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When and where was he born? What kind of education and training did he have.

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Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they'd follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch-the Hellenistic Period.

Where Was Alexander the Great From?

Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia, in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias-although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods.

Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire.

Bucephalus

At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander's life.

When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander's interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes-a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers-during the Battle of Chaeronea.

Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

Alexander Becomes King

In 336 B.C., Alexander's father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he'd cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father's footsteps and continue Macedonia's world domination.

Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.
READ MORE: Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father's Murder?
Gordian Knot

From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot, a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

Battle of Issus

In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander's forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia's great wealth, much of it plundered.

As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader-in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, "there is nothing impossible to him who will try."

Battle of Tyre

Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander's clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city's walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

Alexander Enters Egypt

After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt. He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

Alexander Becomes King of Persia

After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It's said Alexander was sad when he found Darius's body and he gave him a royal burial.

Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius's murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn't let the claim stand.

After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus's troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander's good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

Proskynesis

To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

Alexander Kills Cleitus

In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander's new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness-a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander's demand to surrender.

Not one to take "no" for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

Alexander Enters India

In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

Porus's army was less experienced than Alexander's, but they had a secret weapon-elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It's unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

A Mass Wedding

In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

The Macedonian army resented Alexander's attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

Death of Alexander the Great

By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion-who was also reputed to be one of Alexander's homosexual male lovers.

Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he'd never live to see it happen. After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

His death-and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards-unraveled the empire he'd fought so hard to create.
READ MORE: Alexander the Great Died Mysteriously at 32. Now We May Know Why
Why Was Alexander The Great 'Great'?

Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from "Hellazein," which means, "to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks." Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

Sources

Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Alexander the Great. Livius.org.
Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org.
Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University.
Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia.
The Battle of Issus. Livius.org.
The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Fordham University.
The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history's greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they'd follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process.

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Who were they, what happened to them?

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Alexander the Great was one of the best-known rulers in ancient history. By the time of his death at thirty-two, he ruled the largest Western empire of the ancient world.

Education by tutors

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. to King Philip II of Macedon (382-336 B.C.E. ) and Queen Olympias (375-316 B.C.E. ). Growing up, Alexander rarely saw his father, who was usually involved in long military campaigns. Olympias, a fierce and possessive mother, dominated her son's youth and filled him with a deep resentment of his father. Nonetheless, their son's education was important to both parents.

One of Alexander's first teachers was Leonidas, a relative of Olympias, who struggled to control the defiant boy. Philip hired Leonidas to train the youth in math, archery, and horsemanship (the training and care of horses). Alexander's favorite tutor was Lysimachus. This tutor devised a game in which Alexander impersonated the hero Achilles. Achilles was a heroic Greek warrior from a famous ancient poem called the Iliad. Achilles became the model of the noble warrior for Alexander, and he modeled himself after this hero. This game delighted Olympias because her family claimed the hero as an ancestor.

In 343 Philip asked Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E. ), the famous Greek philosopher and scientist, to tutor Alexander. For three years in the rural Macedonian village of Mieza, Aristotle taught Alexander philosophy, government, politics, poetry, drama, and the sciences. Aristotle wrote a shortened edition of the Iliad, which Alexander always kept with him.

Beginnings of the soldier

Alexander's education at Mieza ended in 340 B.C.E. . While Philip was away fighting a war, he left the sixteen-year-old prince as acting king. Within a year Alexander led his first military attack against a rival tribe. In 338 he led the cavalry (troops who fight battles on horseback) and helped his father smash the forces of Athens and Thebes, two Greek city-states.

Alexander's relationship and military cooperation with his father ended soon after Philip took control of the Corinthian League. The Corinthian League was a military alliance made up of all the Greek states except for Sparta. Philip then married another woman, which forced Alexander and Olympias to flee Macedon. Eventually Philip and Alexander were reunited.

Alexander as king

In the summer of 336 B.C.E. at the ancient Macedonian capital of Aegai, Alexander's sister married her uncle Alexander. During this event Philip was assassinated by a young Macedonian noble, Pausanias. After his father's death Alexander sought the approval of the Macedonian army for his bid for kingship. The generals agreed and proclaimed him king, making Alexander the ruler of Macedon. In order to secure his throne, Alexander then killed everyone who could have a possible claim to the kingship.

Although he was the king of Macedon, Alexander did not automatically gain control of the Corinthian League. Some Greek states rejoiced at Philip's murder, and Athens wanted to rule the League. Throughout Greece independence movements arose. Immediately Alexander led his armies to Greece to stop these movements. The Greek states quickly recognized him as their leader, while Sparta still refused to join. The League gave Alexander unlimited military powers to attack Persia, a large kingdom to the east of Greece.

Asian campaign

In October 335 B.C.E. Alexander returned to Macedon and prepared for his Persian expedition. In numbers of troops, ships, and wealth, Alexander's resources were inferior to those of Darius III (380-330 B.C.E. ), the king of Persia. In the early spring of 334 Alexander's army met Darius's army for the first time. Alexander's army defeated the Persians and continued to move west. Darius's capital at Sardis fell easily, followed by the cities of Miletus and Halicarnassus. The territories Alexander conquered formed the foundations of his Asian empire.

By autumn 334 Alexander had crossed the southern coast of Asia Minor (now Turkey). In Asia Minor, Alexander cut the famous Gordian Knot. According to tradition, whoever undid the intricate Gordian Knot would become ruler of Asia. Many people began to believe that Alexander had godlike powers and was destined to rule Asia.

Then in 333 Alexander moved his forces east and the two kings met in battle at the city of Issus. Alexander was outnumbered but used creative military formations to beat Darius's forces. Darius fled. Alexander then attacked the Persian royal camp where he gained lots of riches and captured the royal family. He treated Darius's wife, mother, and three children with respect. With Darius's army defeated, Alexander proclaimed himself king of Asia.

As a result of the defeat, Darius wanted to sign a truce with Alexander. He offered a large ransom for his family, a marriage alliance, a treaty of friendship, and part of his empire. Alexander ignored Darius's offer because he wanted to conquer all of Asia.

Campaign in Egypt

Alexander then pushed on into Egypt. Egypt fell to Alexander without resistance, and the Egyptians hailed him as their deliverer from Persian domination. In every country, Alexander respected the local customs, religions, and citizens. In Egypt he sacrificed to the local gods and the Egyptian priesthood recognized him as pharaoh, or ruler of ancient Egypt. They hailed Alexander as a god. Alexander then worked to bring Greek culture to Egypt. In 331 B.C.E. he founded the city of Alexandria, which became a center of Greek culture and commerce.

More fighting in Persia

In September 331 B.C.E. Alexander defeated the Persians at the Battle of Gaugamela. The Persian army collapsed, and again Darius fled. Instead of chasing after him, Alexander explored Babylonia, which was the region that Darius had abandoned. The land had rich farmlands, palaces, and treasures. Alexander became "King of Babylon, King of Asia, King of the Four Quarters of the World."

Alexander next set out for Persepolis, the capital of the Persian Empire. To prevent an uprising, Alexander burned Persepolis. In the spring of 330 he marched to Darius's last capital, Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). There Alexander set off in pursuit of Darius.

By the time Alexander caught up with Darius in July 330, Darius's assistants had assassinated him. Alexander ordered a royal funeral with honors for his enemy. As Darius's successor, Alexander captured the assassins and punished them according to Persian law. Alexander was now the king of Persia, and he began to wear Persian royal clothing. As elsewhere, Alexander respected the local customs.

Iran and India

After defeating Darius, Alexander pushed eastward toward Iran. He conquered the region, built cities, and established colonies of Macedonians. In the spring of 327 B.C.E. he seized the fortress of Ariamazes and captured the prince Oxyartes. Alexander married Oxyartes's daughter Rhoxana to hold together his Eastern empire more closely in a political alliance.

