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Maslow: Describe hierarchy of needs
Big Five Personality and describe each part of it
Know eysenck's 4 axes emotional stability and extroversion
A lot of Freud
Jung and persona is good to know
Internal and external locus of control
Know Seligment made positive psychology
Know reciprocal determinism

Adler's Birth order Theories

Oldest:

Responsible, smart, leaders, conformists, ambitious

Middle

Peacemaker, fariness-obsessed, social butterfly, flexible, understanding, cooperative

Youngest

Financially irresponsible, outgoing, charming (and manipulative), creative, independent, has a special bond with oldest (share the first born last born "special treatment"

Only Child

Get along with adults, demanding, verbal, mature, responsible, perfe ctionists, share similarities to oldest and youngest

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59-5: How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people?

What would happen to your identity if you were moved to be a solitary refugee in a new land?

If you pride yourself on individualism, your identity wouldn't really change as this has been seen in individualists as we believe that we can be what we want

Individualists want to belong and try and find it in groups but don't always follow duty a ton and switch in and out of groups frequently

A collectivists would lose a lot as they would lose the whole community that has made them from the start

These collectivists are quite different as they might get more embarrassed easier and might believe things normal here are selfish compared to back home

There is diversity in cultures, but there in general individualist cultures give men more freedom

These people even like unusual names as seen w less and less uncommon names being seen over time

Differences seen w medals at Olympics as individualists say it was them while collectivists say it was their team

Individualism can be bad though as it brings a lot of negatives and collectivism is a bit more traditional and loyal

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59-4: What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?

Carl Rogers and Mark Twain both said that problems in the world come from people not loving themselves enough

We actually do have a good rep w ourselves even if low self esteem which goes w the self serving bias, that we are ready to perceive ourselves as good

People usually accept more responsibility for good things and not bad as when bad things come, we ask why we deserve this but when good things do we think we do deserve it

Most people see themselves as better than average throughout many surveys checking this view

Though in some areas this might not be as prominent as in others, it is still quite true around the world

People even think they are more immune to this bias than others around them

Threatened egotism more than low self esteem seems to cause aggression as kids that have high self esteem that are disliked are usually the aggressive ones

An adult or teen like this could be very dangerous as they can spread hate like Nazis in WWII

Brad Bushman and Roy Bameister tested the dark side of high self esteem by getting undergrads to write essays and then get praise or criticism and then they would play a reaction time game against the other students and after wins the student could play any intensity noise for any amount of time

Those that had high self esteem but had been criticized were much more aggressive than the others

This type of self serving perceptions seem to be going up in America as over time they have gotten more and more common

Narcissism- excessive self love and self-absorption, has also been rising as seen w people on surveys showing this which is not good as they are not as good people in the end

Critics say that this concept doesn't focus on those that feel worthless or unlovable but refuted by:

Self directed put downs can be subtly strategic to be told things

Before an important event, self disparaging comments prep for possible failure

A self disparaging "How could I have been so stupid" can help us learn from our mistakes

Self disparagement is usually for one's own self even if the person has not changed too much over time

Even so though, sometimes we do feel inferior and the deeper and more often it happens, the more sad and depressed about is we get but usually we think good

There are also two types of self esteem, defensive and secure, defensive is fragile and just wants to sustain itself which makes failures and criticism feel threatening and exposes one to perceived threats

Secure self esteem is less fragile as it is less dependent on external evaluations and are more accepted for who we are which is good and says that being in relationships help us boost our self esteem and quality of life

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59-3: Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to psychology and to human well-being?

Exploring the Self

The self was at the start of psychology, went away then came back into now as it is studied a lot

Psychologists believe that the self is the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions and thus the center of personality

Our possible self was put forth by Hazel Markus which has two sides the self you want to be and the self you fear becoming which inspire us to do what we want, showing how dreams can become reality

This self focused perspective can hurt as seen by the spotlight effect as we believe people notice stuff about us like we do about ourselves though it really isn't the case

Benefits of Self-Esteem

High self-esteem, feeling of worth,  is very useful and self-efficacy, sense of competence on a task is too

People who feel good about themselves are happier as when they aren't happy they say they should be and change to follow

Self image isn't the best predictor for kids so maybe self esteem only reflects reality from success or failure so the way to remedy is to succeed

There is an effect of low self esteem as it makes you prone to hate, and to be more down about a lot of things including others and what happens around you

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59-2: How do social-cognitive researchers explore behavior, and what criticism have they faced?

