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DID THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CHANGE THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN SOCIETY?(VOCABULARY)

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DID THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CHANGE THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN SOCIETY?(VOCABULARY)

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The Daughters of Liberty was the formal female association that was formed in 1765 to protest the Stamp Act, and later the Townshend Acts, and was a general term for women who identified themselves as fighting for liberty during the American Revolution

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DID THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CHANGE THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN SOCIETY?

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DID THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CHANGE THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN AMERICAN SOCIETY?

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When it comes to changes concerning women’s rights after the American Revolution,I would like to point out one of the benefits that the Revolution brought to women.Initially,after the Revolution,the gender barriers fell down.Prior to the War,women were mostly defined with their domestic roles.Nevertheless,the Revolution made their awareness about their roles grow wider.Pamphlets and sermons now unleashed their liberty,helping them gain rights.Also,the letters and diaries written by some educated women pointed out their curiosity about political topics.So,women were now allowed to participate in business affairs.They boycotted of tea and some other taxed items,and also refused to buy English goods.As a consequence,they were not to be seen anymore as weak and dependent on men.The value of their work was finally recognized.

PICTURE:North-Carolina women boycott of tea

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THE SECTIONAL CRISIS Before the American Revolution, slavery was seen as a completely normal and natural thing. Its breakdown didn’t happen right away, but over a long timeline and throughout many different geographical points. The Haitian Revolution marks the beginnings of the sectional crisis. The military service helped free thousands of slaves. Many Americans, including Jefferson, believed slavery would die out. But unfortunately, African Americans had to suffer for many more years to come. They had to deal with direct racism and discrimination, i.e. Ohio’s Black Laws which prohibited them from voting, access to public schools, serving on juries etc. The Missouri territory marked a turning point in the crisis, as it was debated whether it should be admitted to the Union. Congressmen James Tallmadge even proposed laws that would abolish slavery, but, of course, Southerners’ response was not very positive. They reached a compromise, deciding that Maine would be admitted to the Union as a free state, but Missouri would come into it as a slave state. The significance of this compromise is the fact that it showed people how the slavery issue divided them. Missouri’s admission exposed America’s deep fault lines, with most white Americans hoping it would ensure a lasting peace. The compromise of 1850 was supposed to offer something to everyone while still keeping the promises of the Missouri compromise only ended up worsening the situation, even with the legislators rallying up behind it. The admission of California as a free state to the Union was great for the Northerners, it was not enough. After the compromise, antislavery critics became certain that Washington was working on the side of the slave owners and that it ignored the white working men. But nothing ended up being as troubling as the Fugitive Slave Act. Wanting to expand slavery’s influence in the country, the act created special federal commissioners to determine the fate of alleged fugitives without benefit of a jury trial or even court testimony, so the Northerners would have no way of interfering. The law itself was corrupt, as the commissioners were paid more if they determine that the defendant was a slave. Many African American responded to this by migrating to Canada. In 1852 the Whigs suffered their last defeat and thus ended their political existence as a whole, earning only 42/254 votes they needed to win. However, in 1854, a new party was created, the Republican Party, which stood against slavery. The violence was still present in the country, with pro-slavery raiders attacking Lawrence, Kansas. The presidential elections of summer 1856 shined the light on John Charles Frémont, who was fully backed by Abraham Lincoln. Fremont lost, but still managed to win over 11 out of 16 free states, which was pretty impressive for someone who was running for the president for the first time.Noting the voter fraud of 1854 in Kansas, critics attacked the Pierce administration for not enduring a fair election. From there on, the crisis only kept growing deeper and deeper. It grew from being sectional to being a national crisis, and “bleeding Kansas” demonstrated how it is for it to happen. Just days after the 1856 election, Bunchanan spoke to Chief Justice Roger Taney and not long after his inauguration, the Supreme Court handed down a decision (Scott v. Sandford)  not to allow black Americans to become citizens of the United States, which meant that the Bunchanan administration and the Southerners had gotten direct repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, and that Scott, a slave from Missouri, couldn’t sue in the United States court.