In the summer of 327 Alexander marched toward India. In northern India, he defeated the armies of King Porus. Impressed with his bravery and nobility, Alexander allowed Porus to remain king and gained his loyalty.

By July 325 the army continued north to the harsh and barren land in the Persian Gulf. The hardship and death that occurred after arriving brought disorganization to the army. It was also at this time that disorder began to spread throughout the empire. Alexander was greatly concerned with the rule of his empire and the need for soldiers, officers, and administrators.

In order to strengthen the empire, Alexander then made an attempt to bind the Persian nobility to the Macedonians to create a ruling class. To accomplish this goal, he ordered eighty of his Macedonian companions to marry Persian princesses. Alexander, although married to Rhoxana, married Stateira, a daughter of Darius, to solidify his rule.

When Alexander incorporated thirty thousand Persians into the army, his soldiers grumbled. Later that summer, when he dismissed his aged and wounded Macedonian soldiers, the soldiers spoke out against Alexander's Persian troops and his Persian manners. Alexander arrested thirteen of their leaders and executed them. He then addressed the army and reminded his soldiers of their glories and honors. After three days the Macedonians apologized for their criticism. In a thanksgiving feast the Persians joined the Macedonians as forces of Alexander.

Alexander's death

In the spring of 323 B.C.E. Alexander moved to Babylon and made plans to explore the Caspian Sea and Arabia and then to conquer northern Africa. On June 2 he fell ill, and he died eleven days later.

Alexander's empire had been a vast territory ruled by the king and his assistants. The empire fell apart at his death. The Greek culture that Alexander introduced in the East had barely developed. In time, however, the Persian and Greek cultures blended and prospered as a result of his rule.

For More Information

Briant, Pierre. Alexander the Great. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.

Green, Peter. Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1974.

O'Brien, John Maxwell. Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge, 1992.

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Alexander the Great was one of the best-known rulers in ancient history. By the time of his death at thirty-two, he ruled the largest Western empire of the ancient world. Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. to King Philip II of Macedon (382-336 B.C.E. ) and Queen Olympias (375-316 B.C.E.

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by Andrew Hamilton

THE TERM Gordian knot refers to a problem most difficult of solution. It is a metaphor for an intractable problem.

To "cut the Gordian knot" means to solve a problem in an entirely original way, perhaps with one swift action, by rejecting or violating conventional rules that define the problem and its accepted range of solutions.[1] It also means to cut to the heart of a matter without wasting time on superfluous details.

Alexander the Great famously cut the Gordian knot, which nobody else had been able to undo, at Gordium, the capital city of ancient Phrygia located where the Royal Road crossed the Sangarius River 47 miles southwest of present-day Ankara, the capital of Turkey, thereby fulfilling the prophecy that whoever undid the knot would become master of Asia.[2]
The Hittites (Turkey)
Phyrgia occupied a major region of what was formerly the Hittite Empire, the earliest known civilization in Asia Minor and northern Syria. The Indo-European Hittites, an agricultural people, invaded the central plateau of Anatolia, probably from the region of the Caucasus, around 1900 BC and imposed their language, culture, and rule on the earlier non-Indo-European-speaking inhabitants.

The Hittites were known for their advanced system of government. Their military, too, was leading-edge; their chariots were the lightest and fastest of the time. The Hittites were possibly the first people to smelt iron. Their building materials were mostly stone and brick, but wooden columns were also used. Palaces, temples, and fortifications were frequently adorned with intricate, stylized carved reliefs on walls, gates, and entrances.

Until the dawn of the 20th century the primary sources of information about the Hittites came from Egyptian records, particularly those of the 19th Dynasty, and certain passages in the Old Testament. But in 1906 the Hittite royal archives were discovered in excavations at Boğazkale, Turkey. These made it possible to decipher the Hittite language, revealing information about previously unknown aspects of the culture, including political organization, legislation, religion, and literature. According to Professor Roger Pearson's Anthropological Glossary (1985):

The discovery of written Hittite records reveals the essentially Indo-European character of the upper classes, even though the indigenous peasantry retained their Hurrian language and customs. Practicing an essentially proto-feudal system, the Hittite kings granted large estates to members of the warrior nobility, who participated in the government of the empire by way of a council of nobles. As with other Indo-European societies, there was also a third political group which among the Hittites was known as the Pankus. This represented the assembly of the able-bodied heads of households [ families!] of true Hittite descent. The subject Hurrians, who continued to live in their Zadruga-type collective villages, appear to have been without political representation.

Ancient Hittite records show that the language, literature, and system of government were all highly developed. The Hittites rarely employed the death penalty or bodily mutilation, both common in the Middle East. In the main, Hittite justice rested on the principle of restitution rather than retribution or vengeance. Myths were similar to the Greek myths contained in the Theogony of the Greek poet Hesiod, and may have served as their prototypes.

By 1380-1346 BC the Hittite Kingdom had become a great empire rivaling those of Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria. It fell shortly after 1200 BC to Indo-European invaders known as the Sea Peoples, and Aryan Phrygians from the west. Many Hittite cultural elements survived until the Roman penetration into Anatolia in 190 BC, a century and a half after Alexander.
The Phrygians (Turkey)
The satrapy (province) of Phrygia was part of the Persian Empire in 330 BC. The empire's center, the Iranian plateau, had been settled about 1500 BC by Aryan tribes from the Eurasian steppes, the most important of which were the Medes and the Persians. The empire itself, founded c. 550 BC, grew into the most powerful and extensive in the ancient world. Persians adhered to their own religion, Zoroastrianism, the central feature of which was dualism.

The Persians constructed a vast network of roads to unite their sprawling kingdom. Gordium, the capital of the Phrygian satrapy, was situated on the Persian Royal Road that led through the heart of Anatolia. This sophisticated road network enabled mounted couriers to travel 2,000 miles in only seven days; an army on foot might require three months to traverse the same distance. In his Histories, the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484-425 BC) described the Persians' extraordinary courier system utilizing these highways, akin to the famed Pony Express of the American West:

There is nothing mortal which accomplishes a journey with more speed than these [royal] messengers, so skillfully has this been invented by the Persians. For they say that according to the number of days of which the entire journey consists, so many horses and men are set at intervals, each man and horse appointed for a day's journey. Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor darkness of night prevents them from accomplishing the task proposed to them with the very utmost speed. The first one rides and delivers the message with which he is charged to the second, and the second to the third; and after that it goes through them handed from one to the other, as in the torch race among the Greeks, which they perform for Hephaestus. This kind of running of their horses the Persians call angareion.

A variation of Herodotus' phrase inscribed on the New York City Post Office - "Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds" - is often thought of as the motto of the US Postal Service. A good account of the Persian Royal Road by a young scholar can be read here: " The Persian Royal Mail."

The Phrygian kingdom supplanted the Hittite Empire in Anatolia. It was settled by the Indo-European Phrygians who entered the area from Thrace, the eastern Balkan Peninsula largely uncultivated and covered by forest, including parts of Macedonia and Bulgaria, seizing control of the whole central tableland around 1200 BC.

Early in the 1st millennium BC Phrygia encompassed most of the Anatolian Peninsula, but it subsequently split into Greater and Lesser Phrygia. Gordium was the capital of Greater Phrygia, a high, barren plateau, the most fertile part of which was watered by the Sangarius River. Grapes were cultivated extensively, and Phrygian marble, celebrated in antiquity, was quarried.

The first archaeological excavation at Gordium was conducted by the German brothers Gustav and Alfred Körte in 1900. Subsequently, Rodney S. Young of the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology carried out extensive work between 1950 and 1973. Excavations have continued since then under the auspices of the Museum. Gordium is considered one of the most important archaeological sites in the Near East, on a scale rivaled by few others. The University of Pennsylvania maintains a website, Digital Gordion, containing a wealth of information about the excavations there.
Alexander the Great & the Macedonians
Alexander, the greatest general of the ancient world, was the son of King Phillip II of Macedon, a semi-barbarian, warrior state on the northern frontier of Greece.

