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Espelage, D.L., Low, S., & Polanin, J.R. (2021).
The Impact of Peer Victimization on Mental Health Outcomes Across Adolescence.
This study explores the long-term emotional and psychological effects of chronic bullying and the importance of supportive relationships.
🔗 Read on PubMed Central

Swearer, S.M., & Hymel, S. (2015).
Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: A Social-Ecological Model.
This paper explains how bullying is shaped by multiple layers of a student’s environment—school, peers, family, and community.
🔗 Read via University of Nebraska–Lincoln Digital Commons

Wolke, D., & Lereya, S.T. (2015).
Long-Term Effects of Bullying on Mental Health and Life Outcomes.
A comprehensive review showing that bullying can lead to serious long-term mental health issues and life difficulties.
🔗 Read on PubMed Central

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Bullying has a profound and multifaceted impact on the classroom environment and student mental health. Victimized students often experience anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms, low self-esteem, and a sense of isolation. These mental health challenges interfere with their ability to focus, participate in class discussions, complete assignments, and build relationships with peers and teachers. Over time, the emotional toll can lead to school avoidance, frequent nurse visits, and even school refusal behavior.

Academic performance typically suffers. According to the American Psychological Association, students who are bullied score lower on standardized tests and receive poorer grades than their non-bullied peers. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) also links bullying to increased absenteeism—students who experience bullying are more likely to miss school, sometimes for safety or mental health reasons.

In classrooms where bullying is not effectively addressed, the entire learning climate can become unsafe. Non-targeted students may also feel anxious about becoming future targets, which leads to a decrease in classroom engagement and trust. Teachers may find it harder to build a supportive and respectful community, and instructional time may be lost due to managing conflicts or student disengagement.

Addressing bullying in the classroom requires proactive strategies, including clear behavior expectations, social-emotional learning (SEL) integration, restorative justice practices, and ongoing teacher training in identifying and responding to bullying. Creating a classroom culture rooted in empathy, respect, and inclusion is critical for the emotional and academic success of all students.

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Bullying remains a significant concern in Rhode Island's middle schools, with notable disparities based on gender.​

Electronic Bullying: In 2023, 28% of Rhode Island middle school students reported being electronically bullied. This includes harassment through text messages, social media, and other online platforms. The prevalence was higher among females (37%) compared to males (19%). ​

Bullying on School Property: 43% of female students and 28% of male students reported being bullied on school property. ​

Physical Fights: Engagement in physical fights was reported by 10% of females and 19% of males, indicating a higher tendency towards physical confrontations among male students. ​

These statistics highlight the pervasive nature of bullying in Rhode Island middle schools and underscore the need for targeted interventions to address both electronic and in-person bullying.

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Nationally, about 1 in 5 middle school students (ages 12–15) reported being bullied during the 2021–22 school year.

Girls reported higher rates of bullying (22%) than boys (17%), especially through online platforms.

Bullying rates are higher in middle school than high school, with 6th graders reporting the highest rates (27%).

Students who were bullied were more likely to feel unsafe at school, experience anxiety or depression, and struggle academically.

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Bullying during middle school has been shown to cause significant harm to students’ mental health, both immediately and in the long term. Recent research highlights the serious and long-lasting mental health consequences of bullying, especially during middle school—a critical developmental stage. Espelage et al. (2021) found that chronic peer victimization can lead to depression, anxiety, and PTSD. However, strong, supportive relationships with peers and adults can reduce the severity of these outcomes, showing the importance of building a positive and inclusive school environment.

Swearer and Hymel (2015) emphasized that bullying is a complex, social issue shaped by environmental and cultural factors, such as school climate, peer group behavior, and family dynamics. Their social-ecological model stresses the need for whole-school strategies that go beyond punishment, encouraging empathy and community collaboration. Similarly, Wolke and Lereya (2015) showed that the effects of bullying extend into adulthood, increasing the risk for long-term psychological challenges, including suicidal ideation and poor life outcomes. Together, these studies urge schools to prioritize early intervention, build inclusive communities, and provide ongoing mental health support to protect students’ well-being and academic success.

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Research Summary: Bullying and Mental Health

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“The Impact of Peer Victimization on Mental Health Outcomes Across Adolescence”

This study provides compelling evidence that chronic peer victimization—experiencing bullying repeatedly over time—has a profound effect on the mental health of adolescents. The researchers found consistent links between bullying and serious psychological challenges such as depression, generalized anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These effects often worsen when bullying goes unreported or when schools lack adequate support systems. Adolescents who are persistently bullied may experience feelings of hopelessness, social withdrawal, difficulty concentrating, and school avoidance. The study also stresses that the mental health consequences of bullying are not just short-term but can extend well into adulthood if early support and intervention are not provided.