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THE SECTIONAL CRISIS Before the American Revolution, slavery was seen as a completely normal and natural thing. Its breakdown didn’t happen right away, but over a long timeline and throughout many different geographical points. The Haitian Revolution marks the beginnings of the sectional crisis. The military service helped free thousands of slaves. Many Americans, including Jefferson, believed slavery would die out. But unfortunately, African Americans had to suffer for many more years to come. They had to deal with direct racism and discrimination, i.e. Ohio’s Black Laws which prohibited them from voting, access to public schools, serving on juries etc. The Missouri territory marked a turning point in the crisis, as it was debated whether it should be admitted to the Union. Congressmen James Tallmadge even proposed laws that would abolish slavery, but, of course, Southerners’ response was not very positive. They reached a compromise, deciding that Maine would be admitted to the Union as a free state, but Missouri would come into it as a slave state. The significance of this compromise is the fact that it showed people how the slavery issue divided them. Missouri’s admission exposed America’s deep fault lines, with most white Americans hoping it would ensure a lasting peace. The compromise of 1850 was supposed to offer something to everyone while still keeping the promises of the Missouri compromise only ended up worsening the situation, even with the legislators rallying up behind it. The admission of California as a free state to the Union was great for the Northerners, it was not enough. After the compromise, antislavery critics became certain that Washington was working on the side of the slave owners and that it ignored the white working men. But nothing ended up being as troubling as the Fugitive Slave Act. Wanting to expand slavery’s influence in the country, the act created special federal commissioners to determine the fate of alleged fugitives without benefit of a jury trial or even court testimony, so the Northerners would have no way of interfering. The law itself was corrupt, as the commissioners were paid more if they determine that the defendant was a slave. Many African American responded to this by migrating to Canada. In 1852 the Whigs suffered their last defeat and thus ended their political existence as a whole, earning only 42/254 votes they needed to win. However, in 1854, a new party was created, the Republican Party, which stood against slavery. The violence was still present in the country, with pro-slavery raiders attacking Lawrence, Kansas. The presidential elections of summer 1856 shined the light on John Charles Frémont, who was fully backed by Abraham Lincoln. Fremont lost, but still managed to win over 11 out of 16 free states, which was pretty impressive for someone who was running for the president for the first time.Noting the voter fraud of 1854 in Kansas, critics attacked the Pierce administration for not enduring a fair election. From there on, the crisis only kept growing deeper and deeper. It grew from being sectional to being a national crisis, and “bleeding Kansas” demonstrated how it is for it to happen. Just days after the 1856 election, Bunchanan spoke to Chief Justice Roger Taney and not long after his inauguration, the Supreme Court handed down a decision (Scott v. Sandford)  not to allow black Americans to become citizens of the United States, which meant that the Bunchanan administration and the Southerners had gotten direct repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, and that Scott, a slave from Missouri, couldn’t sue in the United States court.

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UNTRODDEN-
pathless, roadless, trackless, unreachable, inaccessible , unaccesible

capable of being reached only with great difficulty or not at all
EXPANSIVE-having a wide range or extent; comprehensive; extensive:expansive mountain scenery.
(of a person's character or speech) effusive, unrestrained, free, or open
tending to expand or capable of expanding
causing expansion
working by expansion, as an engine.
REFINEMENT- the process of removing impurities or unwanted elements from a substance

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Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny, a phrase coined in 1845, is the idea that the United States is destined—by God, its advocates believed—to expand its dominion and spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent. The philosophy drove 19th-century U.S. territorial expansion and was used to justify the forced removal of Native Americans and other groups from their homes. The rapid expansion of the United States intensified the issue of slavery as new states were added to the Union, leading to the outbreak of the Civil War.
The American people having derived their origin from many other nations, and the Declaration of National Independence being entirely based on the great principle of human equality, these facts demonstrate at once our disconnected position as regards any other nation; that we have, in reality, but little connection with the past history of any of them, and still less with all antiquity, its glories, or its crimes. On the contrary, our national birth was the beginning of a new history, the formation and progress of an untried political system, which separates us from the past and connects us with the future only; and so far as regards the entire development of the natural rights of man, in moral, political, and national life, we may confidently assume that our country is destined to be the great nation of futurity.

It is so destined, because the principle upon which a nation is organized fixes its destiny, and that of equality is perfect, is universal. It presides in all the operations of the physical world, and it is also the conscious law of the soul -- the self-evident dictates of morality, which accurately defines the duty of man to man, and consequently man's rights as man. Besides, the truthful annals of any nation furnish abundant evidence, that its happiness, its greatness, its duration, were always proportionate to the democratic equality in its system of government. . . .

What friend of human liberty, civilization, and refinement, can cast his view over the past history of the monarchies and aristocracies of antiquity, and not deplore that they ever existed? What philanthropist can contemplate the oppressions, the cruelties, and injustice inflicted by them on the masses of mankind, and not turn with moral horror from the retrospect?

America is destined for better deeds. It is our unparalleled glory that we have no reminiscences of battle fields, but in defence of humanity, of the oppressed of all nations, of the rights of conscience, the rights of personal enfranchisement. Our annals describe no scenes of horrid carnage, where men were led on by hundreds of thousands to slay one another, dupes and victims to emperors, kings, nobles, demons in the human form called heroes. We have had patriots to defend our homes, our liberties, but no aspirants to crowns or thrones; nor have the American people ever suffered themselves to be led on by wicked ambition to depopulate the land, to spread desolation far and wide, that a human being might be placed on a seat of supremacy.

We have no interest in the scenes of antiquity, only as lessons of avoidance of nearly all their examples. The expansive future is our arena, and for our history. We are entering on its untrodden space, with the truths of God in our minds, beneficent objects in our hearts, and with a clear conscience unsullied by the past. We are the nation of human progress, and who will, what can, set limits to our onward march? Providence is with us, and no earthly power can. We point to the everlasting truth on the first page of our national declaration, and we proclaim to the millions of other lands, that "the gates of hell" -- the powers of aristocracy and monarchy -- "shall not prevail against it."

The far-reaching, the boundless future will be the era of American greatness. In its magnificent domain of space and time, the nation of many nations is destined to manifest to mankind the excellence of divine principles; to establish on earth the noblest temple ever dedicated to the worship of the Most High -- the Sacred and the True. Its floor shall be a hemisphere -- its roof the firmament of the star-studded heavens, and its congregation an Union of many Republics, comprising hundreds of happy millions, calling, owning no man master, but governed by God's natural and moral law of equality, the law of brotherhood -- of "peace and good will amongst men.". . .