Ancient Macedonians were an Indo-European people closely related to the Greeks, who lived in the area still known as Macedonia today and retained an essentially tribal monarchical structure long after Greece developed republican city-states. Though Macedonians proudly claimed to be Greek, they were considered somewhat uncouth and not fully part of the classical Greek culture by inhabitants of southern Greece. Thucydides and Herodotus regarded them either as northern Greeks, barbarians, or an intermediate group between pure Greeks and barbarians.

Attempts to classify the Macedonian language are complicated by the paucity of surviving ancient Macedonian texts, as it was primarily an oral language and most archeological inscriptions indicate there was no dominant written language other than Attic and later Koine Greek. Ancient Macedonian speech is thought to have been either a peripheral Greek dialect, a separate but related language, or a hybridized idiom. Apparently spoken Macedonian and Greek were sufficiently different that communication problems arose between Greek and Macedonian contingents, necessitating the use of interpreters as late as the time of Alexander the Great.

Preserving their cultural and genetic homogeneity, the Macedonians succeeded in subordinating Greece to their control and establishing a short-lived empire under Alexander.

Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne at age 20 in 336 BC. Temperamentally he was quite unlike his father. Philip had been a cautious, patient, often devious man who planned carefully before striking, whereas his youthful, headstrong son preferred to settle problems quickly. Like Hitler, Alexander acted decisively and with great speed, taking extraordinary risks in the process.

Originally intending only to destroy the Persian army, his objectives changed as his military campaign progressed; ultimately he decided to take over the entire Persian Empire and merge it with the Greek world, which he did.

Though tutored as a boy by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, he retained little of the latter's philosophical bent. Alexander ultimately created a political confederation designed to rule a vast, multiracial empire, whereas his teacher believed the city-state to be the ultimate unit of civilization.

One of the imperial devices Alexander employed was intermarriage between Macedonians and Persians. "Alexander's brides," William Pierce wrote in Who We Are (2012), "and presumably those of his officers as well, were of noble Persian blood, which, even as late as the fourth century BC, meant most of them were White." However, Pierce believed the bulk of the Persian population by that time was primarily mixed-race Asiatic, Semitic, and Aryan.
The Gordian Knot
In prehistoric times the legendary Gordius, the poor peasant father of the equally legendary Phrygian King Midas whose touch turned everything to gold, became king of Phrygia due to a divine omen involving an eagle and the pronouncements of an oracle. He happened to drive into Gordium's public square during a period of great civil unrest. An oracle had foretold a king would arrive in the people's midst in a wagon. Shortly thereafter Gordius appeared and was chosen king by acclamation.

Gordius tied his wagon in the temple of the god of the oracle on the acropolis, dedicating it to Zeus. An exceedingly complex knot was made, so that it was impossible to find the ends. An oracle declared that whoever untied the knot would rule over all Asia. Many tried to undo the knot, but failed. Alexander also tried and failed to unravel the knot in the conventional manner before cutting it with his sword. The tale of the Gordian knot bears a certain resemblance to the Arthurian myth of the sword in the stone.

Nevertheless, there seems no convincing reason to doubt the historicity of the event. It occurred at a known time and place, and though details vary from author to author and the backstory and oracular prophecy are rooted in legend, there is nothing supernatural about the description of the event itself, which is reported in natural terms by ancient writers.

Arrian, for example, states in The Anabasis of Alexander[3] that when the conqueror arrived at Gordium he had a strong desireto go up to the acropolis where the palace of Gordius and his sonMidaswas, to see Gordius' wagon and the knot tied to its yoke. After recounting the "strong [prehistoric] tradition" of the farmer Gordius, the sign of the eagle from Zeus, the birth of Midas, and the establishment of the Phrygian dynasty on the basis of an oracular prediction, Arrian states that "there was [also] a story about the wagon, that whoever undid the knot of the yoke of the wagon was destined to rule Asia":

Alexander was not able to discover how to undo the knot, but he did not wish to leave it still fastened, in case this provoked some disturbance amongst the many people there. Some writers say that he struck the knot with his sword and cut through itand claimed that it was now undone; however Aristobulus[a Greek historian who accompanied Alexander and wrote an account of his campaigns] says that Alexander took the peg from the pole, which was a bolt driven through the pole all the way, and which held the knot together; he then drew the yoke of the pole. I am not able to say for certain what exactly Alexander did about this knot, but he and his companions certainly returned from the wagon as ifthe oracle about the untying of the knot had been fulfilled. That very night there was thunder and lightning in the heavens; because of this on the next day Alexander offered sacrifice to the godsthat had shown these omens and also how to untie the knot.

In his Parallel Lives the Greek biographer (but Roman citizen) Plutarch devotes a paragraph to the event:

After this, he overpowered such of the Pisidians as had offered him resistance, and subdued Phrygia; and after he had taken the city of Gordium, reputed to have been the home of the ancient Midas, he saw the much-talked‑of waggon bound fast to its yoke with the bark of the cornel-tree, and heard a story confidently told about it by the Barbarians, to the effect that whosoever loosed the fastening was destined to become king of the whole world. Well, then, most writers say that since the fastenings had their ends concealed, and were intertwined many times in crooked coils, Alexander was at a loss how to proceed, and finally loosened the knot by cutting it through with his sword, and that when it was thus smitten many ends were to be seen. But Aristobulus says that he undid it very easily, by simply taking out the so‑called "hestor," or pin, of the waggon-pole, by which the yoke-fastening was held together, and then drawing away the yoke.

In sum, the episode of the Gordian knot is situated in history; it is typically not dealt with in books about classical mythology at all.
Cutting the Gordian Knot
The Gordian knot symbolizes an intractable problem, and "cutting the knot" means solving it in an unforeseen, unconventional, and, if necessary, arbitrary manner.

Despite the surprisingly nuanced historical background, in contemporary lore Alexander unquestionably fulfilled the prophecy by slicing the knot with his sword. That is how virtually everyone understands the tale. Indeed, Plutarch said that "most writers say" Alexander did cut the knot with his sword.

Consequently, the perception that Alexander's cutting of the knot was illegitimate or underhanded is often expressed. As one online blogger put it: "To me this is at once brilliant - but also 'cheating.'"

The 19th-century English Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon referred to "many gordian knots which wicked men may cut, and which righteous men may try to unravel, but which God alone can untie."

Popular science writer Martin Gardner, who specialized in mathematical puzzles and games, scathingly condemned the youthful conqueror's "contemptible" "puzzle brigandage," "the high-handed manner in which Alexander the Great, competing in a puzzle contest, proceeded to make himself the umpire and awarded himself the prize for his absurd solution."

Similarly, the walleyed French Communist intellectual Jean-Paul Sartre alluded to German philosopher Martin Heidegger's "abrupt, rather barbaric fashion of cutting Gordian knots rather than trying to untie them," and French existentialist Albert Camus said that "It is up to us if the West is to bring forth any anti-Alexanders to tie together the Gordian Knot of civilization cut by the sword."

While such views are easily understood, and make sense within the Alexandrian context, the more serious questions raised by the story in light of the necessity of a struggle against an enemy who refuses to fight fair are:

Who is the foe?

How does he think and behave?

Who specifies the crooked "rules" of the game? Is the enemy the only one who makes them - and then violates them as often as he pleases . . . i.e., most of the time?

What do you do when you are attacked by thugs, whether non-White criminal gangs, antifas, socially-sanctified Jewish destroyers elevated to the status of demigods, or authorities equipped with SWAT gear and military weapons backed by the full power of the state?

