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NURUL ZAHLIA AMALIN BINTI AMIRUDEN (2025100981)

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Assalamualaikum, and hello everyone!

I'm Amalin, the author behind this e-portfolio. For this assignment about the cultural elements of a culture, I specifically chose traditional medicinal or healing practices, as I find them amusing and unique. I mean, what do you mean by putting a random leaf on your wounds can magically stop the bleeding?

Yes, with technology nowadays, we know that there are some scientific explanations behind it, but to think that our ancestors had the knowledge about the jungle beforehand is mind-blowing to me.

Therefore, this coursework actually became the perfect excuse for me to explore more about traditional medicine elements in Malaysian culture. It actually did not just push me to explore the cultural elements, but it really made me curious and helped me learn how healing, nature, and heritage are woven together.

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For centuries, traditional medicine has undoubtedly played a remarkable role in primary healthcare (Jamaludin et al., 2024). Before we knew it, conventional medicine had already become a significant cultural element and a heritage passed down through generations. Each ethnicity has developed their own ways and practices using plants, herbs, and spiritual elements for healing and well-being.

Thus, this e-portfolio explores the usage of traditional medicines among five Malaysian ethnic culture groups:

1. Kadazan-Dusun

2. Chetti-India Peranakan

3. Malaysian Siamese

4. Orang Asli Temuan

5. Orang Asli Jakun

Through this coursework, readers will discover how these five ethnicities in Malaysia use natural resources and the cultural significance behind their healing practices.

I hope you discover something new as I do!

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Kadazan-Dusun is one of the largest communities in Sabah, Malaysia. They are recognized for their broad traditional views, strong connection to nature, and rich cultural heritage.

Historically, the Kadazan-Dusun people primarily reside in rural and wooded areas. According to Haris et al. (2023), they have long depended on the natural resources not only for food supplies but also for healing and spiritual strength. Hence, the bond with nature enables them to find and use the herbaceous materials as traditional medicine.

Kadazan-Dusun's conventional healthcare practices reflect a profound knowledge of local plants. It also highlights the significance of balancing one’s physical and spiritual well-being. Even today, particularly in rural areas where they still depend on nature, many of these healing customs are still being practiced and honored.

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18 traditional Kadazan-Dusun plants that you should know.  

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Traditional healing practices by the Kadazan-Dusun

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Traditional healing practices by the Kadazan-Dusun

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For Kadazan-Dusun people, traditional medicine is more than simply a use of herbs. It is a holistic healing system that combines the spiritual and physical body and also nature.

Kadazan-Dusun healing practices can generally be divided into two categories:

Healing physical illness.

Healing spiritual disturbances.

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18 pokok ubat tradisional kadazandusun yang wajib anda tahu

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Photo from: Research article entitled Medicinal Plant Applications as Traditional and Complementary Medicine by Sabah Ethnicities and the Regulations and Economic View in Malaysia's Healthcare Industry: A Mini Review.

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There are two methods that the Kadazan-Dusun often use to prepare their traditional medicine. The medicines will be in liniments, infusions, decoctions, poultices, lotions, or tinctures based on the patients' symptoms (Haris et al., 2023).

1. Casual and simple method.

2. Complex method.

Casual and simple method

Using only a single preparation utilizing a plant material from a single species. This medication is specifically created for common diseases such as cuts, stomachaches, and headaches.

For example:

The leaves of jackfruit are boiled and drunk to relieve a sore throat. Heated leaves were used to treat infectious skin daily.

The fresh rhizome of sweet flag root is eaten in order to relieve diarrhea and gastric issues.

Complex method

For a sophisticated method, the practitioner is required to combine numerous plant species for a concoction recipe.

For example:

The mixes of lemongrass, ginger rhizome, and eucalyptus leaves are boiled in coconut oil. This mixture will create a liniment that is used for massaging sore muscles and improving blood circulation.

To treat fever, the mixture of lintoyong root and wild ginger is boiled for a long time. The patient will drink this herbal brew to regain energy and lower body temperature.