Assessing Behavior in Situations:

Social-cognitive psychologists explore how people interact w situations using realistic situations to see behaviors

The best way to test for behaviors is to simulate a time when it could happen and see what subjects do

Many fields are using this new way to test behaviors called assessment center strategies and has really helped to see who is most fit to do jobs

This means that the best predictor for behavior is past behavior and if that cannot be found, then simulate the situation to see what happens

Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories

Social cognitive theories or personality show researchers how situations affect and are affected by individuals and they build off of research

Critics say it doesn't focus enough on the person as too much is in the situation as biological differences can also play a huge role

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59-1: Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, and how do social-cognitive theorists view personality development?

Social Cognitive Theories

Social-cognitive perspective emphasizes the interaction of traits with individuals like nature and nurture.

Those who take the behavioral approach might go more with the effects of learning and how people are conditioned to be who they are

Social-cognitive psychologists wonder how us and the environment interact

Reciprocal Influences

Bandura said that person-environment interaction was reciprocal determinism which is when past behavior, internal factors, and environmental factors all lead to the behavior to happen

Different people choose different environments based on their dispositions which then shapes them

Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events like anxious people who perceive the world as threatening while others might not

Our personalities help create situations to which we react as how we expect things to happen, usually happens when it comes to personality and affects our relationships

Therefore, we are both products and makers of our environments

This is the same throughout the book as behavior is from the interplay of external and internal influences

Optimism vs. Pessimism

How much control we think we have (optimist or pessimist) can help us be the best we can be to succeed

This also helps in relationships as optimists expect good and get it back which is good in the end for everyone involved

Excessive Optimism:

Being positive is good, but needs to be balanced as we need enough hope to do it but not too much to become complacent

Being too optimistic can blind us to risks as we think we will be fine when in the end we actually are risking ourselves a bit

This also goes for groups as in NFL league fans picked opponents record well but not their own due to optimism

Our positive thinking seems to go away though when we brace for test results or after we have a traumatic personal experience that gets us to think we are vulnerable

Blindness to One's Own Incompetence

People are more overconfident when most incompetent since as far as they know they are good, but they don't know whats good

If we think we have the answer we feel smart until we're shown how were wrong, our ignorance of what we don't know gives us confidence

When trying to judge how good we are at something, it is best to try to get someone else's opinion on the matter

Positive Psychology: The scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

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Carl Jung

Swiss Psychiatrist

Ego-Conscious self

Personal Unconscious

Repressed thoughts and feelings

Collective Unconscious

Common collection of images from all human experiences which includes archetypes

Archetypes- Models of people, behaviors or personalities are unlearned and function to organize how we experience things

Self unification of conscious and unconscious

Shadow sex and life instincts

Anima female image in male psyche Animus- male image in female psyche

Persona- psychological mask

Personality Test

Studied under Freud but said Freud was too into sex

Karen Horney

Gave women a voice, tried to discredit Freud's opinion that women had weaker superegos and penis envy

Basic Anxiety: feelings of insecurity resulting from feelings of lonliness and isolation in childhood

Coping with anxiety:

Compliant (submit to others)

Agressive (hostile to others)

Detached (withdraw from others)

Disagreed with Penis Envy and made womb envy

Alfred Adler

Believed problems stem from tensions in childhood social situations- Childhood feelings of inferiority

We try to overcome feelings of inferiority

Pros: Leads to trying harder

Cons: Overcompensation

Inferiority Complex (I'm not as good as...)

Later founded humanism

Had ideas about birth order and how they impact them

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Displacement: You're angry but you direct your anger and doing something socially unacceptable based off it

Sublimation: You're angry but you direct your anger by doing something socially acceptable

How to test Personalities:

Objective Tests: From outside- paper tests- standardized

Interview

Observation

Self Interview-

T/F MMPI,

Agreeement Scale

Aspect ratio (1-10)

Strengths?