Our own partisans and problem solvers must deal, eventually, with the massive Gordian knot of genocide - for that is what it is - as well as the countless Gordian knots enshrouding it, all of which are impossible to unravel by conventional means following heads-they-win-tails-you-lose rules.

Ruthlessly cast out, exorcised before the knot can be cut and a new day dawn, must be the groveling mindset of the courtier, the bizarre conviction (even among atheists and anti-Christians) that Jews are demigods not to be treated like Whites or members of any other race (Alexander, too, established himself as a quasi-divinity), reflexive conformity unto death, and blind obedience to perceived authority.

Desperately needed is the fortitude to see things as they are without illusions of any kind, intense outrage at gross injustice, old-fashioned Yankee ingenuity and creativity in the service of ideological-social-political objectives as opposed to technical, mechanical, or professional ones, and social and moral courage as opposed to the physical kind, which remains in such plentiful supply that it too often degenerates into simple foolhardiness and jack-asininity.

It has been said that Alexander justified his act by proclaiming that it did not matter how the knot was undone. While not true in his case, under different circumstances there clearly are situations where not unsheathing one's sword and cleaving the Gordian knot is immoral.

Otherwise, you're simply granting a license to evil.
Related Reading
Andrew Hamilton, " The No-Win Situation & the Kobayashi Maru Solution" (2014)

Andrew Hamilton, " The Racial Makeup of the Turks " (2011)
Notes
1. Instead of "in one swift action" I originally wrote "in one fell swoop." The Phrase Finder informs us:

This is one of those phrases that we may have picked up early in our learning of the language and probably worked out its meaning from the context in which we heard it, without any clear understanding of what each word meant. Most native English speakers could say what it means but, if we look at it out of context, it doesn't appear to make a great deal of sense. So, what's that "fell"? [An example is provided of a hunting bird swooping to kill its prey.] It's an old word, in use by the 13th century, that's now fallen out of use other than in this phrase, and is the common root of the term "felon." The Oxford English Dictionary defines "fell" as meaning "fierce, savage; cruel, ruthless; dreadful, terrible." We have rather lost the original meaning and use it now to convey suddenness rather than savagery.

Fierceness, ruthlessness, and terribleness matching those of our foes are crucial - regrettably, there is no way around it - to the successful slicing of our own Gordian knot(s). The enemy has defined the deadly nature of the conflict, leaving us no choice but to accept their terms.

2. "Asia" in the prophecy referred to present-day Asia Minor (Turkey), not the rest of Alexander's conquests or Western Asia as we define the region today.

3. Arrian (c. 86-160 AD) was a Roman-era, ethnically Greek historian from northwestern Turkey. His Anabasis, not to be confused with the Anabasis of the Greek military leader Xenophon from the 5th-4th century BC, is probably the best and most complete ancient account of the military campaigns of Alexander.

* * *

Source: Author and Counter-Currents

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by Andrew Hamilton THE TERM Gordian knot refers to a problem most difficult of solution. It is a metaphor for an intractable problem.

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What it was.
A tactical system or formation consisting of a block of heavy armed infantry standing shoulder to shoulder in files several ranks deep.

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Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont with his combined Macedonian and Greek forces and stepped upon the shores of Anatolia. His goal was simple: to defeat King Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenids, and conquer the vast Persian Empire. In May of 334 BCE he had his first opportunity when he faced the Persians on the banks of the River Granicus.

After the death of his father Phillip II of Macedonia, Alexander set his sights on the Persian Empire seeking revenge, or so he claimed, for the invasion of his homeland by Darius I and Xerxes decades before. Upon stabilizing rebellious conditions among the various Greek city-states, he crossed the Hellespont and travelled along the northern coast of Anatolia (present day Turkey) avoiding the mountain ranges of the northern uplands to the site of ancient Troy. Little of him was known to the Persians and King Darius felt little or no inclination to meet him, believing, instead, his trusted commander, Memnon, and the local satraps could handle the young upstart. Besides, the newly appointed king was more concerned with possible rebellion and unrest among the local satraps.

In his The Life of Alexander the Great historian Plutarch discussed Alexander's trip to Troy where he honored Homer's hero Achilles. Plutarch wrote:

He passed the Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Minerva, and honoured the memory of the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations, especially Achilles, whose gravestone be anointed, and with his friends, as the ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulcher, and crowned it with garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having while he lived so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to proclaim his actions.

While Alexander and his men were at Troy, the Persians held a council of local satraps to discuss the arrival of the young Macedonian and possible strategies to defend against him. Memnon, a high-ranking Greek mercenary loyal to Darius, suggested applying a burned-earth policy -- to destroy crops, farms, and villages -- depriving Alexander of any possible provisions. The local satraps rejected the idea in part because Memnon was Greek but also because they did not want their lands destroyed. The Persians, of course, considered themselves far superior to the invading Greeks. The council decided to put the arriving Macedonians on the defensive by gathering their combined forces and wait for Alexander at the River Grancius. The Granicus was roughly sixty feet wide with both a fast current and steep embankments, providing, what they thought to be, an advantage for themselves.

The battle would begin in the afternoon but would last barely an hour.

After receiving word from his scouts of the Persians' location at Granicus, Alexander advanced towards the river; he had come to realize that he must defeat the Persians to gain the necessary resources to continue on his quest of conquering Persia. As the Macedonian forces neared the river, Parmenion, one of Alexander's most loyal generals and commander of his left flank, advised Alexander they should wait until morning before attacking. Alexander replied, according to Plutarch, that it would "disgrace the Hellespont should he fear the Granicus." The historian Arrian spoke of this encounter by saying that Alexander realized that the Persians did not fear him because they did not know him. Alexander rejected Parmenion's plea, the battle would begin that afternoon but would last barely an hour. Although numbers vary among the various ancient sources, modern accounts number the Persians at 10,000 cavalry and 5,000 Greek mercenary infantry. Alexander's forces numbered 13,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry.

One unique and problematic situation for the Persians was the positioning of their cavalry on the banks of the Granicus; the Greek mercenary infantry -- 5,000 strong -- was placed behind them. Some historians believe this idea cost the Persians the battle. The Persian cavalry could neither move forward because of the river banks nor pull back because of the location of the infantry. In addition, the one weapon unique to the Persians, the scythed chariot, was almost useless on the muddy riverbank. Was this a tactical error or pure arrogance? Together with the lack of true leadership -- besides Memnon -- the battle was lost before it was begun.

According to Arrian and other sources, Alexander made himself extremely conspicuous both by the "brightness of his arms" and the "respectful countenance of his staff." He was also quite noticeable by the large white plume on his helmet. This conspicuousness did not escape the Persians whose major objective became to kill Alexander.

For a brief moment, both armies stood across from each other in silence. Alexander had lined his forces on the western banks of the river -- Parmenion commanded the left while Alexander (with his eight bodyguards), his Companion cavalry forces, and light troops stationed themselves on the far right. In the center of the traditional phalanx were the Thessalian cavalry and additional light troops. Alexander became the aggressor sending, from the center, Companion cavalry, lancers and light troops across the river first. The Persians responded with a hail of arrows and javelins. They were intent upon attacking the Macedonians in the water where the footing was slippery and difficult. Memnon himself led the Persian centre. As more Persians joined the attack against the Macedonian centre, attention was drawn away from Alexander. Although causing considerable damage to the attacking centre, the Persian weaponry did not match well against the Macedonians - light javelins versus fifteen foot lances.

Amid the sound of trumpets, Alexander and his men plunged into the water and up the opposing bank diagonally. Arrian wrote:

He himself led the right wing with sounding of trumpets, and the men raising the war-cry to Enyallus, He entered the ford, keeping his line always extended obliquely in the direction in which the stream turned itself aside, in order that the Persians might not fall upon him as he was emerging from the water with his men in column, but that he himself might, as far as practicable, encounter them with a broad line.