Importantly, the research identifies protective factors that can reduce the severity of bullying’s psychological impact. Among these, supportive relationships with trusted adults—teachers, counselors, coaches—and peer allies are shown to be especially powerful. When students feel emotionally safe and connected to caring individuals, they are more likely to cope with bullying in healthy ways. The authors advocate for a school-wide approach to prevention and intervention, emphasizing the need for daily mental health integration, consistent adult presence, and peer programs that promote empathy and inclusion. Schools that create a climate of openness, where students are encouraged to speak up and feel heard, are in a better position to prevent long-term harm.

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“Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: A Social-Ecological Model”

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“Understanding the Psychology of Bullying: A Social-Ecological Model”

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In this influential article, Swearer and Hymel present bullying not as a simple interaction between a bully and a victim, but as a complex social phenomenon shaped by multiple layers of influence. Their social-ecological model illustrates how bullying behaviors are affected by individual traits, peer group dynamics, family relationships, school environments, and broader cultural norms. For example, if a school tolerates aggressive behavior or fails to address exclusionary practices, students may view bullying as normal or even rewarded. Likewise, children from homes with inconsistent discipline or poor emotional support may be more likely to engage in or accept bullying behavior. The model encourages educators and policymakers to shift away from viewing bullying as just a disciplinary issue and toward understanding it as a product of larger systemic influences.

The authors advocate for a comprehensive, community-based approach to bullying prevention that includes not just school staff and students, but also families and community members. They emphasize the importance of building school climates rooted in empathy, respect, and accountability, where positive behaviors are modeled and reinforced by adults. Programs that focus on restorative justice, peer support systems, and digital citizenship can help students navigate social situations in both physical and online spaces. Crucially, the article underlines the need for ongoing collaboration between home and school, where families are educated and empowered to reinforce the same values being taught in the classroom. A united effort, they argue, is the most effective way to change the cultural norms that allow bullying to persist.

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Understanding the Psychology of Bullying

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Long-Term Effects of Bullying on Mental Health and Life Outcomes

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Long-Term Effects of Bullying on Mental Health and Life Outcomes

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Wolke and Lereya’s review synthesizes findings from multiple longitudinal studies and makes a strong case that bullying has enduring consequences that reach far beyond childhood. The authors found that individuals who were bullied are significantly more likely to experience long-term mental health disorders, including chronic depression, anxiety, panic disorders, and suicidal ideation. These negative effects often persist even when controlling for other life stressors or challenges. The review also found that bullying victims tend to have lower educational achievement, reduced employment opportunities, and poorer physical health in adulthood. This research firmly establishes bullying as not just a behavioral issue, but a serious public health concern that can shape a person’s trajectory for life.

The authors highlight middle school as a particularly vulnerable period for students, as it coincides with major emotional, cognitive, and social development. During this time, students are forming their sense of identity and are especially sensitive to peer dynamics and exclusion. Wolke and Lereya argue that early, sustained intervention is key to preventing long-term damage. Schools must adopt proactive strategies like regular emotional wellness check-ins, safe reporting systems, and peer support programs to catch signs of distress early. Promoting a school culture of belonging, acceptance, and respect not only prevents bullying but also strengthens resilience in all students—especially those who may be at greater risk of being targeted.

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Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

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Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

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Targeted Skills: Self-regulation, respect, responsibility, and community expectations.

How it Helps:

PBIS teaches expected behaviors in every school setting (e.g., hallways, classrooms, lunchrooms).

Students receive immediate, consistent feedback through a positive reinforcement system (e.g., "Caught Being Kind" tickets).

Helps prevent bullying by creating a safe, predictable environment with fewer opportunities for negative behavior to go unnoticed.

Evidence:

Research shows that PBIS implementation reduces school bullying, disciplinary referrals, and suspensions (Bradshaw et al., 2010).

Also improves academic performance and teacher-student relationships.

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Second Step Middle School Program (SSMS)

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Second Step Middle School Program (SSMS)

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Targeted Skills: Emotional regulation, empathy, assertiveness, conflict resolution.

How it Helps: Builds students' social-emotional competencies, which are essential for navigating peer conflict, resisting peer pressure, and handling stress.

Evidence: Studies show Second Step leads to decreased bullying behaviors, improved peer relationships, and increased school connectedness.

