way of life. The cycle of poverty has been defined as a phenomenon where poor families become trapped in poverty for at least three generations

Coping skills are mistaken for norms and beliefs. What appears to be a "culture"- norms, beliefs, and behaviors that are transmitted from one generation to another are more accurately coping and survival mechanisms that help marginalized communities.

Poor people do not normalize or glorify negative aspects of living in poverty. Despite images we commonly see in the popular media, behaviors such as drug use, violence, or out of wedlock births are not normalized and embraced as lifestyle choices by poor people.

Deficit thinking defines students and their families by their weaknesses rather than their strengths, suggesting that these weaknesses stem from low intelligence, poor moral character, or inadequate social skills.

Implications for Moving Dependent Learners and Building Intelligence Capacity

Understanding culture, recognizing cultural archetypes, and recognizing the sociopolitical context are about laying the foundation for being a culturally responsive teacher.

Getting dependent students of color ready for rigor begins with our awareness of current reality and acknowledgment of our past racial history. This understanding will give us a better context for supporting the social-emotional needs of dependent learners.

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Deep culture, not the heroes and holidays of surface culture is at the core of culturally responsive teaching. Culture acts as our brain's software.

One of the key ways to reduce confusion about how to attend to all the cultural cultures represented in my classroom is to first identify which cultural archetype dominates - individualism or collectivism

The themes of relationships and group interdependence are central to collectivist culture. Collectivist values and practices are expressed differently within different collectivist cultures

culture isn't the only thing that needs to be considered when planning the needs of culturally responsive teaching .he sociopolitical context also shapes the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse students

implicit bias and structural radicalization are current realities that undergird life opportunities for families of color. Structural radicalization doesn't require racist actors to be true

There are several urban myths about the culture of poverty that have become memes in education

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Understanding How Culture Programs the Brain

If we want to use culturally responsive teaching to support the cognitive development of dependent learners, we have to know how the brain uses culture to make sense of the world.

The Physical Structures of the Brain

The complex architecture of our brains developed in three layers, from the bottom up, like the floors of a house. Each one is layered on top of the other, with the first layer being the oldest.

These three parts of the brain do not operate independently of one another. Instead, they do a synchronized dance. They communicate by sending electromagnetic and chemical messages back and forth

The Reptilian Region

The first brain layer is the reptilian region. It is 500 million years old.

It's made up of the same two structures found in the entire reptilian brain: the brainstem and the cerebellum. I don't think so. It only reacts. It is always on, even when we are sleeping. The lizard brain allows you to smell smoke or hear a loud suspicious noise when you are asleep. It is what wakes you up.

It controls automatic functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, body temperature, digestion, blood pressure, and balance. It is able to increase heartbeat, blood flow, and other automatic body functions if it gets signals that danger is near, or it can slow down responses if we are just chilling out with friends.

it houses the reticular activating system

Reticular Activating System (RAS): Located in the reptilian region of the brain, it is the portal through which nearly all information enters the brain. (Smells are the exception; they go directly into your brain's emotional area.) It filters all incoming stimuli and decides what to pay attention to and what to ignore. Novelty, curiosity, changes in the environment, surprise, danger, and movement all capture the attention of the RAS. It sends signals to the amygdala when it detects a social or physical threat.

The Limbic Region

Stacked right on top of the reptilian region is the limbic layer. This layer is only present in mammals. It is also called the emotional brain. This region links emotions, behavior, and cognition together

Its primary roles are to help us learn from experience, manage our emotions, and remember. The limbic brain records memories of experiences and behaviors that produced positive and negative results in the past, so a person knows what threats to avoid or what rewards to pursue.

There are three specific structures of the limbic brain that help it manage memories and emotions: thalamus, hippocampus, and the amygdala

Thalamus acts as the brain's communication dispatch hub.

Hippocampus acts as the brain's background knowledge data bank. It houses the memory systems: short term memory - A limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer. Working memory - The working memory is the area in the brain where new information is coupled with existing knowledge. The elaboration stage of information processing takes place mainly in the working memory. And Long-Term Memory: Long-term memory is created when short-term memory is strengthened through review and meaningful association with existing funds of knowledge. This strengthening results in a physical change in the structure of neuronal circuits, creating more gray matter in the brain.

Amygdala acts as the brain's guard dog. The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure deep inside the limbic layer of the brain. It has the "authority" to bypass the
the brain's communication dispatch hub in the thalamus and send distress signals directly to the lizard brain in the form of the stress hormone cortisol (the primary stress hormone. Chronic exposure to cortisol because of the stress reduces working memory and suppresses the body's immune system). We call this bypass an amygdala hijack (The process when the amygdala is in an active state of stress, fear, or anxiety. It signals the body to release the stress hormone, cortisol. The cortisol blocks rational thinking and temporarily reduces the capacity of the working memory making learning difficult).

The Neocortex Region

The newest brain layer is only 3-4 million years old. Compared to the reptilian region, it is slow in processing information but really, really smart. It is home to our executive function. Executive function is the command center of the brain.

It oversees our thinking and manages our working memory. It controls planning, abstract thinking, organization, and self-regulation. It also houses our imagination. it also houses an endless capacity to learn. It is here in the neocortex that we have the chance to build our brain power, also called our intellectual capacity.

Cellular Structures

The cellular structures are made up of special nerves called neurons that are the brain's building blocks.

Neurons are the messengers that carry information back and forth across each region of the brain. The brain contains tens of billions of neurons. They are that stuff we call gray matter in the brain.

Because of neuroplasticity, the brain is able to grow an
unlimited amount of gray matter in response to our continuous learning.

Neuroplasticity: refers to the capacity of the brain to change its structure and reorganize itself in response to injury, experience, or challenge. associated with expanded learning capacity

Within the neuron, the baton takes the form of electrical impulses and chemical interactions. They exchange information through the short, fingerlike extensions called dendrites. Dendrites are treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help increase its surface area. These tiny tentacles receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation. Dendrites grow in response to learning, especially a challenging task. The more dendrites the neuron generates the more brain power it creates.

The more dendrites we have, the more information that the neurons can pick up

"When the brain is learning something new it clusters neurons together to create a neural pathway, similar to a footpath through a forest.

The brain helps neurons talk to each other faster along these neural pathways through the process of myelination (The formation of the myelin sheath around the body of a neuron to increase the speed of electrical impulses contains information.), where it wraps around the myelin: The fatty substance that covers and protects nerves. Myelin acts like a conductor in an electrical system, ensuring that messages sent along the neuron are not lost as they travel to the next neuron and dendrites.

Conversely, when we don't practice or use new dendrites shortly after a learning episode, our brain prunes them by starving them and then reabsorbing them.

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The Nervous System

The last brain structure to understand is the nervous system. we talk about how fast it can multitask- pumping blood, checking blood pressure, digesting food, all the while walking, noticing the beautiful sunset, and keeping an eye on the dog we just let off the leash

The nervous system is just an extension of the other brain
structures. It is constantly picking up information from our environment and sending it back to the brain for interpretation and action.

With signals constantly coming from our RAS in our lizard brain and the amygdala in the limbic region (The limbic is the second brain layer. Also called the Malian brain. It is involved in regulation of emotion, memory and processing complex socioemotional communication. The amygdala is located here), our body and brain are at work 24/7 scanning the environment for clues and cues to determine whether or not we are safe.

In social settings, this ongoing process of trying to sniff
Our danger has been called neuroception (Describes the process our brain uses to distinguish whether situations or people are safe, dangerous, or life threatening. The autonomic nervous system, particularly the polyvagal nerve, is responsible for controlling neuroception. See also safety-threat detection system), our unconscious safety-threat detection system (Our brains system to help carry out its prime directive: Minimize threats and maximize well-being. See also Neuroception). This safety-threat detection system works mainly through the body's autonomic nervous system (This is the portion of the nervous system comprising the spinal cord and brain. It includes the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the polyvagal nervous system). three major branches:

The parasympathetic nervous system. It is focused on keeping us relaxed and seeks well-being by satisfying our needs for food, shelter, social relationships, and sex. naturally makes dopamine (A chemical in the brain associated with attention and reward-stimulated learning. Our brains release dopamine when we are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving acknowledgment for achievement.)

The sympathetic nervous system. This system is focused on keeping us alert and ready to react to avoid danger by fight, flight, or freeze.

The polyvagal nervous system. It is our "social engagement system" and is focused on keeping us connected to others. Releases hormones like oxytocin (a neurotransmitter that stimulates our sense of connection with others. It is called the bonding hormone.)

An important takeaway is that it's through the nervous system that individuals build the physical foundation for positive, receptive relationships.

When anyone experiences others in an environment like a classroom that is inattentive or hostile, the body picks up that information through the autonomic nervous system and sends it up to the RAS and amygdala.

When we look at the stress some students experience in the classroom because they belong to marginalized communities because of race, class. language, or gender, we have to understand their safety-threat detection system is already cued to be on the alert for social and psychological threats based on past experience.

Culturally Responsive Brain Rules

When you understand these brain rules, it becomes easier to understand how the brain uses culture to interpret threats and opportunities. they all work together and never stand alone

1. The brain seeks to minimize social threats and maximize opportunities to connect with others in the community.

We cannot downplay students' need to feel safe and valued in the classroom. The brain will not seek to connect with others if it perceives them to be threatening to its social or psychological well-being based on what they say and do.

As a result, the amygdala stays on alert, trying to detect other microaggressions. Microaggressions are the subtle, everyday verbal and nonverbal slights, snubs, or insults which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to people of color based solely on their marginalized group membership.

As a culturally responsive teacher you have to familiarize yourself with common actions or conditions that make students feel unsafe, even if they cannot articulate this sense of threat. dependent learners who don't feel supported are especially vulnerable to feeling threatened.

2. Positive relationships keep our safety-threat detection system in check.

the brain is wired to scan for threats unless we are in positive relationships

3. Culture guides how we process information.

Cultures with a strong oral tradition rely heavily on the brain's memory and social engagement systems to process new learning.

These elements help build neural pathways and activate myelination.

4. Attention drives learning.

Before we can be motivated to learn what is in front of us, we must pay attention to it.

5. All new information must be coupled with existing funds of knowledge in order to be learned.

Our limbic brain creates schemas that operate as background knowledge.

All learners have to connect new content to what they
already know. What we already know is organized according to our cultural experiences, values, and concepts.

6. The brain physically grows through challenge and stretch, expanding its ability to do more complex thinking and learning.

The brain's main purpose is to get smarter at surviving and thriving in life. Brain growth is stimulated when we have to figure out something new, engage in a complex task, or complete a puzzle.