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* Methodists: A movement of Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations, claiming a total of approximately 70 million adherents worldwide; the movement traces its roots to John Wesley’s evangelistic revival movement within Anglicanism.

* Baptist: Of or relating to a Protestant denomination of Christianity, which believes in the baptism of believers as opposed to the baptism of infants.

* Arminian: Of or relating to the religious philosophy founded by the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius.

* monotheism: The belief in a single god (one God), especially within an organized religion.

* Unitarianism: A Christian theological movement, named for its understanding of God as one person, in direct contrast to the belief of God as three persons coexisting consubstantially as one in being.

* Universalism: In Christianity, the belief that all humans may be saved through Jesus Christ and eventually will come to harmony in God’s kingdom.

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-REVIVAL AND RELIGIOUS CHANGE-

The early nineteenth century was a period of immense change in the United States. Economic, political, demographic, and territorial transformations radically altered how Americans thought about themselves, their communities, and the rapidly expanding nation. It was a period of great optimism, with the possibilities of self-governance infusing everything from religion to politics. Yet it was also a period of great conflict, as the benefits of industrialization and democratization increasingly accrued along starkly uneven lines of gender, race, and class. Westward expansion distanced urban dwellers from frontier settlers more than ever before, even as the technological innovations of industrialization—like the telegraph and railroads—offered exciting new ways to maintain communication. The spread of democracy opened the franchise to nearly all white men, but urbanization and a dramatic influx of European migration increased social tensions and class divides.

The American Revolution had largely been a secular affair. The Founding Fathers clearly demonstrated their opposition to the intermingling of politics and religion by establishing the separation of church and state in the first amendment to the Constitution. In part because religion was separated from the control of political leaders, a series of religious REVIVALS swept the United States from the 1790s and into the 1830s that transformed the religious landscape of the country. Known today as the SECOND GREAT AWAKENING, this spiritual resurgence fundamentally altered the character of American religion. At the start of the Revolution the largest denominations were CONGREGATIONALISTS (the 18th-century descendants of Puritan churches), ANGLICANS (known after the Revolution as Episcopalians), and Quakers. But by 1800, EVANGELICAL METHODISM and BAPTISTS, were becoming the fasting-growing religions in the nation.

The Second Great Awakening marked a fundamental transition in American religious life. Many early American religious groups in the CALVINIST tradition had emphasized the deep depravity of human beings and believed they could only be saved through the grace of God. The new evangelical movement, however, placed greater emphasis on humans' ability to change their situation for the better. By stressing that individuals could assert their "FREE WILL" in choosing to be saved and by suggesting that salvation was open to all human beings, the Second Great Awakening embraced a more optimistic view of the human condition. The repeated and varied revivals of these several decades helped make the United States a much more deeply PROTESTANT nation than it had been before.

Finally, the Second Great Awakening also included greater public roles for white women and much higher African-American participation in Christianity than ever before.

-ATLANTIC ORIGINS OF REFORM-

The reform movements that emerged in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century were not all American inventions.  Instead, these movements were rooted in a transatlantic world where both sides of the ocean faced similar problems and together collaborated to find similar solutions.  Many if of the same factors that spurred American reformers to action—urbanization, industrialization, class struggle, and more—equally affected Europe. Reformers on both sides of the Atlantic visited and corresponded with one another, exchanging ideas and building networks that proved crucial to shared causes like abolition and women’s rights.

Deepening ties between reformers across the Atlantic owed not just to the emergence of new ideas, but also to the material connection of the early nineteenth century.  Improvements in transportation, including the introduction of the steamboat, canals, and railroads, connected people not just across the United States, but also with other like-minded reformers in Europe.  (Ironically, the same technologies also helped ensure that even after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, the British remained heavily invested in slavery, both directly and indirectly.)  Equally important, the reduction of publication costs created by the printing technologies of the 1830s allowed reformers to reach new audiences across the world.  Almost immediately after its publication in the United States, for instance, the escaped slave and abolitionist Frederick Douglass’s autobiography was republished in Europe and translated into French and Dutch, galvanizing Douglass’s supporters across the Atlantic.

In the course of their abolitionist activities, many American women began to establish contact with their counterparts across the Atlantic, each group penning articles and contributing material support to the others’ antislavery publications and fundraisers.  The effect of this cooperation can be seen in the nascent women’s rights movement.  During the 1840 meeting, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formulated the idea for a national women’s suffrage convention, which they held at the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.  The General Antislavery Convention played an important role in laying the foundation for an Anglo-American Women’s Suffrage Movement.  As Stanton eloquently wrote in The History of Woman Suffrage (1887), “The movement for women’s suffrage, both in England and America, may be dated from this World Antislavery Convention”. Mott also made several lasting connections with her reforming sisters in England, who included Elizabeth Pease of Darlington, Ann Knight of Chelmsford, and Elizabeth Jesse Reid of London.

The bonds between British and American reformers can be traced throughout the many social improvement projects of the nineteenth century. Transatlantic cooperation galvanized efforts to reform individuals’ and societies’ relationships to alcohol, labor, religion, education, commerce, and land ownership. This cooperation, stemming from the recognition that social problems on both sides of the Atlantic were strikingly similar, helped American reformers to conceptualize themselves as part of a worldwide moral mission to attack social ills and spread the gospel of Christianity.