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Targeted Skills

Conflict resolution

Empathy and emotional intelligence

Accountability and self-reflection

Effective communication

Peer-to-peer relationship-building

How it Helps

Restorative justice shifts the focus from punishment to healing. In middle school settings, RJ:

Encourages students to take responsibility for their actions through restorative circles and mediated conversations.

Supports students in understanding how their behavior affects others, creating empathy and reducing repeat harm.

Builds a community-focused school climate where everyone feels heard and valued.

It is especially effective for addressing relational aggression (gossip, exclusion), which is common at this developmental stage.

Example in Practice:
A student who used hurtful language during lunch may participate in a circle with the affected student, a trained facilitator, and a peer mentor. Through guided questions (“What happened?”, “Who was affected?”, “What needs to be done to make things right?”), both students reach mutual understanding and a plan for repair.

Evidence of Effectiveness

Oakland Unified School District reported a 47% drop in suspension rates and an 87% reduction in chronic absenteeism after RJ was implemented in middle schools.

A 2019 RAND study found that students in RJ schools reported stronger relationships with teachers, more respectful peer interactions, and less victimization over time.

RJ improves student outcomes in schools where traditional discipline has failed to reduce bullying or support mental health.

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Targeted Concern: School-wide bullying prevention.

How it Helps: Shifts peer group norms around bullying, increases adult supervision and student reporting, and fosters a zero-tolerance environment.

Evidence: Large-scale evaluations demonstrate OBPP reduces reports of being bullied and bullying others by 20–70% in participating schools.

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Welcome to the Clemson University website for the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP). This website is focused on bullying prevention research, OBPP training information, ongoing programming and training support of our certified Olweus Trainer-Consultants and Coaches.

The Olweus Program (pronounced Ol-VAY-us) is a comprehensive approach that includes schoolwide, classroom, individual, and community components. The program is focused on long-term change that creates a safe and positive school climate. It is designed and evaluated for use in elementary, middle, junior high and high schools (K-12). The program's goals are to reduce and prevent bullying problems among school children and to improve peer relations at school. The program has been found to reduce bullying among students, improve the social climate of classrooms, and reduce related antisocial behaviors, such as vandalism and truancy. The Olweus Program has been implemented in more than a dozen countries around the world, and in thousands of schools in the United States.
Why the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program Works? Get all the answers to the most frequently asked questions (FAQs)
The Bullying in US Schools: 2019 Status Report updates the 2013 Status Report (Luxenberg, Limber, and Olweus 2014) and reflects the status of bullying around the United States during the 2015-2019 school years (August 1, 2014, through June 30, 2019).

The OBPP is one of the programs conducted by the Institute on Family and Neighborhood Life.

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Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, Clemson University

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Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, Clemson University. The most researched and the best-known bullying prevention program available today. Training opportunities

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Targeted Skills

Social awareness and empathy

Inclusion and peer support

Leadership and initiative

Recognizing signs of loneliness and isolation

Proactive communication and outreach

How It Helps

Start With Hello empowers middle school students to take simple, proactive steps to help classmates who may feel lonely, excluded, or disconnected. The program includes:

Interactive classroom lessons and videos that teach students how to recognize social isolation, reach out, and include others.

Role-playing scenarios that model ways to start conversations, invite peers to join activities, or simply say hello.

A schoolwide Start With Hello Week, where students participate in themed days (e.g., “No One Eats Alone Day”) and inclusion challenges.

Peer-led clubs or ambassador groups that encourage year-round kindness and support.

By equipping students with both the tools and confidence to reach out, Start With Hello reduces the isolation that can lead to bullying — either as victim or aggressor — and builds a stronger sense of school community.

Evidence of Effectiveness

Over 4 million students across all 50 states have participated.

Independent evaluations report:

A significant increase in peer-reported kindness and sense of belonging.

A reduction in students who report feeling invisible or excluded at school.

Enhanced student leadership and engagement in shaping school climate.

In one large-scale study, schools saw a 21% increase in students who felt they had a trusted peer or adult they could talk to after participating.

Cultural Responsiveness & Flexibility

Materials can be adapted for ELL learners and schools serving diverse populations.

Lessons emphasize the importance of respecting differences, making it especially relevant for schools working to improve equity and inclusion.

Encourages all students — regardless of social group, background, or ability — to be a part of the solution in preventing exclusion and emotional isolation.

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Start With Hello: Creating Kinder Schools- Sandy Hook Promise

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Our proven programs create safer and kinder schools. Start With Hello teaches empathy and empowers students to end social isolation.