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Photo from: malaymail (Bobohizan from Kadazan)

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The spiritual illness is usually caused by the imbalance with the spirit realm, angered ancestors, or disturbance by the unseen entities. The healing activities are usually guided by their spiritual healer, who is recognized by the name of The Bobohizan (An, 2025). The Bobohizan is essential for spiritual healing, as they will provide medical medicines through plants and spiritual ceremonies. It is conducted to restore harmony between people and invisible forces.

For example:

Manampasi (Cleansing ritual)

Sambong, patawali, pegaga, ginger, and tobacco leaves are dried and burned to make purifying smoke. This smoke is believed to cleanse the body, surroundings, and home from any negative omens. Manampasi is usually performed when a person has a nightmare, unknown disease, or bad luck.

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Say hello to the Chetti Malacca -India Peranakan!

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Say hello to the Chetti Malacca -India Peranakan!

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The Chetti Malacca, also known as the Indian Peranakans of Malacca, is one of the smallest but richest cultural ethnic groups in Malaysia. 15 centuries ago, the South Indian traders came to Malacca to trade and ended up assimilating into the Malay population by marrying Malay and Chinese women. As a community of Chetti, they survived throughout the Malacca Sultanate, followed by Portuguese, Dutch, and English rule for centuries. As one of the communities in Malaysia, the Chetti community also had many cultural elements, such as food, attire, and architecture.

Nevertheless, one of the most underrated cultural elements is their practices in traditional healing and medicine. The Chettis use a range of herbs, roots, and spices as their traditional medicines (Lee & Ravindran, 2024). They also incorporate rituals, as they are important for restoring balance, strengthening the body after childbirth or illness, and preventing disease. For generations, these customs have been meticulously maintained as a testament to the distinctive heritage of the Chettis community.

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Photo from: Parramatta History and Heritage website

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According to Fikri et al. (2021), the healing knowledge between the South Indian Ayurvedic tradition and local Malay is combined and practiced by the Chetti Malacca community. For Chetti Peranakan, spices play a major role in their daily life, as they are not only used for food but also as medicinal remedies to treat any illness.

Cumin (Jintan Manis):

Cumin is usually added to meals to aid digestion and bloating problems.

Fenugreek Seeds (Halba):

The fenugreek seeds are consumed to regulate blood sugar levels and can also support milk production for nursing moms.

Ginger (Halia):

Ginger can alleviate indigestion and colds and also increase blood circulation by brewing in teas or decoctions.

Turmeric (Kunyit):

Applying turmeric as a paste to a wound or even just eating it can help relieve irritation and inflammation.

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Photo from: Malaysians must know the truth

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Since spiritual powers seem to have an effect on health, religious events are closely associated with healing in the Chetti Peranakan culture. These rituals underscore the unique blend of Hindu customs and local cultural influences. Some of the ritualistic healing practices are:

Bhogi Parachu.

Mariamman Worship.

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Bhogi Parachu (Ancestor Worship Ceremony): 

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Bhogi Parachu (Ancestor Worship Ceremony): 

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The Bhogi Parachu ritual is a significant event that is held annually in which the ancestors are honored with traditional foods. The Chetti community believes that this ritual can ensure health, harmony, and blessings for the family. According to Abdullah (2025), this ritual highlights the community’s belief in the healing powers of ancestral spirits.

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Ancestral prayers mark the start of Ponggal for Melaka’s Chetti community

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For the Chetti people, they believed that the goddess Mariamman had healing abilities, particularly concerning skin conditions like chickenpox. Every year in May, the 12-day Mariamman festival, also known as Perayaan Dato’ Cacar, is held (Lee & Ravindran, 2024). The Chetti community uses items such as neem leaves, turmeric, and other symbolic items as an offering. These items are usually associated with protection and purification.

These religious rituals illustrate the syncretic nature of Chetti Melaka and combine local customs with Tamil Hinduism.