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LAMENT-a passionate expression of grief or sorrow,a complaint

INFRASTRUCTURE-the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g. buildings, roads, power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise

LEGISLATURE-the legislative body of a country or state

TO PUMP(CAPITAL)INTO E.G. PROJECT- to supply in large amounts

CHATERED BANK-a financial institution, whose primary roles are to accept and safeguard monetary deposits from individuals and organizations, as well as to lend money out

SKYROCKET(in the text)-(of a price, rate, or amount) increase very steeply or rapidly

RAMPANT-(especially of something unwelcome) flourishing or spreading unchecked

COMMODITY-a raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold, such as copper or coffee

-a useful or valuable thing

UNTETHERED-release or free from a tether

COUNTERFEIT-made in exact imitation of something valuable with the intention to deceive or defraud

ENDEMIC-(of a disease or condition) regularly found among particular people or in a certain area

STEAMBOAT-a boat that is propelled by a steam engine, especially (in the US) a paddle-wheel craft of a type used on rivers in the 19th century

BULK-he mass or size of something large

EMBODIMENT-a tangible or visible form of an idea, quality, or feeling

-he representation or expression of something in a tangible or visible form

CORDWAINER-a shoemaker

EMANCIPATION-the fact or process of being set free from legal, social, or political restrictions

-the freeing of someone from slavery

HAND-CRANK-operate (a device) by turning a crank by hand

BROKER-a person who buys and sells goods or assets for others

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Samuel Morse was an American painter and inventor. After having established his reputation as a portrait painter, in his middle age Morse contributed to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs. He was a co-developer of Morse code and helped to develop the commercial use of telegraphy.

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Early Republic Economic Development

What reshaped American life in the decades before the Civil War was the growth of the American economy.Americans increasingly produced goods for sale, not for consumption. Improved transportation enabled a larger exchange network. Labor-saving technology improved efficiency,enabling the separation of the public and domestic spheres. The market revolution fulfilled the revolutionary generation’s expectations of progress.However,it introduced troubles when it comes to new trends.The market revolution was followed by child labor,class conflicts,immigration and also accompanied by the expansion of slavery.These strains required new family arrangements and transformed American cities.American farmers increasingly exported foodstuffs to Europe since the French Revolutionary Wars devastated the continent between 1793 and 1815.Thus,America’s exports rose in value from $20.2 million $108.3 million by 1807.Committee Report lamented that “the price of land carriage is too great” to allow the profitable production of American manufactures. But in the wake of the War of 1812, Americans build a new national infrastructure with new networks of roads, canals, and railroads. President James Madison claimed announced:“the great importance of establishing throughout our country the roads and canals which can best be executed under national authority.” Although state governments continued to sponsor the greatest improvements in American transportation,the federal government’s annual expenditures on internal improvements climbed to a yearly average of $1,323,000 by Andrew Jackson’s presidency.State legislatures meanwhile pumped capital into the economy by chartering banks.In this way,the number of state-chartered banks skyrocketed to 1,371 in 1860. European capital also helped America to build infrastructure.

However,depressions devastated the economy in 1819, 1837, and 1857 and each depression followed rampant speculation in various commodities: land in 1819, land and slaves in 1837, and railroad bonds in 1857. The spread of paper currency untethered the economy from the physical signifiers of wealth familiar to the colonial generation, namely land. Counterfeit bills were endemic in this period of time.

Fear of the confidence man, counterfeit bills, and a pending bust created anxiety in the new capitalist economy.Instead of blaming the logic of their new commercial system for these depressions,Americans kept pushing “to get forward.” The so-called Transportation Revolution opened the vast lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1810, before the rapid explosion of American infrastructure, Margaret Dwight left New Haven, Connecticut, in a wagon headed for Ohio Territory. Her trip  took six weeks to complete. The journey was a terrible ordeal, she said. The roads were “so rocky &amp,so gullied as to be almost impassable.” She concluded that “the reason so few are willing to return from the Western country, is not that the country is so good, but because the journey is so bad.” Compared to Margaret’s journey,in 1829, English traveler Frances Trollope made the reverse journey across the Allegheny Mountains from Cincinnati to the East Coast,which was amazing.At Wheeling, Virginia, her coach encountered the National Road, the first federally funded interstate infrastructure project. The road was smooth and her journey across the Alleghenies was a scenic delight.  New York State completed the Erie Canal in 1825. The 350-mile-long human-made waterway connected the Great Lakes,the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean.Moreover,crops grown in the Great Lakes region were carried by water to eastern cities, and goods from emerging eastern factories made the reverse journey to midwestern farmers. The success of New York’s “artificial river” launched a canal-building boom. By 1840 Ohio created two navigable, all-water links from Lake Erie to the Ohio River.Robert Fulton was the one to have established the first commercial steamboat service up and down the Hudson River in New York in 1807.Steamboats filled the waters of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers.By 1830, more than two hundred steamboats moved up and down western rivers.

The United States’ first long-distance rail line launched from Maryland in 1827.  The line was imagined to be to funnel the agricultural products of the trans-Appalachian West to an outlet on the Chesapeake Bay.Philadelphia, Boston, New York City, and Charleston, South Carolina had similar motifs to launch their own rail lines. Even though state and local governments provided the means for the bulk of this initial wave of railroad construction,economic collapse following the Panic of 1837 made governments wary of such investments. Decades later the public origins of railroads were all but forgotten, and the railroad corporation became the most visible embodiment of corporate capitalism.By 1860 Americans had laid more than thirty thousand miles of railroads. 10 The ensuing web of rail, roads, and canals caused troubles for farmers in the Northeast or Midwest to get their goods to urban markets. Railroad development was slower in the South, but there a combination of rail lines and navigable rivers meant that few cotton planters struggled to transport their products to textile mills in the Northeast and in England.