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Target Audience: Middle school students who are experiencing early signs of emotional distress, peer conflict, anxiety, withdrawal, or mild behavior issues.

Targeted Skills

Self-monitoring: Track daily goals and behaviors related to respect, responsibility, and emotional control.

Goal-setting: Students set personalized behavioral and emotional goals with the support of an adult.

Adult-student connection: Builds relationships with trusted adults who provide consistent feedback and support.

Emotional regulation: Students learn to reflect on their behavior and manage stress in structured ways.

How It Helps

Morning Check-In: The student starts the day with a brief meeting (2–5 minutes) with a designated adult (e.g., counselor, dean, para). They discuss goals, expectations, and how the student is feeling.

Daily Tracking: Teachers provide feedback on a behavior report card throughout the day (usually per period or class).

Afternoon Check-Out: The student returns to the same adult to reflect on the day, celebrate success, and problem-solve any challenges.

Parent/Guardian Involvement: A copy of the report card often goes home to keep families engaged and reinforce progress.

Example Goals on CICO card: “I used kind words today,” “I kept my hands to myself,” “I asked for help instead of shutting down.”

🔬 Evidence of Effectiveness

Multiple studies, including from the PBIS Center and the University of Oregon, confirm that CICO:

Reduces problem behaviors and referrals.

Boosts school connectedness and engagement.

Improves classroom behavior and emotional resilience.

Especially effective for:

Students with internalizing needs (e.g., anxiety, depression, low confidence).

Students showing early externalizing behaviors (e.g., impulsivity, attention-seeking).

Those feeling isolated, targeted, or unmotivated due to bullying or peer rejection.

Middle School Adaptations

Use tech-based behavior trackers (Google Forms, PBIS Apps) for privacy and ease.

Allow students to help design or personalize their behavior goal sheets.

Embed SEL reflection questions (“What did I do well today?” “What stressed me out?”) during check-outs.

Cultural Responsiveness

Assign mentors that reflect students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds when possible.

Create flexible expectations that acknowledge different social-emotional norms.

Use affirming language and avoid deficit-based feedback.

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Tier 3 Wraparound Services/School-Based Mental Health Teams

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Tier 3 Wraparound Services/School-Based Mental Health Teams

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Targeted Skills: Long-term regulation, resilience, family engagement, community-based healing

How it Helps:

Involves a team-based, collaborative process including school staff, family, community mental health providers, and sometimes outside case managers.

Focuses on creating a comprehensive, student-centered support plan that addresses school, home, and community settings.

Students receive therapy, mentorship, academic supports, and sometimes access to after-school or home-based services.

Evidence:

Wraparound services have proven effective for students at risk of out-of-district placement, self-harm, or school refusal.

Schools with integrated mental health teams show improved student outcomes, lower dropout rates, and increased resilience in youth exposed to trauma.

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RIDE is committed to supporting the mental health and wellbeing of students and educators. School mental health includes prevention, early intervention, and targeted services for students provided by school mental health professionals such as school social workers, school psychologists, and school counselors, as well as community partners. Not only does school mental health increase access to care for all students to receive the care that they need, but it also enhances the safe and supportive learning environments that all students should have access to.

The World Health Organization defines mental health as "a state of well-being in which the individual realizes their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to their community." Much like physical health, mental health is a continuum from positive mental wellbeing to mental illness.

Please use this page to learn more about RIDE's school mental health initiatives and access resources related to a comprehensive school mental health system.

RIDE supports LEAs by providing fiscal support and technical assistance related to school mental health.

RIDE has several federal grants focused on school mental health initiatives.

Through these efforts, RIDE has implemented the School Health Advisory Council (SHAC). The purpose of this council is to advise RIDE and other partners on policies, programs, and practices that promote equitable access to high quality school and community-based mental health and related services for youth and their families. Currently there are 39 organizations/LEA's represented on the SHAC with over 60 members. The SHAC was initially convened to provide guidance for Project AWARE. As the resources to support behavioral health in schools grew, the scope of the SHAC broadened to guide all funded behavioral health efforts described above. For more information, contact schoolwellness@ride.ri.gov.

"Mental health is everyday all day."

RIDE works to integrate mental health into a Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). MTSS supports school mental health by emphasizing prevention and early intervention in a continuum layered of supports. These efforts help to build mental health literacy among faculty, staff, youth, and families, as well as provide early identification and tiered intervention as needed.