Easy

Fast

Consistent Scoring

Weaknesses

Superficial

You can figure the tests out

Projective Personality Test: From inside- Personal

Word Association Test

Stimulus Words

Can Explain response

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Uses Pictures

Imagination

Henry Murray

Rorshach Test

Inkblots

What do you see?

Hermann Rorshach

Strengths?

More individualized and in depth

Weaknesses?

Test conditions can influence results, very subjective)

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58-4: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

Are personalities stable and enduring or does it depend on who we are around and where we are?

The Person-Situation Controversy

Both are true, but which is more important in the end?

To explore this controversy we have to look for real personality traits that are seen over time and across situations

There is a lot change in childhood, but in adulthood, personality seems to stabilize and not change as much as it used to

Most psychologists go with the assumption that personality is constant and can be predictors or mortality, divorce and occupational attainment

Specific behaviors can be quite different thought as seen with college students getting to class on time, but not turning in stuff on time

This inconsistency shows how that we cannot really predict behaviors well at all and makes personality tests seem less valid

The average of these aspects of personality is quite predictable though as it is seen usually by our friends around us especially in:

Music preferences: These tell much about personality and are even talked about when meeting someone

Bedrooms and offices: These show a lot as we leave our identities and behavioral residue around it and can predict our personalities

Personal websites and profiles do the same thing to show who someone is

Even on electronic messages, we seem different as well

Informal situations are the best to see personality because of how we are not repressing our personality traits like in formal situations

People are naturally expressive and inhibitive as studies show that the other cannot do as well as the one can

Differences matter but we can also differ w ourselves over time which could lead to confusion, but the average shows who we are and personality

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58-3: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

Some didn't really think that Eysencks' had enough qualities so the Big Five came around and is the most popular personality test around now

It looks at Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion

This test shows how stable most qualities are in adult hood but there are some changes as emotional instability, extraversion and openness go down while agreeableness and conscientiousness go up

Conscientiousness goes up in twenties while agreeableness goes up in people's thirties and goes till sixties

Heritability has also been seen from this as it says that it each factor is about 50 percent and genetic influence is the same in different nations also it seems that genes have small effects that influence traits w brain areas associated w parts of the test

This test also predicts behaviors as well since people usually don't lie about these things and studies prove it and all in all this test has shown that traits matter

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58-2: What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait assessment tools?

Assessing Traits

Some tests test only one trait while personality inventories are longer and test many traits at once

One classic personality inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory that assesses abnormal personality tendencies

It is also empirically derived as it is based on large pool of items and differences between diagnostic groups

They did this by analyzing normal and psychologically disordered people and saw how they differed but can be spoofed

There is a new version MMPI 2 where it also gets work attitudes, family problems and anger

This test is quite objective instead of subjective which gives it popularity and is even sort of lie proof as it takes into account answers that are likely false

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58-1: How do psychologists us traits to describe personality?

Some psychologists want to describe personality not explain, like Gordon Allport after interviewing Freud, saying that personality is made up of fundamental traits

Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother Katharine Briggs did the same with their Myers-Briggs Type Indicator which shows whether you are feeling or thinking type based on questions and shows what strengths you have

Though it does seem to work with people, initially it was used to see job performance and got popular though this was not the purpose of it

Exploring Traits

Classifying people into two groups doesn't really show individuality but when put into trait dimensions, this can be seen quite accurately

What words would be on a trait dimensions and what would describe personality?