Not only that such internal improvements spread goods,but they also spread information. Communications revolution followed the transportation revolution. The invention of the telegraph redefined the limits of human communication.Thanks to Samuel Morse,wo persuaded Congress to fund a forty-mile telegraph line stretching from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore,during the Mexican-American War, telegraph lines carried news of battlefield events to eastern newspapers within days,which was in contrast to the War of 1812.In this year,the Battle of New Orleans took place nearly two full weeks after Britain and the United States had signed a peace treaty.Consequently,the lives of Americans were reshaped due to the transportation and communication revolution. Farmers who previously produced crops mostly for their own family now had to turn to the market. They earned cash for what they had previously consumed,and they purchased the goods they had previously made or went without. Market-based farmers soon accessed credit through eastern banks.That offered them the opportunity to expand their enterprise.However,that also left  them prone before the risk of catastrophic failure wrought by distant market forces. In the Northeast and Midwest, where farm labor was ever in short supply, ambitious farmers invested in new technologies that promised to increase the productivity of the limited labor supply. The years between 1815 and 1850 were the years of the explosion of patents on agricultural technologies.The most famous of these were Cyrus McCormick’s horse-drawn mechanical reaper, which partially mechanized wheat harvesting, and John Deere’s steel-bladed plow, which more easily allowed for the conversion of unbroken ground into fertile farmland.

The market revolution encouraged the growth of cities and reshaped the lives of urban workers. In 1820, only New York had over one hundred thousand inhabitants. New technology and infrastructure paved the way for such growth. The Erie Canal captured the bulk of the trade emerging from the Great Lakes region, securing New York City’s position as the nation’s largest and most economically important city.* Here is the link of the map of the Erie Canal:https://www.google.com/maps/vt/data=a5G4BY9Vom_hopih_WzRoq1PxrckbDw80rnHbnMHhVqZ7Y_CjO2OCBSOyg-UXgbClOCfcnUb3N22IoVoufH_jdzREqgjr1qNV453ngBxnerVkirjC_iJWAmTYR2LEipHmgEIfDkyytQSyAMpRQZraEzbIcPcjscDyWQ3XIb8ZbrLQxZc7N2zLTRjvj5BGaM8V7_jOOcT89pAgSFYSaTc5Q
The steamboat turned St. Louis and Cincinnati into centers of trade, and Chicago rose as it became the railroad hub of the western Great Lakes and Great Plains regions. The geographic center of the nation shifted westward. The development of steam power and the exploitation of Pennsylvania coalfields shifted the locus of American manufacturing.For example,by the 1830s,New England was losing its competitive advantage to the West.Income became the measure of economic worth. Productivity and efficiencies paled before the measure of income. Cash facilitated new impersonal economic relationships and formalized new means of production.Moreover, a new form of economic organization appeared,and it was the business corporation.A corporate charter allowed investors and directors to avoid personal liability for company debts. The legal status of incorporation was designed to confer privileges to organizations embarking on expensive projects explicitly designed for the public good,for instance universities, municipalities, and major public works projects. The business corporation was something completely new. Many Americans distrusted these new,impersonal business organizations and many of them wanted limits. Thomas Jefferson himself wrote in 1816 that “I hope we shall crush in its birth the aristocracy of our monied corporations which dare already to challenge our government to a trial of strength, and bid defiance to the laws of our country.” However,in Dartmouth in 1819,the Supreme Court upheld the rights of private corporations when it denied the attempt of the government of New Hampshire to reorganize Dartmouth College on behalf of the common good.And still,suspect remained,causing a group of journeymen cordwainers in New Jersey publically declare in 1835 that they “entirely disapprove of the incorporation of Companies, for carrying on manual mechanical business’’.

The Decline of Northern Slavery and the Rise of the Cotton Kingdom

Slave labor helped fuel the market revolution. By 1832, textile companies made up 88 out of 106 Textile mills, worked by free labor,depended on southern cotton, and the vast new market economy spurred the expansion of the plantation South.By the early nineteenth century, states north of the Mason-Dixon Line had taken steps to abolish slavery. Vermont included abolition as a provision of its 1777 state constitution. Pennsylvania’s emancipation act of 1780 stipulated that freed children must serve an indenture term of twenty-eight years. Gradualism brought emancipation while also defending the interests of northern masters and controlling still another generation of black Americans. In 1804 New Jersey became the last of the northern states to adopt gradual emancipation plans. There was no immediate moment of jubilee, as many northern states only promised to liberate future children born to enslaved mothers. Also,such laws stipulated that such children remain in indentured servitude to their mother’s master in order to compensate the slaveholder’s loss. Roughly one fifth of the white families in New York City owned slaves.Emancipation proceeded slowly, but proceeded nonetheless. A free black population of fewer than 60,000 in 1790 increased to more than 186,000 by 1810. Growing free black communities fought for their civil rights. In a number of New England locales, free African Americans were able to vote and send their children to public schools. Most northern states granted black citizens property rights and trial by jury. African Americans owned land and businesses, founded mutual aid societies, established churches, promoted education, developed print culture, and voted.The growth of abolition in the North and the acceleration of slavery in the South created growing divisions. Cotton drove the process more than any other crop.A simple hand-cranked device,known as Eli Whitney’s gin was designed to mechanically remove sticky green seeds from short staple cotton,allowing southern planters to dramatically expand cotton production for the national and international markets. Water-powered textile factories in England and the American Northeast rapidly turned raw cotton into cloth. Technology increased both the supply of and demand for cotton. White southerners also responded by expanding cultivation farther west, to the Mississippi River and beyond. Slavery had been growing less profitable in tobacco-planting regions like Virginia.Eager cotton planters invested their new profits in new slaves.The cotton boom fueled speculation in slavery. Many slave owners leveraged potential profits into loans used to purchase ever increasing numbers of slaves. For instance, one 1840 Louisiana Courier warned, “it is very difficult now to find persons willing to buy slaves from Mississippi or Alabama on account of the fears entertained that such property may be already mortgaged to the banks of the above named states.”