Upon arriving on the opposite bank of the river, the fight turned to a hand-to-hand confrontation. Although suffering a number of casualties, Alexander began to gain the advantage, and many of the Persians began to retreat. Throughout the battle, however, the Greek mercenary infantry remained in its position and did not move.

As Alexander rose from the waters of the Granicus, he noticed Mithridates, Darius's son-in- law, riding with a squadron of cavalry -- detached from the main Persian forces. Alexander attacked, slashing Mithridates across the face. Rhoesaces, a Persian satrap commander, noticed the attack upon Mithridates and raised his sword at Alexander, slicing off part of his plume and cracking his helmet. Alexander quickly ran him through. Spithridates, another Persian commander, raised his own weapon to attack Alexander but Cleitus the Black attacked him first, severing Spithridates's arm, saving Alexander's life. With the loss of a number of their leaders, the Persians became disorganized and with morale destroyed retreated.

As the Persians fell back, Alexander, instead of pursuing the retreating Persians, turned his attention to the Greek mercenaries who, in turn, pleaded for mercy. Parmenion with the Thessalians encircled to the left of the Greeks while Alexander and his Companions positioned themselves to the right. Plutarch spoke of this encounter saying:

The mercenary Greeks, who, making a stand upon a rising ground, desired quarter, which Alexander, guided rather by passion than judgment refused to grant, and charging them himself first, had his horse (not Bucephalus) killed under him. And this obstinacy of his to cut off these experienced desperate men cost him the lives of more of his own soldiers than all the battle before, besides those who were wounded.

Of the five thousand Greek mercenaries only two thousand survived, and they were sent to Macedonia to work the mines; the rest were slaughtered. Why did Alexander ignore the pleas of the mercenaries? Some believe he wanted to make a point for their taking Persian money while others say it was mostly anger and the near death experience that provoked him.

The spoils of war -- gold and rich cloth -- were sent home to Alexander's mother. To honor all who had died in battle Alexander buried both Greek and Persians alike (although the Persians normally burned their dead). According to adjusted modern accounts, the Persians lost ten to twenty percent of their forces and two-thirds of their commanders. Sources concerning Alexander are varied -- twenty-five to thirty Companions -- possibly one hundred twenty in total. Back home, statues honoring the twenty-five fallen Companions were erected at the sanctuary of Zeus at Dium near Mount Olympus. Three-hundred suits of Persian armour were sent home to Athens to remind the Greeks that Granicus were only one step in the war of revenge against the Persians.

After Granicus there was little resistance against Alexander and his forces. Soon, however, he would meet the King of Persia himself. In November of 333 BCE, Alexander and Darius would face each other at Issus.

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Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont with his combined Macedonian and Greek forces and stepped upon the shores of Anatolia. His goal was simple: to defeat King Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenids, and conquer the vast Persian Empire.

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Question 7: Alexander and his experience in Egypt.

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Question 7: Alexander and his experience in Egypt.

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Alexander The Great: Early Life

Alexander III of Macedon or who commonly known Alexander the Great Was the king of the great ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon. He was born in Pella in 356 BC. Most of his role life was spent in military campaigns through Asia and Northeast Africa, he managed to form one of the most powerful empires in the ancient ages when he was only thirty, stretching from Greece to northwest India, he is considered as one of the history's most successful military commanders.

Alexander's Legacy includes the cultural diffusion which his conquests engendered. He established twenty cities that carry his name, most popular is Alexandria in Egypt. His legendary as a classical hero in the achilles and he always featured importantly in the history of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became an icon for the military leaders to compare with his performance.
Nowadays, the military academies all over the world still teach his tactics in wars thus he ranked among the most influential people in history.

Alexander The Great and Egypt

He arrived in Egypt in 332 BC. After defeating the Persian emperor Darius for control of Syria and the Levant, Alexander marched to Egypt. At the time, Egypt was a satrapy in the Persian Empire, held loosely under Persian control since the decline of the Ancient Egyptian Empire at the end of the 7th century BC. Alexander and his army of Greeks were regarded as liberators and to cement the Oracle of Amun at Siwa Oasis pronounced him the new 'master of the universe' and a descendent of the Egyptian god Amun.

Alexander did not stay in Egypt long. By 331 BC he was on his way west to complete his conquest of the Persian Empire, but the impact of his conquest in Egypt was significant. Alexander respected Egyptian culture and religion, but he installed a Greek government to control his administration of Egypt. Greek influence in Egypt was reinforced by the settlement of Greek veterans throughout Egypt, where they became a privileged aristocracy that gradually assimilated with the Egyptians. Alexander also founded a new Greek capital, Alexandria, located on the Mediterranean at the mouth of the Nile.

Although Alexander would never return to Egypt, dying in Babylon in 323 BC, the Greek rule that he established proved more enduring. In the crisis after Alexander's death, Ptolomy, one of his generals, claimed Egypt as his kingdom and established hereditary rule. The Ptolomaic Dynasty would last until the Romans conquered Egypt in 32 BC.

Alexandria emerged as a great city in the Mediterranean and a center of Hellenism, spreading Greek learning and culture. It was the site of the legendary Ancient Library of Alexandria and the Pharos Lighthouse, which was built on the site where Qaitbey Citadel stands today.

Alexander the Great: Military History

Alexander the great has a legendary record of undefeated wars , first against the achaemenid Persian under the command of Darius III then, against local chieftains and arlords as far east as punjab, India, this Alexander regarded one of the most successful military commanders in history. Despite his military victories, he failed to provide an alternative to Achaemenid empire. After his death his huge territories he conquered threw them into civil war.

Alexander takeover the kingship of Macedonia following the death of his father Philip II, who unified most of the city states of mainland Greece under Macedonian called Hellenic League. After uniting city-states of Macedonia after his father death, Alexander set out east against the Achaemenid Persian Empire under the "king of kings" Darius II, who he defeated and overthrew.
His conquests include Anatolia, Syria, Gaza, Egypt, Persia and he extended the borders of his empire to Punjab, India.

As a brilliant military commander, Alexander the great had made before his death for military expansions into the arabian peninsula, However, Alexander's diadochi abandoned these plans after his death. then, they started to fight with each other, dividing up the empire between themselves and continue 40 years of wars.

Famous Quotes

There is nothing impossible to him who will try.

I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well.

Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of al

I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion

Explore the History of Alexander the Great in Egypt through one of our Egypt Tour Packages!

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Alexander The Great: Early Life Alexander III of Macedon or who commonly known Alexander the Great Was the king of the great ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedon. He was born in Pella in 356 BC.

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The Battle of Issus (5th November, 333 BCE) was Alexander the Great's second battle against the Persian army and the first direct engagement with King Darius III, near the village of Issus in southern modern-day Turkey. It was a major victory for Alexander, defeating the Persian army and causing Darius III to flee the battlefield.

After the death of his father and his ascension to the Macedonian throne, Alexander's first order of business was to pursue his father's dream -- the conquest of the Persian Empire. Using the excuse that he was seeking revenge for the invasion of Greece by Darius I and Xerxes, Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor. As he moved southward he defeated the Persian forces at Granicus and Halicarnassus. His next major confrontation would be at Issus in November 333 BCE. This battle would be the first of two meetings between Alexander the Great and King Darius of Persia -- both would end in a defeat of the Persian forces.

When Alexander learned of Darius's presence in the agricultural-rich land surrounding Issus, he quickly moved southward from Gordium through the Cilician Gates to the port town of Issus. Although the battle itself would be further south on a narrow plain between the Mediterranean Sea and the Amanus Mountains, the port served as a base camp for Alexander's forces. It was there that he left a number of wounded and sick to recover. Later, as Darius marched his troops to meet Alexander at the River Penarus, the Persian king stopped at the Greek base camp where he tortured and executed the recuperating Macedonian soldiers, cutting off the right hand of those who were allowed to live. This act would serve as a further incentive to Alexander's army to defeat the Persians.