Culturally responsive teaching is also about empowerment and interrupting teaching practices that keep certain students dependent learners.

Implications for Supporting Dependent Learners and Building Intellective Capacity

Dependent learners experience a great deal of stress and anxiety in the classroom as they struggle with certain learning tasks. This anxiety is amplified when they feel marginalized or unsupported because of their race, gender, or language.

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Building awareness as a culturally responsive teacher includes learning about how the brain physically works and its influence on our social emotional states

The brain is guided by two interconnected prime directives: minimize threats and maximize well-being. Our culture and experiences within the sociopolitical context program our brains regarding how it interprets what is threatening and what is an opportunity for authentic connection with others

the first two layers of the brain play important roles in helping to detect and minimize social and physical threats, especially the amygdala. The third and newest layer, the neocortex, is where neuroplasticity takes place

we are hardwired to connect with others. Our nervous system is designed to guide us toward avoiding threats, approaching rewards and things that will make us feel good, and attaching to others for safety and companionship

our challenge as culturally responsive teachers is knowing how to create an environment that the brain perceives as safe and nurturing so it can relax, let go of any stress, and turn its attention to learning

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Building the Foundation of Learning Partnerships

In culturally responsive teaching, relationships are as important as the curriculum.

Even on high achieving students of color positive relationships help them reach their fullest potential under less stress

Maintaining healthy relationships became very important so one wasn't ejected from the protection of the village.

At the core of positive relationships is trust. Caring is the way that we generate the trust that builds relationships.

Trust between teachers and students is the effective glue that binds educational relationships together. Not trusting teachers has several consequences for students.

Neuroscience tells us the brain feels safest and relaxed when we are connected to others we trust to treat us well.

Oxytocin makes us want to build a trusting relationship with the other person we are interacting with.

Ironically, researchers found that when participants in one study felt they had won the trust of another, their own brains responded by producing oxytocin.

To make sure we connect with others, our brains developed mirror neurons to keep us in sync with each other.

These special brain cells prompt us to mimic or "mirror" the behavior.

The Need for a Different Kind of Relationships

Building a culture of care that helps dependent learners move toward independence requires what I call a learning partnership (The learning partnership is a teacher-student relationship in which the teacher builds trust and becomes the student's ally in order to help the student reach  a higher level of achievement).

This relationship is anchored in affirmation, mutual respect, and validation (Refers to the explicit recognition and acknowledgment of historical institutional racism, negative stereotyping, and generalizations that impact culturally and linguistically diverse students) that breeds an unshakable belief that marginalized students not only can but will improve their school achievement

Each phase acts as a stepping-stone to the next. First, building rapport focuses on establishing an emotional connection and building trust. In the alliance phase, we use this emotional connection to create a partnership
that has the teacher and student coming together as a team to tackle a specific learning challenge.

Because there's trust, the teacher can provide a degree of "push" or challenge without having the student experience an "amygdala hijack"

Rapport and Affirmation

Rapport is generally defined as a "sympathetic connection" with another person that results in that warm, friendly feeling you get when you are in sync.

Too often we confuse affirmation with building up a student's self esteem. As educators. We think it's our job to make Students of color, English learners or poor students feel good about themselves.

Affirmation and rapport are really about building trust, not self esteem.

Trust, therefore, frees up the brain for other activities such as creativity, learning, and higher order thinking.

Most often mistrust builds because a student or parent doesn't feel acknowledged, affirmed, or cared for.

Core Practices: Affirmation and Validation

affirmation and validation are two practices that undergird all efforts to operationalize personalization and rapport building.

Affirming is simply acknowledging the personhood of each student, appreciating all aspects of them, especially those culturally specific traits that have been negated by the dominant culture.

Building Trust and Rapport

You can try to speed the trust-building process, but feeling connected grows slowly and requires time for people to get to know each other.

Where to start: Trust begins with listening

Listening communicates a sense of respect for and an interest in the student's contributions.

Research shows that 70% of communication is nonverbal. So listening doesn't just mean hearing the words but listening to the emotional quality of the conversation.

Practicing a pedagogy of listening may be simple but it isn't always easy. Unfortunately, the kind of empathetic, attentive listening that builds rapport is not what we typically do in most classrooms on a day-to-day basis.

building trust through acts of caring and authentic listen-in, we can build trust by being more authentic, vulnerable, and in sync with our students.

The trust generators are universal in their ability to help us feel an instant sense of connection. It depends on your personality, experience, the age of the children you teach, and your own understanding of their culture, to
Name a few.

Practicing vulnerability requires that we be willing to let down our guard a bit. The most powerful thing we can do to create a culture of caring is to allow ourselves
to be seen as human beings,

Selective vulnerability is best employed through storytelling. Sharing your story with students makes you more human and vulnerable.

Assessing the State of Rapport in the Classroom

Our ultimate goal is to position dependent learners so that they will take the intellectual risk and stretch into their zone of proximal development

building trust is designed to help dependent learners avoid the stress and anxiety that comes with feeling
lost and unsupported at school.

it's important to not assume that everything is fine

Here are some steps for assessing current reality in your classroom.

1. Identify a specific student you would like to have a better learning partnership with.

2. Assess the quality of your relationship with your focal student.

3. Create a system to help you look closely at and listen carefully to your focal student.

4. Keep track of student responses over time.

5. Crunch the numbers and analyze the data.

6. Based on your findings, identify one small change you can make to build trust with your focal student.

7. Track the impact of the one small change you made.

Operationalizing Rapport Strategies

1. Express care in nonverbal ways that shows your concern.

2. Find time to play and have fun as a class.

3. Commit to practicing affirmation.

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because our safety-threat detection system is continuously scanning for potential social-emotional threats, it is the job of the culturally responsive teacher to build trust and rapport in order to reassure our students that they are safe and cared for

Culturally responsive teaching that supports dependent learners requires a learning partnership that includes both rapport and alliance

relationships are the cornerstone of culturally responsive teaching

it requires a new type of relationship we call a learning partnership

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What are Concepts?:
Concepts

Concepts group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.

Concepts help us simplify, summarize, and organize information

concepts aid the process of remembering, making it more efficient

students form concepts through direct experiences with objects and events in their world

Promoting Concept Formation:
Learning About the Features of Concepts

learning the key features, attributes, or characteristics of the concept

Defining Concepts and Providing Examples

1.  Define the concept. As part of defining it, link it to a superordinate concept and identify its key features or characteristics. A superordinate concept is a larger class into which it fits. Thus, in specifying the key features of the concept of dinosaur, you might want to mention the larger class into which it fits: reptiles.

2.  Clarify terms in the definition. Make sure that the key features or characteristics are well understood. Thus, in describing the key features of the concept of dinosaur, it is important for students to know what a reptile is-usually an egg-laying vertebrate that has an external covering of scales or horny plates and breathes by means of lungs.

3.  Give examples to illustrate the key features or characteristics. With regard to dinosaurs, one might give examples and descriptions of different types of dinosaurs, such as a triceratops, an apatosaur, and a stegosaur. The concept can be further clarified by giving examples of other reptiles that are not dinosaurs, such as snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles. Indeed, giving nonexamples of a concept as well as examples is often a good strategy for teaching concept formation. More examples are required when you teach complex concepts and when you work with less-sophisticated learners.

4.  Provide additional examples. Ask students to categorize concepts, explain their categorization, or have them generate their own examples of the concept (Rawson et al., 2015). Give examples of other dinosaurs, such as Tyrannosaurus, Ornitholestes, and Dimetrodon, or ask students to find more examples themselves. Also ask them to think up other nonexamples of dinosaurs, such as dogs, cats, and whales.

Hierarchical Categorization and Concept Maps

categorization is important because once a concept is categorized it can take on characteristics and features from bring a member of a category

Concept Map

is a visual presentation of a concept's connections and hierarchical organization

students can create a map of a concept's features or characteristics that can help the better understand the concept

Hypothesis Testing

hypotheses are specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy

students benefit from the practice of developing hypotheses about what a concept is and is not

Prototype Matching

individuals decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item of category

the more similar the item is to the prototype, the more likely it is that the individual will say the items belongs in that category and vice versa

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Steps in Problem Solving:

1.  Find and Frame Problems Before you can solve a problem, you must recognize that it exists. In the past, most problem-solving exercises in school involved well-defined problems that lent themselves to specific, systematic operations that produced a well-defined solution. Today, educators increasingly recognize the need to teach students the real-world skill of identifying problems instead of just offering clear-cut problems to be solved (Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2018). Consider a student whose broad goal is to create a science-fair project. What branch of science would it be best for her to present - biology, physics, computer science, psychology? After making that decision, she'll have to narrow the problem even more. For example, which domain within psychology will she explore-perception, memory, thinking, personality? Within the domain of memory, she might pose this question: How reliable are people's memories of traumatic events they have experienced? Thus, it may take considerable exploration and refinement for the student to narrow the problem enough to generate specific solutions. Exploring such alternatives is an important part of problem solving.

2. Subgoaling: The process of setting intermediate goals that place students in a better position to reach the final goal or solution, Algorithms: Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem, Heuristics: Strategies or rules of thumb that can suggest a solution to a problem but don’t ensure that it will work, Means-end analysis: A heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assesses the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means) to decrease the difference between the two conditions.

3. Evaluate Solution: Solutions Once we think we have solved a problem, we might not know whether our solution is effective unless we evaluate it. It helps to have in mind a clear criterion for determining the effectiveness of the solution.
For example, what will be the student's criterion for effectively solving the science-fair problem? Will it be simply getting it completed? Receiving positive feedback about the project? Winning an award? Winning first place?
Gaining the self-satisfaction of having set a goal, planned for it, and reached it?

4. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time: Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time An important final step in problem solving is to continually rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time. People who are good at problem solving are motivated to improve on their past performances and to make original contributions.
Thus, the student who completed the science-fair project can look back at the project and think about ways the project could have been improved. The student might use feedback from iudges or others who attended the fair in order to fine-tune the project for presentation again in some future venue.

Obstacles to Solving Problems:
Fixation

involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh, new perspective

functional fixedness; is a type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem because he or she views the elements involved solely in terms of their usually functions

Mental set; is a type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past

a good strategy is to keep an open mind about such changes and monitor whether your mental set is keeping you from trying out new technologies that could make the classroom more exciting and more productive

Lack of Motivation and Persistence

it is important that a student is internally motivated to tackle a problem and persist at finding a solution

and important task for teachers is to devise or steer students toward problems that are meaningful to them and to encourage and support them in finding solutions

Inadequate Emotional Control

Emotion can facilitate or restrict problem solving. At the same time that they are highly motivated, good problem solvers are often able to control their emotions and concentrate on finding a solution to a problem. Too much anxiety or fear can especially restrict a student's ability to solve a problem. Individuals who are competent at solving problems are usually not afraid of making mistakes.