New national and international markets fueled the plantation boom. American cotton exports rose to 4,541,000 bales in 1859. The Census Bureau’s 1860 Census of Manufactures stated that “the manufacture of cotton constitutes the most striking feature of the industrial history of the last fifty years.” Slave owners shipped their cotton north to textile manufacturers and to northern financers for overseas shipments.In that way,Northern insurance brokers and exporters in the Northeast had a huge profits The United States ended its legal participation in the global slave trade in 1808.Still,slave traders moved one million slaves from the tobacco-producing Upper South to cotton fields in the Lower South between 1790 and 1860,which supported middle-class occupations in the North and South.Bankers, doctors, lawyers, insurance brokers, and shipping agents all profited. In addition to this,it facilitated the expansion of northeastern textile mills.

President James Medison

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Conspirator - a person who takes part in a conspiracy
Supremacy - the state or condition of being superior to all others in authority, power, or status
Abolition - the action of abolishing a system, practice, or institution
Polygenesis - the hypothetical origination of a race or species from a number of independent stocks

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Free and Enslaved Black Americans and the Challenge to Slavery
In 1800, the slave Gabriel along with one thousand enslaved men attempted to end slavery in Virginia by attacking Richmond. However, the authorities were notified of this; the attack was thus postponed, which gave time for the militia to capture the conspirators. Gabriel, along with 25 others was hanged as a result.  Gabriel's Rebellion left a large impact on both black and white Americans in the 19th century concerning the blacks' status in the society. White residents learned that blacks were capable of revolting, meaning that the assumption of their "inherent intellectual inferiority" wasn't as easy to back up anymore. The whites' efforts in stopping the news of other slave revolts (most notably the Haitian Revolution) from spreading failed; literate slaves read about the successful attack in newspapers, while some heard of it firsthand from Haitian refugees who came to Virginia.
The Haitian Revolution (1791 - 1804) was a beacon of hope to all black Americans, while simultaneously a treat to whites. In their fight for freedom over the next decades, black Americans looked to Haiti as inspiration. David Walker menationed it in his Appeal, adding that Haitians "are bound to protect ad comfort (them)". It also proved that the aforementioned assumption of the "inherent intellectual inferiority" of blacks was false. All in all, the Haitian Revolution left an undeniable mark on the early political culture of America.
White leaders, who were not at all happy with the black activism that consequently arised, used the violence of the revolt to bolster white supremacy. Black Americans were mocked and ridiculed. That agenda - to cruely represent blacks as buffoons - became the foundation of the racist ideas that prospered in the 19th century.
A peculiar case of Henry Moss, a slave in Virgina who started getting white spots on his body which tuned him completely white in a few short years,was exactly what the whites needed to back their theory that being black was an illness which made them inferior; Henry was living proof that "blackness" is something that can be cured.
The Enlightenment thinkers' desire to classify the natural world led to the devision of racial "types" according to skin color; they claimed that the African rase's skin color was darkened from years spent under the sun in the tropical climate of Africa. It meant that there were no innate differences between races - what devided them was social progress. Samuel Stanhope, in his treatise, proposed a theory where a proper society can "whiten" men (like nature did to Henry Moss). Thomas Jefferson, on the other hand, disagreed, believing that black people were incapable of mentally improving and that they might even have a different ancestry (a theory known as polygenisis). The theory wasn't extremely popular with the general society, as it was thought of as antibiblical, and many of them just held the belief that the white and black races were too different to coexist in peace. While Jefferson's views caused a lot of backlash from antislavery communities, he had a lot of defenders, some even taking it a step further and proposing that blacks and white were different species all together. Few Americans actually subscribed to such theories, but their belief in white supremacy was still very much prevalent for many years to come.