Factor Analysis:

One way is with factor analysis where you identify clusters of test items that correlate with a certain feature

Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck did this w two factors extraversion and intraversion and emotional stability and instability

This test then was able to show the person's personalities in these terms and was believed to be based off genetics which is supported

Biology and Personality:

Brain scans show that extroverts have lower brain arousal than introverts, inhibit behaviors less and have more dopamine and dopamine related activity

Biology influences this as seen w the autonomic nervous system reactivity which could lead us to be anxious and inhibit or not

There are also personalities in animals as well that can be judged and even bred for over all

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Defense Mechanisms:

Repression: Forgetting situations that would cause painful emotions

Denial: Rejection (refusing to acknowledge) an intolerable reality

Rationalization: Substituting a more acceptable but false reason for one's behavior (the teacher hates me, that is why I failed)

Reaction Formation: Modifying an anxiety-causing impulse by performing in ways opposite to one's true feelings

Projection: Seeing one's personality traits, attitudes, or faults in others but not in oneself

Regression: Retreating to an earlier development level involving less mature responses

Undoing: Atoning for and thus counteracting desire or acts that are regrettable (apologizing)

Sublimination: Re-changing unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities

Displacement: Shifts sexual or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

Compensation: Covering up weaknesses or frustrations by over gratifying oneself in another area

Fantasy: Gratifying frustrated desire in imaginary achievements (day dreaming)

Identification: Increasing one's feeling of self worth by identifying oneself w people or places of importance

Intellectualization: People use extensive vocabulary to explain relatively simple terms

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57-3: How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?

Evaluating Humanistic Theories

The humanistic psychologists were also not too accepted at first but now are in counseling, edu, child raising and management

It has influenced a lot though as many believe that good self esteem is a crucial part to be successful

Critics said though that these ideas were subjective and not too scientific and could change based on the person

They also objected to how the humanistic theory so based on individualism could be bad as it could destroy morals that are needed for success

These psychologists reply by saying that secure nondefensive self acceptance is actually the start to loving others as it helps you accept yourself and then others more

There is also the idea that there is also evil in humans that humanism doesn't take into account which doesn't help validity at all

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57-2: How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?

Assessing the Self

Humanistic psychologists test sense of self with questionnaire asking how someone would describe themselves and ideal self and if close then positive and this would be tracked to see improvement over time

Some believe this is actually bad though as it might depersonalize someone by putting them into categories so a interview or intimate convo are better

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57-1: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

In response to Freud and behaviorism, humanistic theorists focused on ways people strive for self determination and self-realization reported by themselves

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers offered a third choice w humanism that rested on human potential and what we could do

Abraham Maslow's Self-Actualizing Person

Maslow said we started w physiological needs, then safety, then love, then self esteem and lastly self actualization where we know our full potential and get self transcendence (meaning, purpose and communion beyond the self

Maslow tried to study healthy creative people who were productive w their lives to see how they did it and found that:

They were self aware and self accepting

Open and spontaneous

Loving and caring

Not paralyzed by the opinions of others

Had a secure identity

Problem centered interests

Focused energies on life's mission

Had few deep relationships instead of many superficial ones

Had been moved by peak experiences that surpassed ordinary consciousness

These were adult mature qualities that were from those who knew a lot about life and those that were likely to get there were already close

Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Perspective

Car Rogers agreed much w Maslow that people were basically good and wanted to self actualize and could if environment was good w:

Genuineness: When people are open w their own feelings, drop facades, and are transparent and self disclosing

Acceptance: When people offer unconditional positive regard, where we can tell them anything and they'll still be w us and like us

Empathy: When people share and mirror the feelings of other and reflect meanings

With this, people can reach self actualization as acceptance allows us to be more caring about ourselves and empathy lets us see ourselves better

Maslow and Rogers thought that personality was based on self concept and how we think about ourselves as positive would make us happy and negative would make us sad

Thus, therapists, parents, teachers, and friends try to help others know, accept, and be true to themselves to feel happy

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Freud 1856-1939

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Theory

Mind(Psyche)+Energy(Dynamic)=Personality

Unconscious (really important)

Studied all men

Very Sexist

Obsessed w sex and aggression

Detailed dream analysis/wrote many books

Blamed mom for everything

Explaining behavior over predicting behavior

Ego and superego conscious

id, superego, and id all unconscious

Id:

Present at birth

Completely unconsious

Pleasure principle

All needs should be satisfied immediately

Most basic form of humanity

Unsatisfied needs= anxiety

Wish Fulfillment

Forming a mental image of a situation that satisfies the instinct

Called dreams

Ego:

Controls thinking and reasoning

Operates in conscious and pre conscious

Reality Principle

Safely and successfully meet needs of ID

If only id and ego

Unsocial, selfish person

Superego:

Moral watchdog

Not present at birth

Compares ego's actions w "ego ideal"

Ego Ideal:

Standard of excellence for ego to get to

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Oral Stage 0-1.5 years old

Pleasure center in mouth

Fixations:

Oral Fixations

Dependency

Anal Stage 1.5-3.5 years old

Pleasure Center in the Anus and elimination

Fixations:

Anal Retentive- Need everything needs to be organized

Anal Expulsive- Messy person in general

Phallic 3.5-6 years old

Pleasure center in genitals

Jealousy of same sex parent

Fixations:

Oedipus Complex- replace father and marry mother

Electra Complex (K. Horney) Replace mother and marry father

Penis Envy- Women's desire to possess same organ as men

Cinderella Complex- fear of independence and want to be cared for by opposite sex

Peter Pan Complex- Desire to remain young forever

Latency Period (6-12)

Lose interest in opposite sex

"Cootie Period"

Genital Stage (puberty and after)

Full adult sexuality

Must work on fixations

Unresolved problems surface

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56-2: What are projective tests, how are they used, and what are some criticisms of them?

Personality tests might be helpful to study personality but can be different for each theory how are those for psychodynamic theory?

First, these tests need to go deep to ensure full psychodynamic but usual tests don't really work

Projective tests are when you are asked to describe something such as in Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) where the person views a picture and from there makes a story about it which then leads to being able to see inner feelings or conflict

The most widely used is the Rorshach inkblot test where the subject is shown an inkblot and asked to describe what they see but might not be a reasonable assumption to make

There is difference in what people think of it but usually they say it must be used in the right way

But critics say it is invalid as it might not test what its meant to test and isn't consistent which shows it might not really be good

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55-5: How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?Evaluating Freud's Psychoanalytic Perspective

Modern Research Contradicts Many of Freud's Ideas

Comparing what Freud did back then to now isn't really far as the game is so different

Freud is disproved by: life long development, immaturity of infant neural networks, too much parental and not enough peer influence, not much oedipus complex, gender comes earlier and isn't dependent on parents, and sexuality is from how his ideas weren't that reliable

There are also other reasons why we dream what we dream and slips can be just based off similar sounds and also suppressed sexuality doesn't really make sense as inhibition is way down compared to his time

Also, his tests were not really scientific as he just looked at his own recollections and interpretations of cases he saw

Biggest problem is that it cannot be used to predict how someone will feel or be after something before it happens

But supporters of Freud say this was not what he intended as he just said that by looking back, he could find meaning in their client's state of mind

But also Freud showed how our impulses could affect us and that there is tension between biological impulses and social well being

Modern Research Challenges the Idea of Repression

Repression was seen to banish bad wishes but they could be brought back through hypnosis and was used to explain lost memories

This could happen, researchers say, but in most cases, people still remember the awful thing that happened to them

But extreme and prolonged stress could cause this as well or even bring unwanted flash backs at times

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55-4: How did Freud think people defend themselves against anxiety?

Being social, we must control id and superego, but sometimes we're scared of losing control which leads to anxiety

Freud said that the ego protects itself w defense mechanisms that stop anxiety by distorting reality and are indirect ad unconscious

One example is repression which stops anxiety arousing ideas in the consciousness but isn't complete and might be seen in slips

Others are:

Regression: Going back to an infantile pyschosexual stage where there is a fixation

Reaction Formation: Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

Projection: Disguising one's own bad impulses as someone else's

Rationalization: Self justifying behaviors in place of a bad unconscious explanation

Displacement: Shifting bad impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

Sublimation: Moving bad impulses into socially valued motives

Denial: Not believing or perceiving painful realities

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55-3: What developmental stages did Freud propose?