The two armies met at the River Penarus; the weather was rainy and cold.

Focusing on his rendezvous with Alexander, Darius moved north from Babylon to an area east of the Issus River. Basing her estimates on ancient sources, historian Ruth Sheppard has Darius with an estimated army of between 300,000 and 600,000 as well as 30,000 Greek mercenaries while more modern numbers are from 25,000 to 100,000 with only 10,000 Greek mercenaries. Although he considered waiting there for Alexander, Darius changed his mind hoping to separate Alexander from his base at Issus and thereby isolating him. Alexander had marched south from Issus toward Syria, but after confirming the presence of Darius at Issus, he turned back to the north. Darius moved further south into the narrow strip of land west of the Amanus, thereby placing his forces at a disadvantage. The two armies met at the River Penarus; the weather was rainy and cold. The area did, however, provide a distinct advantage for Alexander because not only did it reduce Darius's mobility but he could also spread out his own troops.

Plutarch, in his The Life of Alexander the Great, spoke of this advantage and the victory it would soon bring when he said:

Fortune was not kinder to Alexander in the choice of ground, than he was careful to improve it to his advantage. For being much inferior in numbers, so far from allowing himself to be outflanked, he stretched his right wing much further out than the left wing of his enemies, and fighting there himself in the very foremost ranks, put the barbarians to flight.

Unfortunately for Darius, he had ignored the advice of Charidamus, one of his trusted Greek generals, who had told Darius to divide his forces and allow him (Charidamus) to fight alone against Alexander. Darius ignored this suggestion for what some see as a matter of ego and prestige. He could not lose to this young Greek upstart. After being ignored, Charidamus made the mistake of a few ill-chosen comments about Persians. Darius, who spoke Greek and perfectly understood the comments, was offended and immediately had his general executed -- something many consider as unwise because Charidamus was viewed at one of Darius's most capable generals.

The entire battle did not go well for Darius. Despite the advantage of numbers, he and his men were soon on the defensive, unable to maneuver as they would have liked. Darius's left flank was hampered by the river valley, mountains on his left and the sea on his right.

Alexander, on the other hand, was able to use his trusted phalanx formation. His right flank extended to the mountains and his left to the sea. He had three battalions on the right and four to the left with heavy infantry in the middle. After viewing Alexander's formation, Darius moved his cavalry to attack Alexander's right with hopes of breaking through his right flank. Although hampered by the river bank and stockades erected by Darius, Alexander and his Companion cavalry moved quickly through the Darius's left flank. Attempts to drive Alexander back across the Pinarus failed. Historian Arrian in his The Campaigns of Alexander said:

Darius' Greeks fought to thrust the Macedonians back into the water and save the day for their left wing, in their turn, with Alexander's triumph plan before their eyes, were determined to equal his success and not forfeit the proud title of invincible, hitherto universally bestowed upon them.

Alexander and his forces turned toward the Persian center where he spotted Darius. Although Darius's brother Oxathres attempted to block Alexander's charge, he failed. Darius fled the battle at first in his chariot and then on horseback. Despite a serious thigh wound, Alexander would pursue him until nightfall but returned empty-handed. Meanwhile, Alexander's left flank, under the leadership of Parmenion, was having problems with Darius's right. However, when the Persian forces saw their leader flee, they fled, too; many were trampled to death in the mass exit. In all the Persians lost 100,000 foot soldiers and 10,000 cavalry while Alexander only lost 1,200. These numbers are, as before, Greek estimates. Modern estimates are more reasonable having Darius lose around 20,000 and Alexander 7,000.The Persians left so hurriedly that there was much plunder awaiting Alexander and his men. Plutarch said:

...Darius's tent, which was full of splendid furniture and qualities of gold and silver, they (his soldiers) reserved for Alexander himself, who, after he had put off his arms, went to bathe himself saying, 'Let us now cleanse ourselves from the toils of war in the bath of Darius.

There was more than gold and silver, however, left behind -- Darius's mother, his wife, and two daughters were found in Darius's tent, but Alexander promised them that they would come to no harm. Plutarch wrote:

... (Alexander) let them know Darius was not dead, and that they need not fear any harm from Alexander, who made war upon him only for dominion; they should themselves be provided with everything they had been used to receive from Darius.

Although Darius sought the return of his family, promising Alexander half of his kingdom, Alexander refused. Instead, Alexander challenged him to stand and fight, and they would meet a second time at Gaugamela where Darius would again flee, but this time he would meet his death by one of his own -- Bessus.

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The Battle of Issus (5th November, 333 BCE) was Alexander the Great's second battle against the Persian army and the first direct engagement...

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Question 9: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located

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Question 9: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located

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Question 11: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located

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Question 11: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located

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Question 12: Explains how large the empire was and include a map of the territory

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Question 12: Explains how large the empire was and include a map of the territory

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2 million square miles.

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Question 10: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located.

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Question 10: 1 Example of artwork and where it is currently located.

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A clinician has hailed his death the "most famous case of pseudothanatos, or false diagnosis of death, ever recorded."

The death of Alexander the Great has flummoxed historians for millennia. The ancient Greeks marveled at how, six days after he was pronounced dead, the ancient king's body didn't decompose. His contemporaries ruled him a deity, but a new theory suggests that in reality, Alexander just wasn't dead yet.

Dr. Katherine Hall, a senior lecturer at the Dunedin School of Medicine at the University of Otago, New Zealand, posits instead that though the ruler wasn't really dead at first, he certainly appeared to be.

Hall suggested that Alexander, who died in Babylon in 323 B.C., suffered from a rare autoimmune disorder known as Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS). The conqueror exhibited strange symptoms, including fever, abdominal pain, and progressive paralysis that left him immobile but still completely sound mentally just eight days after falling ill.

"I have worked for five years in critical care medicine and have seen probably about 10 cases [of GBS]. The combination of ascending paralysis with normal mental ability is very rare and I have only seen it with GBS," Hall reported.

Hall posited that Alexander contracted the disorder from an infection of Campylobacter pylori which was a common bacterium of his time, and which today, is treatable with antibiotics.

Other historians have considered typhoid, malaria, assassination or alcohol poisoning as the impetus behind the conqueror's strange illness prior to his death.

But Hall's article in the Ancient History Bulletin asserted that the rare autoimmune disorder best explains why Alexander didn't decompose when he was supposedly dead because he was still mentally competent.

Since doctors in the fourth century had few methods of determining whether a person was alive or dead - besides physical movement and presence or absence of breath - Hall is convinced that the death of Alexander the Great may have been falsely declared nearly an entire week before he actually died simply because the disease had paralyzed him.

"I wanted to stimulate new debate and discussion and possibly rewrite the history books by arguing Alexander's real death was six days later than previously accepted," said Hall in a statement from the University of Otago.

This phenomenon of "false diagnosis of death" is known as pseudothanatos, and according to Hall, Alexander the Great's death may be the most famous case of it "ever recorded."

For Hall, all the other predominant theories around the death of Alexander the Great may do a good enough job of addressing some symptoms but they nonetheless ignore others. But the GBS theory, Hall asserted, provides us with an all-encompassing foundation for Alexander the Great's condition before and after death.

"The enduring mystery of his cause of death continues to attract both public and scholastic interest," she said. "The elegance of the GBS diagnosis for the cause of his death is that it explains so many, otherwise diverse elements, and renders them into a coherent whole."

Unfortunately for Alexander though, if Hall's theory is correct, that means the military genius was still in some state of consciousness while his soldiers prepared him for burial. But who doesn't want to witness their own funeral, right?
After reading about this new theory on how Alexander the Great died, take a look at declassified satellite images showing the lost city of Alexander the Great in modern-day Iraqi-Kurdistan. Then, read about Alexander the Great's bad-ass mother, Olympias.