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Melaka Chetti Sri Muthu Mariamman Thiruvila, Gajah Berang 2017 - 12

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There are 3 different ethnic groups of the indigenous people (Orang Asli) of Peninsular Malaysia, which are the Senoi, the Negritos (Semang), and the Proto-Malay (Hoh et al., 2022).

The Senoi are mostly known for their practices of traditional animist religion and their carving sculptures and masks.

The Negritos (Semang) are known for their ability to hunt using blowguns, and traditionally they practiced a semi-nomadic lifestyle.

Proto-Malay, on the other hand, is an ethnic group that is primarily agriculturalists and fishermen. Some of them adopted Islam and were absorbed into the Malay community.

Therefore, based on the 3 different ethnic groups of the indigenous people, the Temuan tribe is in the Proto-Malay ethnic group. Based on the research by Dahlan et al. (2023), the Temuans can be found in rural and suburban villages of Negeri Sembilan and Selangor. Furthermore, the Temuan are hunters, gatherers, and agriculturists. Thus, they can benefit from all of the biological diversity around them to fulfill their daily necessities. They are also well known for their knowledge and usage of traditional medicine. The Temuan practiced 3 aspects of traditional medicine, which are:

Spiritual.

Physical.

Chemical.

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Ritual of the body and soul by the Temuan tribe

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Ritual of the body and soul by the Temuan tribe

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The Temuan have a strong faith in the power of spirits and nature and believe that they could improve health and well-being. Historically, they used shamanistic practices, rituals, and ceremonies to communicate with the spirits. These practices are often performed by a shaman (bomoh).

Sewang Ceremony (Tarian Sewang)

The Sewang ceremony is usually held by the Temuan on the second day of Ancestor’s Day (Aik Muyang). This ritual is celebrated from December to January with different traditional ways depending on the tribe.

According to Hazim (2023), the ritual process is led by a spiritual healer (pawang). There are also chanting, dancing, and singing included when the ceremonies are held. Furthermore, offerings such as flowers and betel leaves are presented, and incense is burned to communicate with the spirit. Essentially, this ritual is not only performed to heal illness but has been practiced for generations to strengthen the bond between the people and their traditions and customs. It serves to honor and remember their cultural heritage for the Temuan tribe.

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Tarian Orang Asli Temuan Negeri Sembilan

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Physical healing practices by the Temuan tribe

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Physical healing practices by the Temuan tribe

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The Temuan people often practice physical treatments to relieve any body pain or soreness through traditional methods (Jamian & Ghazali, 2021). The practices include massage, use of tawas (alum stone), and many more. The examples given remain relevant in Malaysia and are not exclusive to the Temuan community.

Traditional massage

This technique is commonly used to improve blood circulation and ease muscle tension. The massage therapist will massage in rhythm on the certain impacted area to release gas (angin), which is believed to cause discomfort or bloating (Dahlan et al., 2023). For example, massage can be used to relieve headaches, cramps, and varicose veins. Therefore, this method is widely used by the community to promote general health and to prevent illnesses before they become threatening.

Use of tawas (Alum stone)

In traditional medicine, tawas is usually used among women, particularly after giving birth. An article by Jamian & Ghazali (2021) stated that the usage of tawas helps tighten the loose skin after childbirth and to feel fresh. To make it more effective, powdered tawas is occasionally mixed with water and applied to sore muscles during massage. This step will promote a cooling effect on the body as well as relieve aches.

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Photo from: Research article entitled Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in the Kampung Orang Asli Donglai Baru, Hulu Langat, Malaysia.

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Chemical healing practices by the Temuan tribe

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Chemical healing practices by the Temuan tribe

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Temuan treatment relies heavily on plants and herbs (Ramli et al., 2021). They are utilized to treat any physical conditions, such as wounds, swelling, and many more. Typical plants that are used are Melastoma malabathricum (sendunduk), longjack (tongkat ali), and Labisia pumila (kacip fatimah).