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Perhaps we can say that Virginia is known as the first successful southern colony, as Penn's Quaker land was making huge amounts of money, with its crops- cash crops the reason behind this kind of development was the geography and motive, and this exact reason was something that distinguished these colonies from the ones in the North. Maryland was on the North, and it began as a Catholic experiment, and therefore its economy became similar to that of Virginia. The production and growth of tobacco became the main culprit behind this type of development. The south had the Carolinas-created after the English Civil War, and the deep South had Georgia, the last of the original thirteen colonies. And then we had the potential danger from Spain and France, which led the king to desire a sort of a buffer zone between the cash crops of the Carolinas and the foreign enemies. Georgia became that buffer zone. The Southern colonies were Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina and of course Georgia. This however caused the American Southerners disenjoyment with the health development of their New England counterparts, as outbreaks of malaria and yellow fever kept life expectations low- the northern colonies attracted many religious runaways, and because of their lack of tolerance the south did not have this problem. But simply having cash crops would certainly would not be enough as they would require a labor force, and the slaves were naturally more present in the North rather than the South, they were the vital part of the Southern economy. This led the settlers in the Southern colonies to come to come to America to seek economic prosperity and stability, which they didn't have in Old England, and so this new countryside provided just that with its manors and high leg living. And the rural part of England was completely occupied, and all of those estates could only be passes on the eldest son. And America, being larger provided the exact thing that the new arrivals needed, and seeked for.

William Penn

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PARADOXICAL-seemingly absurd or self-contradictory

DISPARATE-essentially different in kind; not able to be compared

FOUNDING FATHER-a person who starts or helps to start a movement or institution

-a member of the convention that drew up the constitution of the US in 1787

UNLEASH-cause (a strong or violent force) to be released or become unrestrained

HANDS-OFF POLICY-a policy of not intervening,e.g. of someone who would be described as hands-off is a manager who sits back and lets his staff do their own thing.

COLONIAL ASSEMBLY- made up of representatives elected by the freeholders and planters (landowners) of the province; they were also called the House of Delegates, House of Burgesses, or Assembly of Freemen.

PREROGATIVE-(n)a right or privilege exclusive to a particular individual or class

-(adj)arising from the prerogative of the Crown (usually delegated to the government or the judiciary) and based in common law rather than statutory law

REPUBLICANISM-support for a republican system of government

-(in the US) the principles or policies of the Republican Party

REVIVALISM-generally, renewed religious fervour within a Christian group, church, or community, but primarily a movement in some Protestant churches to revitalize the spiritual ardour of their members and win new adherents.

VIRGINIA RESOLVES- It is defined as Virginia's response to the British Parliament's Stamp Act of 1765. It was created by the Virginia General Assembly, the legislative body of the Commonwealth of Virginia. More importantly, it is defined as one of the first acts of open revolution to a British law

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James Oglethorpe

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ETHNIC GROUP- a community or population made up of people who share a common cultural background or descent

IN CLOSE PROXIMITY-near to each other

ASSORTMENT- a miscellaneous collection of things or people

DISTRIBUTION CENTER-  a product storage and shipping building that stores goods a company produces.It is a key part in the chain for products, order fulfilment, and storing produced goods prior to their shipment to wholesale, retail or customers

MERCANTILE SYSTEM- a system of managing the economy of a country through the regulation of its foreign trade. Its goal is to establish a permanent positive balance of trade. This goal can be accomplished by implementing the following trade tactics: High tariffs on inbound goods

FERTILE(adj.)- (of soil or land) producing or capable of producing abundant vegetation or crops.

-(of a person, animal, or plant) able to conceive young or produce seed.

MIDDLE GROUND- an intermediate position or area of compromise or possible agreement between two opposing views or groups

TRINKET- a small ornament or item of jewellery that is of little value

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In pre-Revolutionary America,Americans’ rich diversity could be seen in the middle colonies of Pennsylvania,New York,New Jersey and Delaware.Not only that the middle colonies had a special role because they were important distribution centers in the English mercantile system,thanks to their central location,but they also served as the crossroads of ideas during the colonial period.New York and Philadelphia gave rise to Benjamin Franklin and many other brilliant thinkers
When it comes to European ethnic groups,English,Swedes,Dutch,Germans,Scots-Irish and French lived in closer proximity.Native American tribes of Algonkian and Iroquois language groups as well as a considerable percentage of African slaves,were a part of the middle colonies in the early years.

The middle colonies corresponded to a perfect nucleus for English America.Thanks to the generally suitable soil for plantation,the middle colonies were fertile.The American colonies supplied themselves with wheat and corn from local farms through.Furthermore,they represented so called ‘middle ground’ between neighbors to the North and South.There could be found elements of both New England towns and sprawling country estates.

NEW NETHERLAND TO NEW YORK

The New York post also described that the influence the Dutch had,controlling the Hudson Valley for more than 50 years,can still be seen today.Henry Hudson,the English explorer,sailed into New York Bay.He found the Hudson Valley and claimed it for his employers in 1609.Thus,the Dutch began settling to new land.Hoping to reap some profits,Dutch West India Company and 30 families arrived in 1624,thus establishing the settlement that is today knows as Manhattan.Peter Minuit made one of the greatest real estate purchases in history,especially because he traded trinkets,in other words small ornaments and jewelry,with local Native Americans for Manhattan Island.The town established was named New Amsterdam,which later became New York City, and Peter Stuyvesant ruled it,being the most famous governor of the colony.Today,he has  famous school named after him.
The Dutch West India Company was one of the most prominent in the world’s trade of slaves.In this time,that was familiar as the Dutch era,slavery was very common.

When Charles II came to the throne,the English became very interested in the Dutch holdings.Governor Stuyvesant was forced to surrender when English military unit came to New Amsterdam.In this way,New Netherland became New York.