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New Theory Posits Alexander The Great Was Actually Alive For Nearly A Week Following His "Death"

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The death of Alexander the Great has flummoxed historians for millennia. The ancient Greeks marveled at how, six days after he was pronounced dead, the ancient king's body didn't decompose. His contemporaries ruled him a deity, but a new theory suggests that in reality, Alexander just wasn't dead yet.

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Question 14: Explains what happened to his kingdom after his death

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Question 14: Explains what happened to his kingdom after his death

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Question 15: Why do you think think Alexander is called the "Great"

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Question 15: Why do you think think Alexander is called the "Great"

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(Image credit: Image courtesy Wikimedia, from an ancient mosaic in Pompeii, Italy)

Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan.

During his reign, Alexander the Great had a massive impact in his time and sent ripples into the future. "In a reign of 13 years Alexander shot across the Greek and Middle Eastern firmament like a meteor, transforming whatever he - often brutally - touched and ensuring the ancient world and so eventually our world could never be the same again," Paul Cartledge, A.G. Leventis professor of Greek culture at Cambridge University, wrote in All About History magazine.

Alexander's triumphs also made him a legendary figure and an inspiration for future generations. "Until the internet age, Alexander the Great was probably the most famous human being who ever lived," Cartledge wrote. "His astounding career of conquest inspired not just Caesar and Augustus but also Mark Antony, Napoleon, Hitler and other would-be world conquerors from the West."
Related: Has the tomb of Alexander the Great's mom been found?
Yet, despite his military accomplishments, ancient records say that he failed to win the respect of some of his subjects, wrote Pierre Briant, emeritus professor of history at Collège de France, in "Alexander the Great and His Empire" (Princeton University Press, 2010) and, furthermore, he had some of the people closest to him murdered.

"The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox," Susan Abernethy of The Freelance History Writer told Live Science. "He had great charisma and force of personality but his character was full of contradictions, especially in his later years (his early 30s). However, he had the ability to motivate his army to do what seemed to be impossible."

Where was Alexander the Great from?

Alexander was born around July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella in modern-day northern Greece, which was the administrative capital of ancient Macedonia. He was the son of King Philip II and Olympias (one of Philip's seven or eight wives) and was brought up with the belief that he was of divine birth. "From his earliest days, Olympias had encouraged him to believe that he was a descendent of heroes and gods. Nothing he had accomplished would have discouraged this belief," wrote Guy MacLean Rogers, a professor of classics at Wellesley College, Massachusetts, in his book "" (Random House, 2004).

Alexander's father was often away, conquering neighboring territories and putting down revolts. Nevertheless, King Philip II of Macedon was one of Alexander's most influential role models, Abernethy said. "Philip ensured Alexander was given a noteworthy and significant education. He arranged for Alexander to be tutored by Aristotle himself ... His education infused him with a love of knowledge, logic, philosophy, music and culture. The teachings of Aristotle [would later aid] him in the treatment of his new subjects in the empires he invaded and conquered, allowing him to admire and maintain these disparate cultures."

Alexander watched his father campaign nearly every year and win victory after victory. Philip remodeled the Macedonian army from citizen-warriors into a professional organization, wrote Ian Worthington, professor of history and archaeology at Macquarie University, in "Philip II of Macedonia" (Yale University Press, 2010). Philip suffered serious wounds in battle, such as the loss of an eye, a broken shoulder and a damaged leg, according to Worthington.

Philip decided to leave his 16-year-old son in charge of Macedonia while he was away on campaign, Cartledge wrote in his book "Alexander the Great" (Overlook Press, 2004). Alexander took advantage of the opportunity by defeating a Thracian people called the Maedi and founding "Alexandroupolis," a city he named after himself.

"Alexander felt the need to challenge his father's authority and superiority and wished to out-do his father," Abernethy said.

Ancient records, such as Plutarch's "," indicate that Alexander and Philip became estranged later in Alexander's teenage years. "Alexander may have resented his father's many marriages and the children born from them, seeing them as a threat to his own position," said Abernethy. At one point his mother Olympia was exiled to Epirus in western Greece.

Philip was assassinated in 336 B.C. while celebrating the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra (not the famous Egyptian pharaoh). The person who stabbed him was said to have been one of Philip's former male lovers, named Pausanias. While the ancient Greek historian Cleitarchus pointed to jealousy and betrayal as the motive, as outlined by Diodorus Siculus in " Library of History," other ancient sources like Justin in " Epitome of the Philippic History Of Pompeius Trogus" suspected that Pausanias may have been part of a larger plot to kill the king - one that may have included Alexander and his mother.

At the time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading the Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, which at its peak stretched from the Balkan peninsula to modern-day Pakistan and had repeatedly attempted to conquer the Greek world. Philip's dream was passed onto Alexander, partly via his mother Olympias, according to Abernethy. "She fostered in him a burning dynastic ambition and told him it was his destiny to invade Persia."

Upon his father's death, Alexander moved quickly to consolidate power. He gained the support of the Macedonian army and intimidated the Greek city states that Philip had conquered into accepting his rule. After campaigns in the Balkans and Thrace, Alexander moved against Thebes, a city in Greece that had risen up in rebellion. He conquered it in 335 B.C. and had the city destroyed.

With Greece and the Balkans pacified, he was ready to launch a campaign against the Persian Empire.

Conquering the Persian Empire

While Alexander may have had his own reasons for expanding eastward, "his official reason for wanting to conquer the Achaemenid Persian Empire... was to lead the allied Greeks in a war of liberation: to free forever from Persian control the Greek cities along the Anatolian coast and on the island of Cyprus, and in so doing also to exact revenge for the Persians' invasion of Greece under Great King Xerxes in 480-479 BCE," Cartledge wrote.

But ironically, Alexander often fought Greek mercenaries while campaigning against Darius III, the king of Persia. Even more ironically,, a city that had famously lost its king and 300 warriors in the Battle of Thermopylae during a Persian invasion attempt, also opposed Alexander, going so far as to seek Persian help in the Spartans' efforts to overthrow him, according to Siculus.

Nevertheless, Alexander was hugely successful against Persia. The first major battle he won against the Perisans was in 334 B.C. at the Battle of Granicus, fought in modern-day western Turkey, not far from the ancient city of . The ancient Greek historian Arrian wrote that Alexander defeated a force of 20,000 Persian horsemen and an equal number of foot soldiers. He then advanced down the coast of west Turkey, taking cities and depriving the Persian navy of bases.

The second key battle he won - and perhaps the most important - was the Battle of Issus, fought in 333 B.C. near the ancient town of Issus in southern Turkey, close to modern-day Syria. In that battle, the Persians were led by Darius III himself. Arrian estimated that Darius had a force of 600,000 troops (probably wildly exaggerated) and initially positioned himself on a great plain where he could mass his force effectively against Alexander, who hesitated to give battle.

Darius is said to have thought this as a sign of timidity. "One courtier after another incited Darius, declaring that he would trample down the Macedonian army with his cavalry," Arrian wrote. So, Darius gave up his position and chased Alexander. At first this went well, and Darius's soldiers got in the rear of Alexander's force. However, Darius's army had been led to a narrow spot where the Persians could not use their superior numbers effectively, and at that point Alexander moved his force against the Persians. Alexander's experienced army proved too strong for the Persian force, and eventually Darius fled, along with his army.

In his haste, Darius left much of his family behind, including his mother, wife, infant son and two daughters. Alexander ordered that they be "honored, and addressed as royalty," Arrian wrote. After the battle, Darius offered Alexander a ransom for his family and alliance, through marriage.