Developmental Changes:

young children lack planning which prevents them from problem solving effectively

during elementary and secondary school years the lack of planning improves

older children and adolescents become better problem solvers as they start to involve knowledge and strategies

older children have more complex problems which requires accumulated knowledge

Problem-Based Learning and Project-Based Learning:
Problem-Based Learning

emphasizes solving authentic problems like those that occur in daily life

problem-based learning is especially effective in helping students develop confidence in generating their own thinking skills

in problem-based learning teacher orient students on their own

Five Stages of Problem solving

1. Phase 1: orient the student to the problem - teachers role; communicate clearly the goals of the lesson, inform students what is expected of them, and guide students to become motivated to engage in self-directed problem solving

2. Phase 2: Organize students for study -  teachers role; help students define and organize study tasks related to the problem

3. Phase 3: assist independent and group investigation - teachers role; encourage students to obtain appropriate information, conduct experiments, and search for explanations and solutions

4. Phase 4: Develop and present artifacts and exhibits - teachers role; Guide students' planning and creation of appropriate artifacts such as reports and videos, and help them to share their work with others

5. Phase 5: Analyze and evaluate the problem-solving process - teachers role; Encourage students to reflect on their investigations and the strategies and steps they used

Project-Based Learning:

in PBL students work real, meaningful problems and create tangible products that improve achievement

project-based learning gives more attention to the end product than problem-based learning does

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What is a Transfer?:

transfer occurs when a person applies previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation

some experts argue that the best way to ensure transfer is to "teach for it"

they stress that transfer problems virtually are eliminated when teaching occurs in contexts where individuals need to perform

some strategies that can improve transfer include; giving two to more examples of a concept because one often is not enough, giving students models, things that can help them structure problem-solving and encouraging students to generate more information themselves - which will increase the likelihood they will remember what needs to be transferred.

More strategies include giving students well-structured cases and have them try to invent solutions for them before given a lecture on the expert solution

Types Of Transfer:
Near or Far Transfer

Near Transfer occurs when the classroom learning situation is similar to the one in which the initial learning took place

Ex; if a geometry teacher instructs students in how to logically prove a concept and then tests the students on this logic in the same setting in which they learned the concept, near transfer is involved.

Far Transfer means the transfer of learning to a situation very different from the one in which the initial learning took place.

Ex; if a student gets a part-time job in an architect's office and applies what he learned in geometry class to helping the architect analyze a spatial problem different from any problem the student encountered in geometry class, far transfer has occurred.
Low-Road or High-Road Transfer

Low-Road Transfer occurs when previous learning automatically, often unconsciously, transfers to another situation

occurs most often with highly practiced skills in which there is little need for reflective thinking

Ex; when competent readers encounter new sentences in their native language, they read them automatically

High-Road Transfer is conscious and effortful

students consciously establish connections between what they learned in a previous situation and the new situation they now face

implies abstracting a general rule or principle from previous experience and then applying it to the new problem in the new context

Ex; students might learn about the concept of subtotaling in math class. Several months later, one of the students thinks about how subgoaling might help him complete a lengthy homework assignment in history

Forward-reaching transfer occurs when students think about how they can apply what they have learned to new situations

Backward-reaching transfer occurs when students look back to a previous ("old") situation for information that will help them solve a problem in a new context

Cultural Practices and Transfer -

If we fail to consider how the cultural differences of our students may be inconsistent with the traditional Euro-American school system, do not respect the cultural capital of our students, and are not responsive to culture in our teaching, then we contribute to the systemic racism that maintains the status quo. This includes the achievement gaps described in the chapter on sociocultural diversity. Without discussions about race, it will be difficult to change school practices that widen the equity gap between white students and students of color (Chapman, 2013).

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Cognitive Apprenticeship: A relationship in which an expert stretches and supports a novice's understanding and use of a culture's skills
Cooperative Learning: Learning that occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn
Situated Cognition: the idea that thinking is located (situated) in social and physical contexts, not within an individual's mind
Social Constructivist Approach: Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed; Vygotsky's theory exemplifies this approach

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social constructivist approaches to teaching 

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social constructivist approaches to teaching 

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Social Constructivism in the Broader Constructivist Context:

recall that constructivism emphasizes how individuals actively construct knowledge and understanding

social constructivist approach; emphasizes the social contexts of learning and says that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.

Involvement with others creates opportunities for students to evaluate and refine their understanding as they are exposed to the thinking of others and as they participate in creating shared understanding

experiences in social contexts provide an important mechanism for the development of students' thinking

Situated Cognition

an important assumption in the social constructivist approaches. It refers to the idea that thinking is located (situated) in social and physical contexts, not within an individual's mind.

In other words, knowledge is embedded in, and connected to, the context in which the knowledge developed

Ex; For example, to expand students' knowledge and understanding of volcanoes, some students are placed in the role of scientists studying an active volcano, while other students are given the task of reporting what to expect to an emergency evacuation team (PSU, 2006). Using Internet resources, the "scientist" students examine news stories about active volcanos: the "evacuation team" students search for information about the impact that volcanos have on inhabitants and how people can be removed from the danger of an erupting volcano.

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Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students' Learning

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Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students' Learning

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Scaffolding:

the technique of change the level of support over the course of a teaching session; a more-skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the students' current performance

researchers have found that when teachers and peers use scaffolding in collaborative learning student' learning benefits

Cognitive Apprenticeship:

a technique in which an expert stretches and supports a novice's understanding and use of a culture's skills.

in a cognitive apprenticeship, teachers often model strategies for students

Researchers have found that students' learning benefits from teachers who think of their relationship with a student as a cognitive apprenticeship, using scaffolding and guided participation to help the student learn

Tutoring:

can take place; adult/child, more skilled child/less skilled child

is an effective strategy that benefits many students, especially those who are not doing well in a subject

Classroom Aides, Volunteers, and Mentors

can help reduce frustrations in the classroom

can monitor and evaluate your class for students who might benefit from one-on-one tutoring

Mentors can play an important role in improving some students' learning

the guidance is accomplished through demonstration, instruction, challenge, and encouragement on a. more or less regular basis over an extended period of time

Success For All Program Includes
*(does not meet rigorous scientific guidelines)*

A systematic reading program that emphasizes phonics, vocabulary development, and storytelling and retelling in small groups

A daily 90-minute reading period with students in the first through third grades being regrouped into homogeneous cross-age ability groups

One-on-one tutoring in reading by specially trained certified teachers who work individually with students who are reading below grade level

Assessments every eight weeks to determine students' reading progress, adjust reading group placement, and assign tutoring if needed

Professional development for teachers and tutors, which includes three days of in-service training and guidelines at the beginning of the school year, and follow-up training throughout the year

A family support team designed to provide parenting education and support family involvement in the school

Peer Tutors

one student teaches another

encourages students in active learning and allows the classroom teacher to guide and monitor student learning as she or he moves around the classroom

researchers have found that peer tutoring often benefits students' achievement

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

created by John F. Kennedy Center and the Department of Special Education at Peabody College at Vanderbilt University

In PALS, teachers identify which children require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills. Using this information, teachers pair children in the class so that partners work simultaneously and productively on different activities that address the problems they are experiencing. Pairs are changed regularly so that as students work on a variety of skills, all students have the opportunity of being "coaches" and "players."

The PALS program is highly effective with students placed at risk, especially students in the early elementary grades, ethnic minority students, and students in urban schools

An analysis involving strict criteria for evidence of research support revealed that PALS has potentially positive outcomes for alphabetic knowledge in beginning readers

Online Peer Tutoring

Online peer tutoring usually begins with the teacher engaging students in online peer tutoring. Then, as students gain more experience in working together online, some of the online tutoring activities are conducted by trained, knowledgeable students.

Cooperative Learning:

occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn

sizes of the groups vary in size

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teachers and peers as joint contributors to students' learning cntd. 

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teachers and peers as joint contributors to students' learning cntd. 

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Research On Cooperative Learning:

researchers found it can be an effective strategy for improving achievement

When the conditions of group rewards and individual accountability are met, cooperative learning improves achievement across different grades and in tasks that range from basically skills to problem solving

two conditions that are important to implement in cooperative learning

1. Group rewards are generated. Some type of recognition or reward is given to the group so that the group members can sense that it is in their best interest to help each other learn.

2.  Individuals are held accountable. Some method of evaluating a student's individual contribution, such as an individual quiz or report, needs to be used. Without this individual accountability, some students might do some "social loafing" (let other students do their work), and some might be left out because others believe that they have little to contribute.

Independence and Teaching One's Peers

Cooperative learning also promotes increased interdependence and connection with other students

Types of Tasks in Which Cooperative Learning Works Best

Researchers have found that cooperative learning implemented without rewards has little benefit on simple tasks such as rote learning, memorization, or basic mathematics but produces better results with more complex tasks

studying cooperatively has been shown to mitigate the negative effects of reward-removal on transfer

Cooperative Learning Approaches

The STAD approach (student-teams-achievement divisions)

1. the jigsaw classroom -

Developed by Elliot Aronson and his colleagues (1978), jigsaw I is a cooperative learning approach in which six-member teams work on material that has been broken down into parts. Each team member is responsible for a part. Members of different teams who have studied the same part convene, discuss their part, and then return to their teams, where they take turns teaching their part to other team members.

Robert Slavin (1995) created jigsaw Il, a modified version of jigsaw I.
Whereas jigsaw I consists of teams of six, jigsaw I usually has teams of four or five. All team members study the entire lesson rather than one part, and individual scores are combined to form an overall team score, as in STAD. After they have studied the entire lesson, students become expert on one aspect of the lesson; then students with the same topics meet in expert groups to discuss them. Subsequently, they return to their teams and help other members of the team learn the material.

2. Learning Together

Created by David and Roger Johnson (1994), this approach has four components: (1) face-to-face interaction, (2) positive interdependence,
(3) individual accountability, and (4) development of interpersonal group skills. Thus, in addition to Slavin's interest in achievement, the Johnsons' cooperative learning approach also focuses on socioemotional development and group interaction. In learning together, students work in four- or five-member heterogeneous groups on tasks with an emphasis on discussion and team building

3. Group Investigation

Developed by Shlomo Sharan (1990; Sharan & Sharan, 1992), this approach involves a combination of independent learning and group work in two- to six-member groups, as well as a group reward for individual achievement. The teacher chooses a problem for the class to study, but students decide what they want to study in exploring the problem. The work is divided among the group's members, who work individually. Then the group gets together, integrating, summarizing, and presenting the findings as a group project. The teacher's role is to facilitate investigation and maintain cooperative effort. Students collaborate with the teacher to evaluate their effort. In Sharan's view, this is the way many real-world problems are solved in communities around the world.