Personality Development

Freud thought that personality started early in life w psychosexual stages where the id focuses on sensitive areas called erogenous zones

Each phase comes w different zones and challenges

Oral 0-18 months- Pleasure centers on the mouth, sucking, biting, chewing

Anal 18-36 months- Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping w demands for control

Phallic 3-6 years- Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping w incestuous sexual feelings

Latency 6 to puberty- dormant sexual feelings

Genital puberty on- Maturation of sexual interests

Freud thought that boys had Oedipus Complex and thought dad as rival while they liked mom sexually and same for girls in the electra complex

Children cope w this by eventually going through identification where they try to be like the same sex parent and helps make the superego and gender identity which shows importance of early relationships w care givers and parents at the time

If unresolved at a stage, Freud thought that one would become fixated on the stage as if fixated orally, they might want to ea or smoke more or repress it w exaggerated denial of this

Freud's ideas of sexuality were quite controversial for the time and even today are disputed but are a part of what we teach in Western Ideas

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55-2: What was Freud's view of personality?

Personality Structure

Freud thought that personality was the balance between the wants and restraints of life and made the system of id, ego and superego to explain

The id is the unconscious want to satisfy basic drives and follow pleasure to get it immediately

The ego operates on the reality principle and how to gratify the id in ways that are ok

Superego, which is the ideal, and how we should act as it wants perfection and can bring pride or guilt

The ego is the mediator between the two and makes decisions based on what both sides say or want to do

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55-1: How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?

Psychoanalytic Theory's Core Ideas

Freud is quite popular as some of his old ideas are seen today all around but what did he teach?

Freud was of his times as there was discovery and advancement but also sexual repression and male dominance also had gender roles clearly defined and only normal sexuality

Even before college, Freud was obviously brilliant and independent as he loved reading and would spend most of his time doing so

After med school, he set up a practice to look at nervous disorders, but some didn't make sense like a numb hand w no neural damage so there had to be another way this had happened

He said that neurological disorders were from psychological causes like you lost feeling in one hand out of fear of touching your genitals

He started w hypnosis which didn't really work and them moved to free association where he would say words to a patient and tell them to say whatever came to mind

Freud thought that problems in the unconscious were from before and could be retrieved and released, creating his theory of personality and treatment, psychoanalysis

Freud thought that a big part of the mind was hidden in the unconscious and that we repressed this, but it would influence us a lot

Unconscious to Freud was the group of thought that could not be shared because they would be too disturbing

Freud thought nothing was accidental as he saw slips as indicative of he unconscious and also dreams and jokes

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Personality- Characteristics that are similar about you, how you are the same person

Personality expressed through Typical behavior patterns that are tied together- organized into a pattern of behavior

Behaviors are compiled of roles

This is also called your Persona

Self Concept or Inner Self-

Pictures you carry around in your head about yourself

Social Self-

How others perceive you

Congruent or incongruent?

Are you who people think you are?

Where does personality come from?

Self Concept:

Body Self- Physical Traits and abilities

Social Self- How others see you

Self- Fulfilling Prophecy- you believe something which then causes it to happen

Private Self- Your inner world, feelings and attitudes you don't share w others

Dr. Sigmund Freud

Austrian Neurologist

Founder of psychoanalysis

Free association

Saying words and you say first thing to come to mind which shows the problem

Transference

How your anger moves from one person to the other

Oedipus Complex

How little kids love their other gendered parents which leads them to eventually chose mates like them

Dream analysis

Structral model of psyche

Id-basic needs

Ego- your morality

Superego- ideas of how to be good

Dr. Alfred Adler

Austrian

Stressed need to understand individuals within social context

Founder of Humanism

Believed problems stem from tensions in childhood social situations - "inferiority complex"

How to test personalities

2 types objective and projective (no right or wrong answers)

Objective Personality Test: From outside sources

Interview

Observation

Self Interview

T/F MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

Agreement Scale (likert scale)

Adjective checklist (thompson inv.

Aspect Rating (1-10)

Barnum Effect

A way to make a test so that its broad enough to apply to everyone

5 Parts of Personality:

Openness

Neuroticism

Agreeableness

Extraversion

Conscientiousness

Are Personality tests good?

Reliable and Valid?

Validity refers to a test's ability to measure what it is supposed to measure

Also extent to which inferences, conclusions and decisions made on the basis of test scores are appropriate and meaningful

Test reliability refers to the degree to which a test is consistent and stable in measuring