Melastoma malabathricum (sendunduk)

The crushed leaves of senduduk are applied to any wounds to stop the bleeding while speeding the healing process. Can also be brewed into tea to cure ulcers or diarrhea.

Longjack (tongkat ali)

The boiled roots of the longjack are consumed to enhance endurance and energy. Usually it will be consumed by men as a tonic.

Labisia pumila (kacip fatimah)

Kacip fatimah would be commonly drunk by women to aid postpartum recovery and support reproductive health.

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The Jakun are one of the minority indigenous Malays who mostly live on the southern part of the Malaysian peninsula. They primarily reside along the upper reaches of the Pahang and Johore rivers. According to research by Ahmad and Yaakob (2021), the Jakun are regarded as one of the most traditional Proto-Malay groups. This research is proven by how they lived a nomadic lifestyle as farmers, hunters, and gatherers.

Therefore, the Jakun tribe has a long history of employing wisdom in traditional healing practice and medical procedures. As a reflection of their profound connection with nature, they utilize forest plants and herbs to treat illnesses. The Jakun community only reaps what is necessary from the forest and ensures the land continues to thrive as a sign of respect for nature and in fear of being cursed.

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The Jakun tribe has a deeper reliance on rare forest herbs to cure their illnesses, such as hempedu bumi, Gandarusa, and kemahang root. These herbs are often gathered from the wild under the guidance of a Tok Batin (village leader) or Tok Biah (shaman) (Shaari, J., et al., 2024).

Hempedu Bumi (Andrographis paniculata):

Other than tongkat ali and kacip fatimah, hempedu bumi or perdu bumi is often used as an energy drink by the Jakun people. It is also known as a detoxifier, immune booster, and fever reducer.

Gandarusa (Justicia gendarussa):

All of the parts of this plant can be used to cure various illnesses such as inflammation, joint and muscle pain, backache, swollen feet, and scabies.

Kemahang root (Dioscorea hispida):

Brewed and usually can treat stomachaches, skin rashes, and sometimes acts as a natural contraceptive. Must be taken after detoxifying, as it is poisonous when it is raw.

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Photo from: Research article entitled Role of Tok Biah in The Customs and Beliefs of Orang Asli Jakun, Bekok, Segamat, Johor

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The Role of Tok Biah in traditional healing culture of Jakun tribe

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The Role of Tok Biah in traditional healing culture of Jakun tribe

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In Orang Asli cultures, it is prevalent to see male tok bomohs (shamans). But within the Jakun community, the shaman, known as Tok Biah, is a female practitioner. Thus, she plays a vital role in community health and spiritual being (Jangga et al., 2023). Some of the roles that she plays are being a shaman and traditional healer, a leader in rituals, and a symbolic role in the community.

Shaman & traditional healer.

As a spiritual conduit between the Jakun community and the spirit, the Tok Biah role as a traditional healer is sacred. She uses chants, prayers, and specific recitations to connect with the divine power. Her healing methods are based on ancestral knowledge that has been passed down through the generations. No doubt, she also incorporates natural materials such as soil, plant roots, and leaves. According to research done by Jangga et al. (2023), people from various ethnic backgrounds come to see Tok Biah for help in healing illness or resolving marital issues. Therefore, it is proven that she is highly respected, not only among Jakun people but also across different ethnic groups.

A leader in rituals.

Other than the Sewang ritual, the Mandi Tepung Tawar ceremony is also led by Tok Biah. It is a significant spiritual purification rite performed during the full moon that consists of:

1. Fasting and avoiding prohibited meats (such as pig, dog meat, and cows)

2. Spiritual purification through ceremonial bathing in holy rivers.

3. Prayers for family protection, food security, and farm safety.

But, unlike the community, she carries out this ceremony once a month. This is to purify herself from any harmful spirit (badi) that she got from healing people.

Symbolic role in the community.