4. Cooperative Scripting

Students work in reciprocal pairs, taking turns summarizing information and orally presenting it to each other (Dansereau, 1988; McDonald et al.
1985). One member of the pair presents the material. The other member listens, monitors the presentation for any mistakes, and gives feedback. Then the partner becomes the teacher and presents the next set of material while the first member listens and evaluates it.

Evaluating Cooperative Learning

Positives: are increased interdependence and interaction with other students, enhanced motivation to learn, and improved learning by teaching material to others

Negatives: some students prefer to work alone; low-achieving students may slow down the progress of high-achieving students; a few students may do most or all of the cognitive work while others do little (called "social loafing"); some students may become distracted from the group's task because they enjoy socializing; and many students lack the skills needed to collaborate effectively with others, engage in productive discussions, and explain their ideas or evaluate others' ideas effectively

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Composing the Group:
Heterogenous Ability

One of the main reasons for using heterogeneous ability groups is that they benefit low-ability students, who can learn from higher-ability students.

In heterogeneous groups, high-ability students often assume the role of "teacher" and explain concepts to other students. In homogeneous groups, high-ability students are less likely to assume this teaching role.

One problem with heterogeneous groups is that when high-ability, low ability, and medium-ability students are included, the medium-ability students get left out to some extent; high-ability and low-ability students form teacher-student relationships, excluding medium-ability students from group interaction. Medium-ability students might perform better in groups where most or all of the students have medium abilities.

Ethnic, Socio-economic, and gender heterogeneity

One of the initial reasons that cooperative learning groups were formed was to improve interpersonal relations among students from different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.

The hope was that interaction under conditions of equal status in cooperative groups would reduce prejudice.

Team Building Skills:

thinking Bout how to start team building at the beginning of the school year, helping students become better listeners, giving students student practice in contributing to a team product, getting students to discuss the value of a team leader, and working with team leaders to help them deal with problem situations

Structuring small-group interaction:

Encourager--brings out reluctant students and is a motivator

Gatekeeper equalizes participation of students in the group

Coach-helps with academic content

Checker--makes sure the group understands the material

Taskmaster--keeps the group on task

Recorder--writes down ideas and decisions

Quiet captain--monitors the group's noise level

Materials monitor--obtains and returns supplies

Another way roles can be specialized is to designate some students as "summarizers" and others as "listeners." Researchers have consistently found that summarizing benefits learning more than listening, so if these roles are used, all members should get opportunities to be summarizers

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Why Marginalized Dependent Learners Need An Ally

don't "sugarcoat things"

The alliance phase of the learning partnership speaks to the realities of education in the sociopolitical context that creates unequal academic outcomes for students of color

awareness of their own lack of academic proficiency leads to a lack of confidence as learners

many culturally and linguistically diverse students start to believe these skill gaps are evidence are evidence of their own innate intellectual deficits

learned helplessness: is the student's belief that he has no control over his ability to improve as a learner

research shows that unconsciously teachers reinforce learned helplessness among low performing students of color

stereotype threat: a type of racially charged amygdala hijack that happens when a student believes their failure on an assignment to rest will confirm the negative stereotype associated with their race, socio-economic status, gender or language background

internalized oppression: the student internalizes the negative social messages about his racial anxiety interferes with his academic performance by releasing the stress hormone cortisol which in turns reduces the amount of working memory available to him to do complex cognitive work

Validating Student's Experiences:

validation simply means that we acknowledge the realities of inequity that impact students in and out of school and to validate the personhood of the student and legitimize those ways of speaking or being that have been branded "wrong" in mainstream school culture

validating students is the first step toward empowering them

culturally and linguistically diverse students are not helpless they come from communities with rich histories of being the face of catalyst for social justice movements that have changed the face of the world

Features of the Learning Partnership Alliance:

1. the pact: is a formal agreement between teacher and student to work on a learning goal and a relational covenant between them

2. teacher as ally and warm demander: the teacher acts as an ally to the student in his quest toward independent learning and a warm demander allow teachers to push students to take more academic risks and gain confidence

3. student as driver of his own learning: the student commits to be an active participant in the process and taking ownership of his own learning as he works toward his learning goals

Creating The Pact:

Ask the students to identify what he thinks is getting in the way for him around a specific learning target

together select a learning target that is small, specific and significant

set a deadline

set up a benchmarks

share what you are willing to do as the student's ally

be explicit about your belief in his capacity to master this learning target

forewarn him that you will ask him to stretch himself

ask him to explicitly name what he intends to do as part of the partnership to meet this challenge

Create some type of simple ritual to mark the occasion

write down key agreements

Becoming a Warm Demander:

your role as an ally in the learning partnership calls for you to know when to offer emotional comfort and care and when to not allow the students to slip into learned helplessness

warm demander is the "combination of high expectations for academic performance that teachers place on students and supportive, instrumental relationships between students and teachers"

Giving Dependent Learners The Basic Tools for Independent Learning :

kid friendly vocabulary for talking about their learning moves

Checklists to help hone their decision making skills during learning and focus their attention during data analysis

tools for tracking their own progress toward learning targets

easily accessible space to store their data

regular time to process their data

practice engaging in metacognitive conversations

a clear process for reflecting on and acting on teacher or peer feedback

The Power of Feedback to Improve Learning:

feedback is an essential element in the culturally responsive teacher's arsenal

when students use feedback and are able to improve their performance or understanding, it triggers the brain's pleasure and reward centers, releasing the powerful brain chemical, dopamine

Formative Assignment: highlight that an assessment activity can help learning if it provides information that teachers and their students can use as feedback to measure progress and to modify their teachers and their teaching and learning activities

feedback stimulates the growth of neurons and dendrites in the brain

Quality feedback has some distinctive characteristics:

it is instructive rather than evaluate

it is specific and in the right dose

it is timely

it is delivered in a low stress, supportive environment

Making Feedback Culturally Responsive: Giving "wise feedback":

begin with a check-in. Have a few minutes for reconnecting. Ask about the student and what is going in his life - how he is feeling

State explicitly the purpose of your meeting and affirmation your belief in the students capacity as a learner. Give evidence by citing progress and growth in other areas

Validate the student's ability to master the learning target while acknowledging high demands of a task. Have the student analyze the task with you. Identify the easy parts and the harder parts

Deliver feedback that is specific, actionable, and timely. Restate what the final goal is and what mastery looks like and then show the student where he is in relationship to the goal

create space for the student to react to what he has heard and how he feels about it

give the student specific actions to improve: new strategies, instructions on what to tweak during the execution of the task. Give feedback and action steps in writing if possible. Provide some way to track progress

Ask the student to paraphrase what he heard you say - what is wrong, what needs to be fixed, and how to go about fixing it

Offer emotional encouragement and restate your belief in him. It is important not to skip this part, even if the student seems uncomfortable. He is taking it in even if he is playing it cool

Set up a time to follow up and check progress

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being an effective culturally responsive teacher means building an alliance with students

the teacher in the role of ally is mindful of balancing rigor and expectation with support in oder to avoid triggering an amygdala hijack

offering actionable corrective feedback is critical

feedback must be offered in ways that affirm the student's capacity to learn yet is honest in pinpointing where he is in relationship to his goal and offers concrete steps for improving

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Active Listening: A listening style that gives full attention to the speaker and notes both the intellectual and emotional content of the message

Auditorium Style: A classroom arrangement style in which all students sit facing the teacher.

Authoritarian classroom management style: A management style that is restrictive and punitive, with the focus mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than instruction or learning

authoritative classroom management style: A management style that encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers but still provides effective monitoring. Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them. However, they still set limits when necessary.

bystander: Someone who witnesses bullying occur electronically or in person; bystanders can play different roles; intervening in bullying can cause it to stop in less than 10 second in over half of incidences.

cluster style: A classroom arrangement style in which small numbers of students (usually four to eight) work in small, closely bunched groups.

Face-to-face style: A classroom arrangement style in which students sit facing each other.

offset style: A classroom arrangement style in which small numbers of students (usually three or four) sit at tables but do not sit directly across from one another.

permissive classroom management style: A management style that allows students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior.

seminar style: A classroom arrangement style in which large numbers of students (ten or more) sit in circular, square, or U-shaped arrangements.

withitness: A management style described by Kounin in which teachers show students that they are aware of what is happening. Such teachers closely monitor students on a regular basis and detect inappropriate behavior early, before it gets out of hand.

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The Neuroscience of Academic Mindset:

these four elements make up our internal mindset scripts (schema) :

Our sense of mastery and competence as learners based on past experience and sense of preparedness

Our belief in our ability to move about the world freely and control our external world

Our deep belief in ourself and our ability to achieve what we put our mind and energy toward

Our explanatory story that we tell ourselves about why we are or aren't competent learners

fixed mindset: won't take a risk

growth mindset: willing to take a chance

Socio-political Impact on Academic Mindset:

Microagressions and Negativity Bias:

Micro assaults involve misusing power and privilege in subtle ways to marginalize students and create different outcomes based on race or class. In the classroom, a micro assault might look like giving a more severe punishment to a student of color than his white classmate who was engaged in the same behavior. Or it might look like overemphasizing military-like behavior management strategies for students of color. With younger children, it looks like excluding them from fun activities as punishment for minor infractions

Micro Insults involve being insensitive to culturally and linguistically diverse students and trivalisings their racial and cultural identity such as note learning to pronounce a student's name or giving the student and anglicized name to make it easier on the teacher. Continually confusing two students of the same race and casually brushing it off as "they all look alike".

Micro Invalidations involve actions that negate or nullify a person of color's experiences or realities such as ignoring each student's rich funds of knowledge. They are also expressed when we don't want to acknowledge the realities of structural radicalization or implicit bias. It takes the form of trivializing and dismissing students' experiences, telling them they are being too sensitive or accusing them of "playing the race card"

Setting the Stage for a Mind Shift:

Validation

As an ally, a culturally responsive teacher validates students' experiences in the larger sociopolitical context.

Self-Efficacy and the Feedback Loop

"I think I can Mindset"

Reforming Mistakes as Information

we have to help our students see errors and self-assessment and feedback. If students view mistakes as information that helps him be more effective, they develop a growth mindset that is open to applying effort.