Santa Claus and Easter Eggs

Even cultural contributions are left by the Dutch and they include pastimes of bowling and skating.Christmas and Easter were transformed by the introduction of Santa Claus and Easter eggs. Today,the Dutch influence could be recognized all over Harlem and Brooklyn. As I was reading about the middle colonies and the beginnings of Christmas and Easter tradition,I’ve found out from the publication in The Medium that at first,the Puritans in early America outlawed Christmas from 1659–1681.and there were punishments for those who were discovered to celebrate Christmas outside of the typical church celebration.That changed in 1819,when American author Washington Irving published a series of short stories in The Sketchbook of Geoffrey Crayon. These short stories became what we know as the “traditional” Christmas. In his book, Washington portrayed the celebration of Christmas in an English manor house in which the English squire invited peasants into his home for a Christmas celebration.

When it comes to Easter,Grimm’s version of Easter made it popular in America.This was because of the massive German population owing to the 1800 migration of Germans to America, writers and scholars taking Grimm’s story at face value without any research.Moreover,with the Industrial Revolution and capitalism in full swing in Continental Europe and the British Isles, Chocolate bunnies were being produced in large amounts, starting in Germany. American chocolate company Whitman’s produced chocolate bunnies specifically for Easter and the chocolate bunnies eventually grew in popularity in North America after 1900.

Governor Peter Stuyvesant

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The Chesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland were vital for providing tobacco. However, in its early history, Jamestown was struggling with both the native inhabitants, the powerful Powhatan who were in control of the area, and its own settlers, whose jealousies and fighting among themselves led to destabilizing the colony. A huge problem was also that they weren’t able to grow their own food, as most of them were devoted to finding gold and silver in order to reap the profit for the Virginia Company of London, which they were essentially employers of, and its investors.

The overall bad health, fighting and lack of supplies took lives of many Jamestown settlers. The winter of 1609-1610, also known as the starving time, was reported by George Percy, the youngest son of an English nobleman; he reported in his journal of how famine caused settlers to rob the store (for which they got executed),  eat horses and other beasts, and then shift to cats, dogs, mice etc., with some of them even going to the woods to feed on serpents and snakes and search for wild roots, only for many of them to be slain by the savages. He also reports that some settlers were so desperate that they dug up dead bodies or licked blood of other weak men. By June 1610, the remaining settlers decided to abandon the area, but yet another failed colonization was prevented by a last-minute supply ship from England, which also brought new settlers. Unfortunately, only 1200 out of 7500 of those who came to Virginia between 1607 and 1624 survived.

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Who recounted a visit to Parliament?

In the 1760s,Benjamin Rush,a native of Philadelphia,recounted a visit to Parliament.Throughout the eighteenth century,colonists had developed significant emotional ties with both the British monarchy and the British constitution.The British North American colonists had helped to win a world war.In a little over a decade,those same colonists declared their independence and broke away from the British Empire.From 1763,nothing would have seemed as improbable as the American Revolution

Benjamin Rush

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преузимање (2)

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CASH CROPS- Plants that are grown for direct sale in the market, rather than for family consumption or to feed livestock. Coffee, cocoa, tea, sugarcane, cotton, and spices are some examples of cash crops. Food crops such as rice, wheat, and corn are also grown as cash crops to meet the global food demand.

PREVALENT-widespread; of wide extent or occurrence;

MANORS-In English law, a manor is an estate in land which includes the right to hold a manorial court. The Lord of the manor, through the manorial court, has jurisdiction over those who live within the lands of the manor. The manor is nevertheless often described as the basic feudal unit of tenure and is historically connected with the territorial divisions of the march, county, hundred, parish and township

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English settlements in America Vocabulary 

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English settlements in America Vocabulary 

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mercantilisim: an economic practice by which governments used their economies to augment state power at the expense of other countries. Governments sought to ensure that exports exceeded imports and to accumulate wealth in the form of bullion (mostly gold and silver)

enclosure movement: Enclosure was the legal process in England of consolidating small landholdings into larger farms since the 13th century. Once enclosed, use of the land became restricted and available only to the owner, and it ceased to be common land for communal use.

pagans: a person holding religious beliefs other than those of the main world religions.

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The British arrived in the New World and established their first permanent settlement at Jamestown in 1607. There were plenty of reasons - ranging from economic to religious - as to why the English public was so interested in colonozing a continent which had already been claimed by other Europian nations for a number of years, most notably Spain (whom the British were in a tense rivalry with; colonizing the New World would thus prove their superiority). England's economic growth at the time, sparked by mercantilisim, increased the island's population; the cost of land as well as the prices skyrocketed, while wages stagnated, resulting in a vast amount of the population being left landless and jobless. The New World would thus provided an escape for those struggling. Aside from the obvious economic gains from trade and resource extraction, many claimed that religion and spirituality was what interested them most. By Christianizing the New World's pagan peoples, they would be "doing God's work".

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Cash crop- a crop produced for its commercial value rather than for use by the grower

Shareholder- a person who owns shares in a company and therefore gets part of the company's profits and the right to vote on how the company is controlled

The starving time- the winter of 1609-1610, when food shortages, fractured leadership, and a siege by Powhatan Indian warriors killed two of every three colonists

Annihilate- utterly destroy, obliterate

Serpent- a large snake

Fellow- a person in the same position, involved in the same activity, or otherwise associated with another