For rituals such as home openings and land blessings, Tok Biah is crucial. It is thought that she has heavenly assistance and does not want money. A simple symbolic present such as a white cloth or 25 cents is enough.

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From Ayutthaya to Malaysia: Malaysian Siamese

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From Ayutthaya to Malaysia: Malaysian Siamese

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The Malaysian Siamese is a minority group that has long maintained its distinct cultural identity through spiritual beliefs, language, and customs (Kenneth, 2023). They are often found in northern states like Kedah, Perlis, and Kelantan. Regardless of their small population within the Malay community, they still follow customs that are firmly ingrained in their Thai Buddhist background. For example, cuisine, rituals, and most importantly, traditional medicine practice.

Even in the modern era, traditional medicine practices continue to be popular because of their methods and cultural familiarity. Like any other culture, Siamese medicinal practices frequently include the use of herbal remedies, steam treatment, rituals, and spiritual chanting. For them, treating physical problems and reestablishing harmony and balance in the body and mind are the key aspects of Siamese traditional medicine.

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SIAMESE ROOTS IN MALAY SOIL | Spirit of Asia | August 14th, 2022

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Photo from: List of plants and its traditional uses in Siamese community.

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The usage of herbal remedies in Malaysian Siamese traditional medicine

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The usage of herbal remedies in Malaysian Siamese traditional medicine

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Like any other culture in Malaysia, the Siamese would also consume herbs for general health benefits. Not only that, according to research by Omar and Latip (2022), the Siamese also believe that herbs will protect them from any chronic disease.

Ground betel:

The roots and stems are used to treat hemorrhoids, myopia, seeded part in rectum, and sore and purulent ears.

Holly-leaved mangrove:

Used as remedies for body itchiness, cough, snake bites, and fever.

Java Ixora

Used for tendon pain.

Indian Mulberry:

Used as remedies for high blood pressure and diabetes.

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Steam treatment as a traditional healing

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Steam treatment as a traditional healing

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One of the famous Siamese healing methods is the steam treatment. This therapy also incorporates a few usages of herbal components that are believed to make our body more relaxed (Aziz et al., 2023).

This method includes boiling herbs that have benefits to our skin and bathing in the ensuing steam or infused water. Some of the popular herbs are lemongrass and kaffir lime leaves due to their aromatic and therapeutic characteristics. The advantages of steam therapy are to enhance blood circulation, cleanse the body, and relieve symptoms like muscle aches and skin diseases.

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Steam treatment as a traditional healing

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Cultural awareness reflection & references

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Cultural awareness reflection & references

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Exploring the traditional medicine techniques of Malaysia’s varied ethnicities has been an incredibly immersive experience for me. Who knows, a simple ingredient in the kitchen can also be beneficial for our health? For example, ginger, turmeric, and pegaga have been long-held therapeutic secrets in our households!

Prior to this, I had no idea how much knowledge and spirituality were involved in something simple as treating a fever or healing a cut. It amazed me to discover that healing is so much more than just clinics and pills.

For instance, the Orang Asli Jakun and Temuan tribes have so many things in common, such as using herbs as medicine guided by the bomoh, but still retain their unique healing beliefs and rituals that differentiate them. On the other hand, the Kadazan-Dusun emphasize rituals like the “momolian” healing procedures led by the Bobohizan. Similarly, the Chetti Malacca community that still relies heavily on Ayurvedic practices also has their own cultural ritual practices. Lastly, the Malaysian Siamese community that includes herbs in cleansing procedures and rituals.

Altogether, these distinctive practices by each culture eloquently illustrate how each group maintains its cultural identity through traditional healing and medicine.

While reading research articles and journals for weeks, this comparative analysis has taught me that medicine is not always about prescription. Oftentimes it's also about faith and natural knowledge. As a result, my learning experience has made me more culturally appreciative and sensitive. Due to Malaysia's diversity, it is more than simply something we live with; it is something we can learn from. Traditional medicine may appear outdated, yet it teaches us the importance of harmony, patience, and observation with nature.