Stategies to Help Shift Mindset:

Help students create a counter narrative anti their identity as learners

use images, quotes, and poetry to ignite student's imagination about what's possible

Notice and acknowledge students when they are acting according to the elements of academic mindset

help students connect with their current expertise and competencies

help students interrupt negative self-talk

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Helping dependent learners cultivate an academic mindset is critical in order for them to act on feedback and move toward independent learning

microagressions trigger an amygdala hijack and negatively impact academic mindset

rebuilding mindset begins with helping students notice their own progress

reframing mistakes as information is an essential part of having a positive academic mindset

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Advanced Organizers: Teaching activities and techniques that establish a framework and orient students to material before it is presented

Behavioral Objectives: Statements that communicate proposed changes in students' behavior to reach desired levels of performance

Bloom's taxonomy: Developed by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues; classifies educational objective into three domains-cognitive, affective, and psychomotor

Cloud Computing: Delivery of services such as servers, storage, and applications to an organization's computers and devices through the internet.

Comparative Advance Organizers: Organizers that introduce new material by connecting it with the students' prior knowledge.

Direct Instruction Approach: A structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.

Discovery Learning: Learning in which students construct an understanding on their own.

Essential Questions: Questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum, the most important things that students should explore and learn.

Expository Advance Organizers: Organizers that provide students with new knowledge that will orient them to the upcoming lesson.

Guided Discovery Learning: Learning in which students are encouraged to construct their understanding with the assistance of teacher-guided questions and directions.

Instructional Planning: A systematic, organized strategy for planning lessons.

Internet: A core of computer-mediated communication; a system of computer networks that operates worldwide.

Mastery Learning: Involved learning one topic or concept thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.

Task Analysis: Breaking down a complex task that students are to learn into its component parts.

Taxonomy: A classification system.

Web: A system for browsing internet sites that refers to the World Wide Web; named the web because it is composed of many sites that are linked together.

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Instruction Planning:

Involves developing a systematic, organized strategy for lessons

May be asked to submit your lesson plan weeks in advance

An effective planning strategy is mapping backward, from "goals to desired performances to activities and elements of scaffolding needed to support student progress"

You must decide what is important to include based on their goals, accessibility to particular groups, and readiness for various kinds of learning experiences

You also have to consider the kinds of information, demonstrations, models, inquiry opportunities, discussion, and practice students need over time to understand particular concepts and develop particular skills.

Time Frames and Planning:

Developing systematic time plans involves knowing what needs to be done and when to do it, or focusing on "task" and "time"

Robert Yinger identified five time spans of teacher planning: yearling planning, term planning, unit planning, weekly planning, and daily planning for them .

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teacher-centered lesson planning and instruction

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teacher-centered lesson planning and instruction

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teacher-centered lesson planning:

Behavioral Objectives:

1. are statements about changes that the teacher wishes to see in student' performance. Based in three separate parts

2. student's behavior. focus on what the student will learn or do.

3. conditions under which the behavior will occur. State how the behavior will be evaluated or tested.

4. performance criteria. Determine what level of performance will be acceptable

Task Analysis:

1. determine what skills or concepts the student needs to have to learn the task

2. list any materials that will be required in order to perform the task such as paper, pencil, and calculator

3. list all of the components of the task in the order in which they must be performed

Instructional Taxonomies:

The Cognitive Domain

blooms cognitive taxonomy has six objectives

1. knowledge. students have the ability to remember information. For example, an objective might be to list or describe four main main advantages of using a computer for word processing

2. comprehension. Students understand the information and can explain it in their own words. For example, an objective might be to explain or discuss how a computer can effectively be used for word processing

3. Application. Students use knowledge to solve real-life problems. For example, an objective might be to apply what has been learned about using a computer for word processing to how this could be used in various careers.

4. analysis. students break down complex information into smaller parts and relate information to other information. Foe example, an objective might be to compare one type of word-processing program with another for doing term papers.

5. synthesis. students combine elements and create new information. For example, an objective might be to organize all that has been learned about the use of computers for writing.

6. evaluation. students make good judgments and decisions. For example, an objective might be to critique different word-processing programs or to judge the strengths and weaknesses of a particular word-processing program.

The affective domain:

1. Receiving. Students become aware of or attend to something in the environment. For example, a guest comes to class to talk with students about reading. AN objective might be for students to listen carefully to the speaker.

2. responding. students become motivated to learn and display a new behavior as a result of an experience. An objective might be for students to become motivated to become better readers as a result of the guest speaker's appearance.

3. valuing. Students become involved in, or committed to, some experience. An objective might be for students to value reading as an important skill.

4. Organizing. Students integrate a new value into an already existing set of values and give it proper priority. An objective might. be to have students participate in a book club.

5. Value characterizing. Students act in accordance with the value and are firmly committed to it. an objective might be that over the course of the school year, students increasingly value reading.

The Psychomotor Domain:

1. Reflex Movements. students response involuntarily without conscious thought to a stimulus-for example, blinking when an object unexpectedly hurtles their way.

2. basic fundamentals. students make basic voluntary movements that are directed toward a particular purpose, such as grasping a microscope knob and correctly turning it

3. perceptual abilities. students use their sense, such as seeing, hearing, or touching, to guide their skill efforts such as a watching how to hold an instrument in science, like a microscope, and listening to instructions on how to use it.

4. physical abilities. Students develop general skills of endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility, such as running long distances or hitting a softball

5. skilled movements. students perform complex physical skills with some degree of proficiency, such as effectively sketching a drawing

6. non-discursive behaviors. students communicate feelings and emotions through bodily actions, such as doing pantomimes or dancing to communicate a musical piece.

teachers can use blooms taxonomies for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains to plan instruction.

bloom's taxonomy provides for a more expansive consideration of skills by also including affective and psychomotor domains

in the updated version the knowledge dimension has 4 categories

1. factual: the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it (Technical vocabulary, sources of information)

2. Conceptual: the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that allow them to function together (periods of geological time, forms of business ownership)

3. Procedural: how to do something, methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills (skills used in painting with watercolors, interviewing techniques)

4. metacognitive: knowledge of cognition and awareness of one's own cognition (knowledge of outlining and strategies for our remembering)

in the updated cognitive process dimension, six categories lie along a continuum from less complex (remember) to more complex (create)

1. Remember. retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term memory. (Recognize the dates of important events in U.S. history)

2. Understand. Construct meaning from instruction that includes interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining. (explain the causes of important eighteenth-century events in France.)

3. Apply. Carry out or use a procedure in a given situation. (use a law in physics in situations in which it is appropriate.

4. analyze. break material into its component parts and determine how the parts relate to each other and to overall structure or purpose. (distinguish between relevant and irrelevant numbers in a math word problem.

5. evaluate. make judgments based on criteria and standards. (detect inconsistencies or fallacies in a product.)

6. create. put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure. (generate hypotheses to account for an observe phenomenon)

Direct Instruction

is a structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.

takes place when the teacher chooses students' learning tasks, directs students' learning of the tasks, and minimizes the amount of nonacademic talk.

an important goal in the direct-instruction approach is called academic learning time, learning takes time.

the more academic learning time students get the more likely they are to learn the material and achieve high standards.

keep negative affect to a minimum

Teacher Centered Instructional strategies:

Orienting

advance organizers are teaching activities and techniques that establish a framework and orient students to material before it is presented.

Advance organizers come in two forms; expository and comparative

Expository Advance Organizers

provide students with new knowledge that will orient them to the upcoming lesson

another way to provide an expository advance organizer is to describe the lesson's theme and why it is important to study this topic

Comparative Advance Organizers

introduce new material by connecting it with what students already know

Lecturing, Explaining, and Demonstrating

some goals that lecturing can accomplish

1. presenting information and motivating students' interest in a subject

2. introducing a topic before students read about it on their own, or giving instructions on how to perform. task

3. summarizing or synthesizing information after a discussion or inquiry

4. providing alternative points of view or clarifying issues in preparation for discussion

5. explaining materials that students are having difficult learning on their own.

Questioning and Discussing

teachers should respond to each student's learning needs while maintaining the group's interest and attention

it is also important to distribute participation widely while also retaining the enthusiasm of eager volunteers

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Mastery Learning:

involved learning one concept or topic thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one

1. specific the learning task or lesson. Develop precise instructional objectives. Establish mastery standards (this typically is where A students perform)

2. Break the course into learning units that are aligned with instructional objectives

3. plan instructional procedures to include corrective feedback to students if they fail to master the material at an acceptable level, such as 90 percent correct. The corrective feedback might take place through supplemental materials, tutoring, or small-group instruction

Outcomes of mastery learning depend on the teacher's skill in planning and executing the strategy

a well-organized mastery learning program fro remedial reading allows students to progress at their own rates based on their skills, their motivation, and the time they have to learn.

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Learner-Centered Principles:

moves the focus away from the teacher an toward the student

students' perceptions of a positive learning environment and interpersonal relationships with the teacher-facets associate with learner-centered instruction-were important in enhancing students' motivation and achievement

14 learner-centered principle in terms of four sets of factors: cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and instructional, developmental and social, and individual differences Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

this principles highlight learners' intellectual capacities and how the learning process is facilitated by contexts that support thinking strategies

1. Nature of the Learning Process

the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience

2. Goals of the Learning Process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge

3. Construction of Knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategic Thinking

the successful learner can create a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex goals

5. Thinking about Thinking

Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking

6. Context of Learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices

Motivational and Instructional Factors:

These principles highlight the roles of motivation and emotion in learning, focusing on how contacts can meet individual learners' needs for control and choice

1. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning

What and how much is learned is influence by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the learner's emotional states, believes, interests, goals, and habits of thinking

2. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests and providing for personal choice and control

3. Effects of Motivation on Effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social Factors

These principles focus on how learner development and interpersonal interactions can influence learning

1. Developmental Influences on Learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when development within and across physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains is taken into account.

2. Social Influences on Learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others

Individual Difference Factors

these principles emphasize the importance of setting high standards and using assessment to adapt instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners

1. individual Differences in Learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity

2. Learning and Diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account,

3. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment - are integral parts of the learning process.

Some Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies:

Problem-Based Learning

emphasizes real-life problem solving

exposes students to authentic problems like those that crop up in everyday life.

is learner-centered approach that focuses on a problem to be solved though small-group efforts

students identify problems or issues they wish to explore, locate materials and resources they need to address the issue or solve the problems.

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Essential Questions

are questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum

cause students to think and motivates their curiosity

Discovery Learning

learning in which students construct an understanding on their own

students have to figure out things for themselves

guided discovery learning; students are still encouraged to construct their understanding, but with the assistance of teacher-guided questions and directions

Evaluating Learner-Centered Strategies

to approach lesson planning and instruction is positive in many ways

encourages teachers to help students actively construct their understanding, set goals and plan, think deeply and creatively, monitor their learning, solve real-world problems, develop more positive self-esteem and control they emotions, be internally motivated, learn in a developmentally appropriate way, collaborate effectively with others, evaluate their learner preferences, and meet challenging standards.

critics argue that it gives too much attention to the process of learning and not enough academic content

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The Internet:

A system of computer networks that operates worldwide.