A Multi-Tiered System of Supports is defined as a "comprehensive continuum of evidence-based, systemic practices to support a rapid response to students' needs, with regular observation to facilitate data-based instructional decision-making." In Rhode Island, MTSS serves as a framework for school improvement, ensuring that all students, including multilingual learners and those with Individual Education Plans, receive the necessary support for meeting academic, behavioral, and social-emotional outcomes. MTSS emphasizes three tiers of support, with each advanced tier building on the other.

A Comprehensive School Mental Health Framework in a Multi-Tiered System of Supports consists of:

Tier 1: School-Wide Universal Supports

In Tier 1, all students receive universal interventions. An example of a Tier 1 support is mental health literacy courses.
Tier 2: Targeted Supports
Tier 2 interventions are targeted supports for students unresponsive to Tier 1 practices. These supports, often conducted in groups, may include activities like social skills groups or lunch bunches.
Tier 3: Intensive, Individualized Support
Tier 3 interventions are provided to students who do not respond to Tier 2 interventions and may have ongoing, intensive needs. At this level, students receive intensive, individualized support, such as a referral to an outside mental health provider for those struggling with increased mental health needs.

For more information related to Multi-Tiered Systems of Support in Rhode Island, please visit Bridge-RI.

Educator Wellbeing

In Rhode Island we view educator wellbeing within three distinct experiences:, individual, collective, and systemic. The individual experience is what is going on within the individual and across multiple domains; physiological, cognitive, social, and emotional. These domains develop together and health and wellbeing in one domain bolster the health and wellbeing of others (Canto, et al., 2018). However, educator wellbeing moves beyond the individual experience. It also encompasses the collective and systemic experiences educators navigate. The individual well-being of educators intersects with and contributes to the overall health and effectiveness of the educational community, and vice versa. Collective educator wellbeing fosters a supportive and collaborative culture within schools and educational institutions that benefits not only individual educators but also students, families, and the broader community.

Please visit our Educator Wellbeing Website to learn more about educator wellbeing in Rhode Island.

Legislation, Policies, Guidelines, Regulations
Commission Documents Meetings & Agendas: School Telemedicine Guidance
Additional Resources

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This Padlet helped me understand how deeply bullying affects students' mental health and learning. In the classroom, bullying leads to anxiety, depression, and disengagement—not just for the targeted student but for the whole class. It creates a negative climate where learning and trust break down.

Focusing on Rhode Island, I was surprised by how common cyberbullying is, especially among middle school girls. It showed me how important it is for local schools to implement strong prevention programs and create safe digital and physical spaces.

Nationally, the fact that 1 in 5 students experiences bullying shows this is a widespread issue. Resources like StopBullying.gov highlight how bullying impacts long-term mental health and academic success.

Overall, this project reinforced how important it is for educators to actively address bullying. I want to create a classroom rooted in empathy and respect, where all students feel seen, supported, and safe.

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Tier 1: Universal (School-Wide) Interventions

PBIS (Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports)

Website: https://www.pbis.org

Resource: implementation blueprints, behavior tracking tools, and school climate surveys.

Second Step (Middle School SEL Curriculum)

Website: https://www.secondstep.org/middle-school-curriculum

Resource: SEL lessons on empathy, bullying prevention, and conflict resolution.

Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP)

Website: https://olweus.sites.clemson.edu

Resource: Research-based anti-bullying program kits and training materials.

Restorative Practices—IIRP

Website: https://www.iirp.edu

Resource: Free guides for circles, restorative conferencing, and schoolwide implementation.

Start With Hello – Sandy Hook Promise

Website: https://www.sandyhookpromise.org/our-programs/start-with-hello/

Toolkit: Start With Hello Week PDF

Educator Training: https://training.sandyhookpromise.org

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Tier 2: Targeted Interventions

Check-In/Check-Out (CICO) – PBIS Model

Overview & Forms: https://www.pbisworld.com/tier-2/check-in-check-out-cico/

Focus: Daily monitoring and mentoring for students showing early signs of distress or behavior issues.

🔴 Tier 3: Individualized & Intensive Interventions

Wraparound Services & School Mental Health Teams

National Center for School Mental Health: https://www.schoolmentalhealth.org

Focus: Family-centered, multi-agency care coordination for complex needs.

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RI Department of Education – Mental Health and Safety

Website: https://www.ride.ri.gov/StudentsFamilies/HealthSafety/MentalHealth

RI Kids Count Data Book & Youth Risk Behavior Survey

Website: https://www.rikidscount.org

Focus: Local statistics on bullying, mental health, school safety.