Cloud Computing; delivery of services such as server, storage, and applications to an organization's computers and device through the internet.

though the internet is a helpful and valuable tool for student learning it also carries setbacks likes; effectively using it with students, knowing how to use it comfortable, being up-to-date on equipment, and students having access to mature websites

How to Effectively use the Internet in the Classroom

Navigating and integrating knowledge. Teachers can focus on authentic data for problem solving and inquiry, such as temperature records or census data. Also, it can be helpful to reconcile information from multiple sources as well as teaching and modeling evaluation of information, analysis of source credibility, and documentation of Internet resources.

Collaborative learning. One of the most effective ways to use the Internet in your classroom is through project-centered activities. Blog publishing (allowing moderated comments) can be a good collaborative online activity. Another collaborative use of the Internet is to have a group of students conduct a survey on a topic, put it on the Internet, and hope to obtain responses from many parts of the world. They can organize, analyze, and summarize the data they receive, and then share them with other classes around the world. Yet another type of collaborative learning project involves sending groups of students on Internet "scavenger hunts" to find information and/or solve a problem. Online citizen science projects also are inherently collaborative with data being pooled online for analysis. In the classroom, Web publishing and online videos can be highly collaborative activities with activities with different groups assigned to different roles and responsibilities (e.g., art department, script writers, technical team).

Kent Innovation High School in Michigan extensively uses project-based learning and the Internet (Langel, 2015). Every student has a laptop and the entire school is invested in the use of Google Drive, where students can store designs, drawings, recordings, stories, videos, and so on. Teachers use Google Drive to introduce, trace, and plan projects with students, who use it for generating ideas, planning, and orchestrating their own projects.

Computer-mediated communications (CMC). An increasing number of innovative educational projects include the use of computer-mediated communications.

Improving teachers' knowledge and understanding.

Graphics and Presentation

Graphics software and PowerPoint can improve many presentations by enhancing the content and attractiveness of the visual aids you use to teach students

Technology Standards for Students Involve being a (an)

﻿﻿Empowered Learner. Students actively use technology to reach learning goals.

﻿﻿Digital Citizen. Students demonstrate responsibility and are ethical in their use of technology.

﻿﻿Knowledge Constructor. Students use a variety of resources and digital tools to construct knowledge, become more creative, and engage in meaningful learning.

﻿﻿Innovative Designer. Students use various technologies to solve problems and craft useful and imaginative solutions to these problems.

﻿﻿Computational Thinker. Students develop strategies in using technology to create solutions and test them.

﻿﻿Creative Communicator. Students communicate effectively and think creatively in their use of digital tools to attain goals.

﻿﻿Global Collaborator. Students use technology to widen their perspectives and enhance their learning by connecting with others locally and globally.

Teaching, Learning, and Technology:

Using Technology to Improve

Evaluate which topics are worth understanding. Technology is especially appropriate for generating worthwhile and interesting learning topics. The Internet provides a wealth of information about virtually every topic imaginable that can be mined to generate new topics or expand what students are studying as part of the curriculum. The wide range of information provided by the Internet allows students to learn more about their own interests and ideas and carve a unique pathway in learning about a topic, instead of following cookie-cutter steps in a traditional textbook or workbook (Roblyer,2016). Wiske et al., (2005) also point out that technology can often be used effectively to teach where problem spots emerge every year: "examples include heat and temperature or weight and density in science, ratios in mathematics, and stereotypes in history and social studies classes" (p. 28). These topics, which many students struggle to understand, are central to the subiect matter and are frequently more easily understood through the use of technology.

Think about what students should understand about a topic. When teachers consider using technology in the classroom, it is important for them to think about the learning goals they have for their students. Goals might include learning a new concept or applying a key concept to relevant situations. A goal related to technology might be to understand how to find and critically examine information on the Internet that is relevant to a classroom topic. Generating goals in this manner reminds the teacher that "surfing the Web" is "not an end in itself" but rather a way to use "technology to accomplish meaningful work" (Wiske et al., 2005, p. 44).

﻿﻿﻿Pay attention to how students develop and demonstrate understanding.
Use technology to help students "stretch their minds" and understand something in ways that they never did before. In improving students' understanding, Wiske et al., (2005) recommend that teachers use technology when it can "enhance and enrich their performances of understanding. ... Word processors, digital audio and video technologies for creating Web sites allow students to express their understanding in a rich variety of media. These technologies also capture student work in forms that can be easily revised, combined, and distributed* (Wiske et al., 2005, pp. 65-66).

Consider how students and teachers assess learning. Use ongoing assessment instead of only using a final assessment. During ongoing assessment, you might guide students in understanding what quality work involves or use peer collaboration to help students analyze and improve their work.

A helpful strategy is to also encourage students to assess their own learning progress and to monitor how effectively they are learning. Technology can be used in several ways to effectively assess learning.

Reflect on how students and teachers can learn together. "Networked technologies provide multiple advantages for connecting learners with reflective, collaborative communities...: " For example, "E-mail permits users to send and receive many-to-many messages and to do so quickly. Students can share information and work with many other students all over the world, exchanging multiple rounds of reflective dialogue. The Web, with digital images, video and audio recordings, and videoconferencing, also allows students and their teachers to publish and collaborate on work, opening up the possibility of communicating with a wide range of audiences outside the classroom" (Wiske et al., 2005, pp. 100, 102). Social media also can be an important tool to accomplish these goals as well.

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

A model created by Matthew Koehler and Punta Mishra

Emphasizes the importance of not looking at technology as a stand-alone entity but rather addressing links between technology, content knowledge, and pedagogy

Stages of Integrating Technology into Classroom Teaching

Stage 1: Teacher is aware that a particular technology exists but hasn't used it; may be avoiding the technology

Stage 2: Teacher is currently trying to learn the basic aspects of the technology but often becomes frustrated and still lacks confidence with this technology

Stage 3: Teacher is beginning to see how to use a particular technology and thinks about specific situations in which to use it

Stage 4: Teacher is gaining confidence in using the technology as something that helps him or her and no longer lacks confidence in using to; teacher perceives that the technology can be used in a number of instructional contexts.

Stage 5: Teacher now thinks about his technology as something that helps him or her and no longer lacks confidence in using it; teacher perceives that the technology can be used in a number of instructional contexts

Stage 6: Teacher can use this technology as an effective instructional tool across the curriculum to meet instructional objectives.

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The Power of Active Processing

to build underserved students' intellective capacity rests in its focus on information processing.

Our ability to process, store, and use information dictates whether we are able to do more complex and complicated thinking in the future because they are the very things that stimulate brain growth.

The cognitive rich will only get academically richer while the cognitively poor will get academically poorer, as small differences in learning abilities such as information processes are allowed to grow into large gaps.

The Neuroscience of Information Processing

Stage 1 (input): During the first stage the brain decides what information it should pay attention to.

Stage 2 (Elaboration): If the brain decides it wants to let in this information and seek to understand what it means, it sends the info on to the next phase, elaboration. Elaboration makes material memorable and meaningful. The elaboration stage is where learning for understanding takes place

Stage 3 (Application): After elaboration, the brain moves to application. The application stage focuses on giving the Brin opportunities to apply this new knowledge through deliberate practice and real life application. As memory capacity expands so does intellective capacity and the student's ability to do higher tasks.

The Cultural Connection

CRT information processing techniques grow out of the learning traditions of oral cultures where knowledge is taught and processes through story, song, movement, repetitious chants, rituals, and dialogic talk. They are all forms of elaboration and rely heavily on the brain's memory system.

In response, children's brains create neural pathways in the working memory that are primed for processing information orally and actively.

Building Intellective Capacity

1. Ignite - getting the brain's attention

2. Chunk- Making information digestible

3. Chew - Actively processing new information

4. Review - Having a chance to apply new learning

attention is the first step in learning. During the input stage of learning, the brain has to let in the new content. First we have to pay attention. We canot learn, remember or understand what we don't first give our attention to.

Other culturally oriented techniques;

1. Call and Response

2. Music

3. Provocations

4. Talk

Chunk: Feed the Brain Right-Sized Pieces of Information

Chew: Help the Brain Process the Content

Cognitive Routines Aid Elaboration

introduce them to cognitive routines for deeper processing

Giving students the change to actively process information is at the heart of CRT because all new content that makes it to out working memory must be mixed with our existing background knowledge.

The ultimate goal of culturally responsive instruction is to help students build inside their heads a "cognitive power plant" that allows them ways of learning through the explicit focus on cognitive routines.

As a part of Cognitive Routine, have students ask these four questions

1. How is the new material connected to what I already know?

2. What are the natural relationships and patterns in the material?

3. How does it fit together? what larger system s it part of?

4. Whose point of view does it represent

there are four key cognitive routines the brain gravitates to when we place new information on working memory's tabletop, some call them "thinking dispositions" or "thinking routines"

1. similarities and differences. the brain looks for distinctions between this new concepts, or events. the brain tries to understand what features make them the same or different

2. Whole-to-part. The brain tries to understand how things are organized into a system. Is the object, concept, or even part of a larger system or pattern? Is it a smaller part of the white or is the whole made up of smaller parts?

3. Relationships. The brain tries to see the relationship of the object concept, or event to other things. It wants to understand how it is connected and the role it plays as it interacts with other events, objects, or concepts

4. Perspectives. The brain tries to figure out the point of view or perspective being presented. It tries to determine who is telling the story or controlling the narrative.

Two things are necessary for thinking routines to take hold as cognitive habits

1. There has to be a strong cue that prompts the thinker into starting the routine

2. The routine has to be internalized, meaning the learner has to remember the steps in the routine on his own eventually

Talk to Learn

Leo Vygotsky said language is the medium by which children acquire their information.

instructional Conversation

the kind of talk that acts like a mental blender, mixing together new material with existing knowledge in a students' schema

Rhythmic Mnemonics in Songs or Spoken Word Poetry

Storify-ing the content

recursive graphic organizers, infographics and other nonlinguistic representations

Metaphors and analogies

word play and humor

Review

Play a game to review

solve the mystery or real-life problem

Work on long-term projects

Culturally Responsive Information Processing in Math and Science

the power of crt is in its ability to help students depend their understanding of core concepts as well as build automaticity and fluency with core facts.

helping students build an academic vocabulary in math and science will lay a strong foundation for doing more rigorous conceptual thinking in those subject areas

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simply adding surface-level cultural details to low-level decontextualized activities doesn't offer any cognitive challenge and won't build intellective capacity

culturally responsive teaching for information processing follows the brain's natural input, elaboration, and application cycle

students need to learn and internalize cognitive routines in order to move forward more independent learning

engagement is a means to an end, not the end goal of culturally responsive teaching

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What is Motivation?

Involves the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

Perspectives on Motivation:

The Behavioral Perspective

The behavioral perspectives emphasize external rewards and punishments as key in determining a student's motivation

Using incentives can motivate students; candy, games, etc.

The Humanistic Perspective:

The humanistic perspective stresses students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities

According the Maslow's hierarchy of needs, individuals needs must be satisfied in this sequence

1. physiological: hunger, thirst, sleep

2. safety: ensuring survival, such as protection from war and crime

3. love and belongingness: security, affection and attention from others

4. esteem: feeling good about oneself

5. self-actualization: realization of one's potential

In Maslow's view, self-actualization is possible only after the lower needs have been met.

The Cognitive Perspective:

accord to the cognitive perspective on motivation, students' thoughts guide their motivation.

Competence motivation is the idea that people are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, to master their world, and to process information efficiently.

The Social Perspective:

Social perspective involves the need for affliction or relatedness is the motive to be securely connected with people this involves establishing,maintaining, and restoring warm, close personal relationships

students' need for affiliation or relatedness is reflected in their motivation to spend time with their peers, their close friends, their attachment to their parents, and their desire to have a positive relationship with their teachers

the concept of a belonging mindset describes the belief that people like you belong in your school

when underrepresented students feel they belong and are well connected to their school, they have better physical and mental health, and have greater academic success

realize that you don't have to adopt just one perspective, all of the perspectives provide information that is relevant to children's education

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Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

students are more highly motivated to learn when they are given choices, become absorbed in challenges that match their skills, and receive rewards that have informational value but are not used for control.

praise can also enhance students' intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

involves doing something to obtain something else (a means to an end)

is often influenced by external incentives such as rewards and punishments

driven by desire to obtain rewards or avoid punishment, is associated with decreased well-being

Intrinsic Motivation

involved the internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself)

intrinsic is related to student success and well-being, and personal value is related to persistence

four types of intrinsic motivation

1. self-determination and personal choice

2. optimal experiences and flow

3. intererst

4. cognitive engagement and self-responsibility

Self-Determination and Personal Choice:

researchers have found that students' internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when students have some choice and some opportunities to take person responsibility for their learning

Compared with a control group, students in this intrinsic motivation/ self-determination group had higher achievement gains and were more likely to graduate from high school

Strategies for Student Self Determination and Choice

1. Take the time to talk with students and discuss with them why the learning activity is important.

2. Provide students opportunities to make choices that are meaningful to them.

3. Be attentive to students' feelings when they are being asked to do something they don't want to do

4. Manage the classroom effectively, in a way that lets students make personal choices. Let students select topics for book reports, writing assignments, and research projects. Let them decide how they want to report their work; For instance, let them report to you or to the class as a whole, individually or with a partner

5. Establish learning centers where students can work individually or collaboratively with other students on different projects and can select their activities from a menu that you have developed

6. create self-selected interest groups and let students work on relevant research together.

Optimal Experiences and Flow

Flow occurs most often when people develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in an activity

He argues that flow occurs when individuals are engaged in challenges they find neither too difficult nor too easy

Flow is most likely to occur in areas in which students are challenged and perceive themselves as having a high degree of skill.

When students' skills are high but the activity provides little challenge, the result is boredom

You can help students achieve flow by being competent and motivated , become an expert about the subject matter, show enthusiasm when you reach and present yourself as a model who is intrinsically motivated

Interest

a distinction has been made between individual interest, which is thought to be relatively stable, and situational interest , which is believe to be generated by specific aspects of a task activity

Research on interest has focused mainly on its relationship to learning and cognitive processes, as well as its importance in various academic domains

Interest is linked more closely to measures of deep learning, such as recall of main ideas and responses to more difficult comprehension questions, than to surface learning, such as responses to simple questions and verbatim recall of text

Researchers have found that a number off contextual factors, such as autonomy support, instructor approachability, involvement opportunities, and course material relevance, are linked to situational interest and in turn may support individual interest

Integrating technology into the classroom can increase students' motivation to learn and engagement in learning, especially when it is used to foster authentic learning

research reveals that special needs students can achieve at the same levels as regular students in some situations when using technology

Cognitive Engagement and Self-Responsibility

the emphasize the importance of creating learning environments that encourages students to become cognitively engaged and take responsibility for their learning

The goal is to get students to become motivated to expend the effort to persist and master ideas rather than simply doing enough wot to just get by

Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation

Rewards in the classroom can be useful because it;

1. can be used as an incentive to engage in tasks, in which case the goal is to control the students behavior

2. to convey information about mastery

it is important to examine what rewards convey about comptenence

when rewards are tied to competence, they tend to promote motivation and interest

When they are not, they are unlikely to raise motivation or may diminish it once the rewards are withdrawn

Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Researchers have found that as students move from early elementary school years to high school years, their intrinsic motivation decreases

the biggest drop in intrinsic motivation and increase in extrinsic motivation occurred between sixth grade and seventh grade

students who were intrinsically motivated did much better academically than those who were extrinsically motivated

School grading reinforces an external motivation orientation

Proposing the concept of person-environment fit, argues that a lack of fit between the middle school/junior high environment and the needs of young adolescents process increasingly negative self-evaluations and attitudes toward school

teachers became more controlling just at the time when adolescents are seeking more autonomy, and the teacher-relationship becomes more impersonal at a time when students are seeking more independence from their parents and need more support from other adults

Some Final Thoughts About Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

teachers should create learning environments that promote students' cognitive engagement and self-responsibility for learning

in many aspects of students' lives both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate simultaneously

The seven processes are;

1. attribution

2. mastery, motivation and mindset

3. self-efficacy

4. goal setting, planning and self-monitoring

5. expectations

6. delay of gratification

7. values and purpose

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Attribution

attribution theory; states that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their own performance and behavior

educational psychologist often recommend providing students with a planned series of achievement experiences in which modeling information about, strategies, practice and feedback re used to help them;

1. concentrate on the task at hand rather than worrying about failing

2. cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or by analyzing the problem to discover another approach

3. attribute their failures to a lack of effort rather than lack of ability

The current strategy is not expose students to models who handle tasks with ease and demonstrate success but rather to expose them to models who struggle to overcome mistakes before finally succeeding

this way students learn how to deal with frustration, persistence in the face of difficulties, and constructively cope with failure

Mastery, Motivation and Mindset

Mastery Motivation

children who display mastery orientation are task-oriented; instead of focusing on their ability, they concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome

those with helpless orientation seem trapped by the experience of difficulty and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability

mastery-oriented children often instruct themselves to pay attention, to think carefully, and to remember strategies that have worked from them in previous situations

Children with performance orientation focus on winning rather than achievement, and they believe that success results from winning

for mastery-oriented individuals winning isn't everything; for performance-oriented individuals, skill development and self-efficacy take a backseat to winning

mastery and performance goals; they are not always mutually exclusive, students can both mastery and performance oriented, and researcher have found that mastery goals combined with performance goals often benefit students' success

Self-efficacy

The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

a critical factor in whether or not students achieve

influences a student's choice of activities

students with low self efficacy may avoid learning tasks, especially those that are challenging

students learn much more from teachers with a sense of high self-efficacy than those beset by self doubts

low-self-efficacy teachers don't have confidence in their ability to manage their classrooms, become stresses and angered at student' misbehavior, are pessimistic about students' ability to improve, take a custodial view of their job, often resort to restrictive and punitive modes of discipline.

teachers regard their students as capable of high academic achievement, set challenging academic standards for them, and provide support to help them reach these high standards

Expectations

Students' Expectation

how hard students will work can depend on how much they expect to accomplish, if they expect to succeed, they are more likely to work hard to reach a goal than if they expect to fail

three aspects of ability beliefs, are students' beliefs about how good they are at a particular activity, how good they are in comparison with other individuals and how good they are in relation to their performance in other activities

Teachers Expectations

teachers expectations influence students' motivation and performance

teachers often have more positive expectations for high-ability than for low-ability students and these expectations are likely to influence their behavior toward them

an important teaching stately is to monitor your expectations and be sure to have positive expectations for students with low abilities

Delay of Gratification

is an important aspect of reaching goals - especially long-term goals

involves postponing immediate rewards in order to attain larger, more valuable rewards in the future

Values and Purpose

students who have positive values and a sense of purpose are more likely to be able to delay gratification than those who don't

students work is influenced by the value they place on the goal they have

values can be attached to all sorts of things, such as religion, money, sex, helping others, family, friends, self-discipline, cheating, education, career and so on.

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motivation, relationships, and sociocultural contexts 

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motivation, relationships, and sociocultural contexts 

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Social Motives

are needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world

students' social needs are reflected in their desires to be popular with peers and have close friends and the powerful attraction they feel to someone they love

every school day, students work at establishing and maintain social relationships

both teacher approval and peer approval are important social motives for most students

adolescence can be an especially important juncture in achievement motivation and social motivation

as adolescents experience more intense achievement demands, their social interest might cut into the time they need for academic matters

Social Relationships

students' relationships with parents, peers and friends have a tremendous impact on their lives. Their interactions with teachers, mentors, and others can profoundly affect their achievement and social motivation

Demographic Characteristics

parents with more education are more likely than less-educated parents to believe that their involvement in their child's education is important, to be active participants in their child's education, and to have intellectually stimulating materials at home

living in single-parent family, having parents who are consumed by their work and living in a larger gamily can undercut children's achievement

Parental over involvement also can undermine students' achievement

Child-Rearing Practices

knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and the right amount os support

providing a positive emotional climate that motivates children to internalize their parents' values and goals

Modeling motivated achievement behavior -- working hard and persisting with effort at challenging tasks

Provision of Specific Experience at Home

reading to one's preschool children and providing reading materials in the home are positively related to students' later reading achievement and motivation

researchers have found that children's skills and work habits when they enter kindergarten are among the best predictors of academic motivation and performance in both elementary and secondary school

Peers

students who are more accepted by their peers and who have good social skills often do better in school and have positive academic achievement motivation

a study revealed that having aggressive-disruptive friends in adolescence was linked to a lower likelihood of graduating from high school

having friends who are academically oriented is linked to higher achievement in adolescence

Teachers

When researchers have observed classrooms, they have found that effective, engaging teachers provide support for students to make good progress, but encourage them to become self-regulated achievers

the encouragement takes place In a very positive environment, one in which students are constantly being guided to become motivated to try hard and develop self-efficacy

Many children who do not do well in school consistently have negative interactions with their teachers

Researchers have found that students who feel they have supportive, caring, teachers are more strongly motivated to engage in academic work than students who do not

Students' motivation is optimized when teachers provide them with challenging tasks in a mastery-oriented environment that includes good emotional and cognitive support, meaningful and interesting material to learn and master, and sufficient support for autonomy and initiative

many researchers conclude that when academic work is meaningful, it sustains students' attention and interest, engages them in learning and reduces the likelihood that students will feel alienated from school

Teachers and Parents

When teachers systematically and frequently inform parents of their child's progress and parents get involved in their children's learning, children often reach higher levels of academic achievement

Sociocultural Contexts

achievement differences are more closely related to socioeconomic status than to ethnicity

Regardless of their ethnic background, students from middle- and upper-income families fare better than their counterparts from low-income backgrounds in a host of achievement situations-expectations for success, achievement aspirations, and recognition of the importance of effort, for example

A special challenge for many ethnic minority students, especially those living in poverty, is dealing with racial prejudice, conflict between the values of their group and the majority group, and a lack of high-achieving adults in their cultural group who can serve as positive role models

It is important to consider the nature of the schools that primarily serve ethnic minority students

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achievement problems can surface when students don't set goals, don't plan how to reach them, and don't adequately monitor their progress toward the goals

Students Who are Low Achieving and Have Low Expectations for Success

students need to be consistently reassured that they CAN meet their goals and challenges that are set, you will need to support them for them to succeed

they need to be reminded that you will accept their progress only as long as they make real effort

they might need individualized instructional materials or activities to provide an optimal challenge for their skill level

help them set learning goals and give them support but require these students to put forth considerable effort and make progress

failure syndrome students are different from low-achieving students who fail despite putting forth their best effort

failure syndrome students don't put forth enough effort, often beginning tasks in a halfhearted manner and giving up quickly at the first hint of a challenge

failure syndrome students often have low self-efficacy and a fixed mindset

Students Who Protect Their Self-Worth By Avoiding Failure

Nonperformance. The most obvious strategy for avoiding failure is to not try.
In the classroom, nonperformance tactics include appearing eager to answer a teacher's question but hoping the teacher will call on another student, sliding down in the seat to avoid being seen by the teacher, and avoiding eye contact. These can seem like minor deceptions, but they might portend other, more chronic forms of noninvolvement such as dropping out and excessive absences.

﻿﻿Procrastination. Individuals who postpone studying for a test until the last minute can blame failure on poor time management, thus deflecting attention away from the possibility that they are incompetent. A variation on this theme is to take on so many responsibilities that you have an excuse for not doing any one of them in a highly competent manner.

﻿﻿Setting unreachable goals. By setting goals so high that success is virtually impossible, individuals can avoid the implication that they are incompetent, because virtually anyone would fail to reach such a challenging goal.

Here are a few strategies to help students reduce preoccupation with protecting self-worth and avoiding failure (Covington & Teel, 1996):

﻿﻿Guide students in setting challenging but realistic goals.

﻿﻿Help students strengthen the link between their effort and self-pride. Tell them to take pride in their effort and minimize social comparison.

﻿﻿Encourage students to have positive beliefs about their abilities but don't tell them they have high ability or praise them for high ability.

Students Who Procrastinate

A meta-analysis of research studies revealed that procrastination is linked to low self-efficacy, low conscientiousness, distractibility, and low achievement

other reasons students procrastinate include poor time management, difficult concentrating, fear and anxiety, negative beliefs, personal problems, boredom, unrealistic expectation, fear of failure and perfectionism

procrastination can take form like;

Ignoring the task and hoping that it will go away

﻿﻿Underestimating the work involved in the task or overestimating one's abilities and resources

﻿﻿Spending endless hours on computer games and surfing the Internet

﻿﻿Substituting a worthy but lower-priority activity, such as cleaning one's room instead of studying

﻿﻿Believing that repeated minor delays won't hurt

﻿﻿Persevering on only part of the task, such as writing and rewriting the first paragraph of a paper but never getting to the body of it

﻿﻿Becoming paralyzed when having to choose between two alternatives--for example, agonizing over doing biology homework or English homework first with the outcome that neither is done

Students with High Anxiety

some students have high anxiety levels and worry constantly which can impair their ability to achieve

some students experience high anxiety levels because of unrealistic achievement expectations and pressure

Students Who are Uninterested or Alienated

the most difficult motivation problem involves students who are apathetic, uninterested in learning, or alienated from school learning

Strategies to Reach Uninterested or Alienated Students;

1. ﻿﻿﻿Work on developing a positive relationship with the student. If the uninterested or alienated student doesn't like you, it is hard to get the student to work toward any achievement goals. Show patience, but be determined to help the student and push for steady progress in spite of setbacks or resistance.

2. ﻿﻿﻿Make school more intrinsically interesting. To make school more intrinsically interesting for this type of student, find out the student's interests and if possible include those interests in assignments that you make.

3. ﻿﻿﻿Teach strategies for making academic work more enjoyable. Help students understand that they are causing their own problems, and find ways to guide them in taking pride in their work.

4. ﻿﻿﻿Consider a mentor. Think about enlisting the aid of a mentor in the community or an older student you believe the uninterested or alienated student will respect.

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Standardized Tests and Their Purposes

﻿﻿Provide information about students' progress. Standardized tests are a source of information about how well students are performing.
Students in one class might get A's but perform at a mediocre level on a nationally standardized test, and students in another class might get B's and do extremely well on the same nationally standardized test.

Without an external, objective marker such as a standardized test, individual classroom teachers have difficulty knowing how well their students are performing compared with students elsewhere in the state or nation. Standardized tests also are used to show growth in achievement across months or years.

﻿﻿ Standardized tests also can provide information about a student's learning strengths or weaknesses. Different subscale scores can be compared to show strengths and weaknesses, and individually administered tests can be used to pinpoint the student's learning weaknesses.

Provide evidence for placement of students in specific programs. Standardized tests can be used to make decisions about whether a student should be allowed to enter a specific program. In elementary school, a standardized test might be used to provide information for placing students in different reading groups. In high school, a standardized test might be used to determine which math classes a student should take. In some cases, standardized tests are used along with other information to evaluate whether a student might be allowed to skip a grade or to graduate. Students also might take standardized tests to determine their suitability for particular careers. One type of standardized test--the benchmark or interim assessment- is given quarterly to help teachers determine the areas of achievement that need further instruction.

Provide information for planning and improving instruction. In conjunction with other information about students, scores from standardized tests can be used by teachers in making decisions about instruction.

For example, students' scores on a standardized test of reading skills administered at the start of the school year can help teachers determine the level at which they need to gear their reading instruction. Students' scores on a standardized test at the end of the year might inform teachers about how effective their reading instruction has been, information that could be used to continue similar instruction or modify it accordingly.

Contribute to accountability. Schools and teachers are increasingly being held accountable for students' learning. Although this application is controversial, standardized tests are being used to determine how effectively schools are using tax dollars.

Criteria For Evaluating Standardized Tests

Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests

is said to be based on national norms when the norm group consists of a nationally representative group of students

Under No Child Left Behind, state standardized tests were typically criterion-referenced tests, which do not use norms.

For example, state criterion-referenced tests might assess whether a student has attained a level of achievement termed "proficient," or reached a certain percentage level, such answering 80 percent of the items correctly. These levels of achievement were set by the state and used to determine annual yearly progress (AY) for accountability purposes for No Child Left Behind requirements.

Criterion-referenced tests are designed to assess students' skills and knowledge in specific areas, such as English, math, and science.

Validity, Reliability, and Fairness

Validity

has been defined as the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

involves the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and whether inferences about test scores are accurate and appropriate.

In terms of the test characteristics themselves-the substance of the test-three types of validity can be described: content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity.

Another form of validity is criterion validity, which is the test's ability to predict a student's performance as measured by other assessments or criteria.

Concurrent validity is the relation between the test's scores and other criteria that are currently (concurrently) available.

Construct validity is the extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct. Construct validity is the broadest of the types of validity we have discussed and can include evidence from concurrent and predictive validity

Judgments about construct validity might also rely on a description of the development of the test, the pattern of the relations between the test and other significant factors (such as high correlations with similar tests and low correlations with tests measuring different constructs), and any other type of evidence that contributes to understanding the meaning of test scores.

construct typically is abstract, a variety of evidence may be needed to determine whether a test validly measures a particular construct.

Reliability

Reliability is the extent to which a test produces a consistent, reproducible score. To be called reliable, scores must be stable, dependable, and relatively free from errors of measurement (Popham, 2020). Reliability can be measured in several ways, including test-retest reliability, alternate-forms reliability, and split-half reliability.

Test-retest reliability is the extent to which a test yields the same performance when a student is given the same test on two occasions.

Thus, if the standardized fourth-grade science test is given to a group of students today and then given to them again a month later, the test would be considered reliable if the students' scores were consistent across the two testings. There are two negative features of test-retest reliability:

Students sometimes do better the second time they take the test because of their familiarity with it, and some students may have learned information in the time between the first test and the second test that changes their performance.

Alternate-forms reliability is determined by giving different forms of the same test on two different occasions to the same group of students and observing how consistent the scores are. The test items on the two forms are similar but not identical. This strategy eliminates the likelihood that students will perform better on the second test administration due to their familiarity with the items, but it does not eliminate a student's increase in knowledge and increased familiarity with the testing procedures and strategies.

Split-half reliability involves dividing the test items into two halves, Page SI such as the odd-numbered and even-numbered items. The scores on the two sets of items are compared to determine how consistently the students performed across each set. When split-half reliability is high, we say that the test is internally consistent. For example, on the standardized fourth-grade science test, the students' scores on the odd-numbered and even-numbered items could be compared. If they scored similarly on the two sets of items, we could conclude that the science test had high split-half reliability.

Internal factors include health, motivation, and anxiety.

External factors include inadequate directions given by the examiner, ambiguously created items, poor sampling of information, and inefficient scoring.

Fairness and Bias

Are unbiased and nondiscriminatory

When tests are fair, students have the opportunity to demonstrate their learning so that their performance is not affected by their gender, ethnicity, disability, or other factors unrelated to the purpose of the test.

For students with disabilities, fairness often requires adaptations in administering the test. Many of the adaptations depend on the particular disability

The goal is to lessen the negative influence of the disability on the trait being tested. For example, for students with a hearing disability, be sure that the directions are written; for students with a visual problem, be sure that directions are given orally.