Arrian wrote that Alexander rebuked Darius in writing, saying "in the future whenever you send word to me, address yourself to me as King of Asia and not as an equal, and let me know, as the master of all that belonged to you, if you have need of anything."

Pharaoh of Egypt

Alexander then moved south along the eastern Mediterranean, continuing a strategy designed to deprive the Persians of their naval bases. Many cities surrendered, but some, such as, which was on an island in modern-day Lebanon, put up a fight and forced Alexander to lay siege.

In 332 B.C., after Gaza was taken by siege, Alexander entered Egypt, a country that had experienced on-and-off periods of Persian rule for two centuries. On its northern coast, he founded Alexandria, the most successful city he ever built. Arrian wrote that "a sudden passion for the project seized him, and he himself marked out where the agora was to be built and decided how many temples were to be erected and to which gods they were to be dedicated...".

Alexander claimed the title of pharaoh, and according to Cartledge, looked to attach himself to the line of Egyptian rulers through a traditional ceremony. "Almost certainly he had himself crowned pharaoh in the old Egyptian capital of Memphis, thereby not only ingratiating himself with the Egyptian masses but also enfolding the old and still powerful Egyptian priesthood in the embrace of his new Egyptian monarchy," Cartledge wrote.

Battle of Gaugamela

With the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt under his control, , Alexander successfully deprived the Persians of naval bases and was free to move inland to conquer the eastern half of the Persian Empire.

At the Battle of Gaugamela, fought in 331 B.C. in northern Iraq near present-day Erbil, Alexander faced as many as 1 million troops, according to Arrian (modern scholars' estimates vary but put the total closer to 100,000 against roughly 50,000 soldiers for Alexander). Darius brought soldiers from all over his empire, and even beyond. Scythian horsemen from the Persian Empire's northern borders faced Alexander, as did "Indian" troops (as the ancient writers called them) who were probably from modern-day Pakistan.

The battle soon became a war of nerves. "For a brief period the fighting was hand to hand, but when Alexander and his horseman pressed the enemy hard, shoving the Persians and striking their faces with spears, and the Macedonian phalanx, tightly arrayed and bristling with pikes, was already upon them, Darius, who had long been in a state of dread, now saw terrors all around him; he wheeled about - the first to do so - and fled," Arrian wrote. From that point on the Persian army started to collapse and the Persian king fled, with Alexander in hot pursuit.

Darius was later betrayed by one of his satraps, or regional governors, named Bessus (who then claimed kingship over what was left of Persia), and was killed by his own troops in 330 B.C..

Alexander wanted a peaceful transition of power in Persia following Darius's defeat. He needed to have the appearance of legitimacy to appease the people, so Alexander provided a noble burial for Darius.

"[Providing noble burials] was a common practice by Alexander and his generals when they took over the rule of different areas of the empire," Abernethy said.

Alexander was influenced by the teachings of his tutor, Aristotle, whose philosophy of Greek ethos did not require forcing Greek culture on the colonized. "Alexander would take away the political autonomy of those he conquered but not their culture or way of life. In this way, he would gain their loyalty by honoring their culture, even after the conquest was complete, creating security and stability. Alexander himself even adopted Persian dress and certain Persian customs," Abernethy said.

Wishing to incorporate the most easterly portions of the Persian Empire into his own, Alexander campaigned in central Asia from 330 and 327 B.C.. It was a rocky, frost-bitten conflict, which raised tensions within his own army, and led to Alexander killing two of his closest friends.

Why did Alexander kill his friends?

Alexander killing Parmenio, his former second in command, and Cleitus, the Macedonian king's close friend who is said to have saved his life at the Battle of Granicus, may be seen as a sign of how Alexander's men were becoming tired of campaigning, and how Alexander was becoming increasingly paranoid.

At some point during Alexander's campaign in central Asia, Parmenio's son, Philotas, allegedly failed to report a plot against Alexander's life. The king, incensed, decided to kill not only Philotas and the other men deemed conspirators, but also Parmenio, even though he apparently had nothing to do with the alleged plot.

According to the first-century A.D. writer Quintus Curtius (as found in "Alexander The Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius," Hackett Publishing, 1800), Alexander tasked a man named Polydamas, a friend of Parmenio, to perform the deed, holding his brothers hostage until he murdered Parmenio. Arriving in Parmenio's tent in the city where he was stationed, Polydamas handed him two letters: one from Alexander and one from Parmenio's son.

When Parmenio was reading the letter from his son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamas with his mission, "opened him (Parmenio) up with a sword thrust to his side, then struck him a second blow in the throat..." killing him, Quintus Curtius wrote.

A second casualty of Alexander's fury was his friend Cleitus, who was angry at Alexander for adopting Persian dress and customs. After an episode where the two were drinking, Cleitus scolded the king, telling him, in essence, that he should follow Macedonian ways, not Persian customs.

Cleitus lifted up his right hand and said, "this is the hand, Alexander, that saved you then (at the Battle of Granicus)," according to Arrian. Alexander, infuriated, killed him with a spear or pike.

Alexander took his act of murder terribly. "Again and again, he called himself his friend's murderer and went without food and drink for three days and completely neglected his person." Arrian wrote.

Alexander's final battles

Alexander's days in central Asia were not all unhappy. After his troops had captured a fortress at a place called Sogdian Rock in modern-day Uzbekistan in 327 B.C. he met Roxana, the daughter of a local ruler. The two married, and they had an unborn son at the time of Alexander's death.

Despite his men's fatigue, and the fact that he was far from home, Alexander pressed on into a land that the Greeks called "India" (what is now present-day Pakistan). Plutarch explained in "The Life of Alexander the Great" that he made an alliance with a local ruler named Taxiles, who agreed to allow Alexander to use his city, Taxila, as a base of operations. He also agreed to give Alexander all the supplies he needed - which was very useful given Alexander's long supply lines.

In exchange, Alexander agreed to fight Porus, a local ruler who set out against Alexander with an army that reportedly included 200 . The two armies met at the Hydaspes River in 326 B.C. Alexander bided his time; he scouted the area, built up a fleet of ships and lulled Porus into a false sense of security.

When Porus mobilized his forces he found himself in a predicament; his cavalry was not as experienced as Alexander's. As such, he put his 200 elephants - animals the Macedonians had never faced in large numbers - up front.

Alexander responded by using his cavalry to attack the wings of Porus's forces, quickly putting Porus's cavalry to flight. The result was that Porus's cavalry, foot soldiers and elephants eventually became jumbled together. Making matters worse for Porus, Alexander's soldiers attacked the elephants with javelins, and the wounded elephants went on a rampage, stomping on both Alexander and Porus's troops.

With his army falling apart, Porus stayed until the end and was captured. Arrian wrote that Porus was brought to the Macedonian king and said, "treat me like a king, Alexander." Alexander, impressed with his bravery and words, made him an ally.

The journey home

In 324 B.C., Alexander's close friend, general and bodyguard Haphaestion died suddenly from fever. Haphaestion's death caused a drastic change in Alexander's personality, Abernethy said. "Alexander had always been a heavy drinker and the substance abuse began to take its toll. He lost his self-control and his compassion for his men. He became reckless, self-indulgent and inconsistent, causing a loss of loyalty by his men and officers. He had always had a violent temper and been rash, impulsive and stubborn. The drinking made these traits worse."

Under such conditions, many of his men insisted that Alexander turn back home, according to Abernethy. Sailing south down the Indus River, he fought a group called the Malli and was severely wounded after he led an attack against their city wall. After reaching the Indian Ocean he split his force in three. One element, with the heavy equipment, would take a relatively safe route to Persia, the second, under his command, would traverse Gedrosia, a largely uninhabited deserted area that no large force had ever crossed before. A third force, embarked on ships, would support Alexander's force and sail alongside them.

The Gedrosia crossing was a miserable failure, and upto three-quarters of Alexander's troops died along the way. His fleet was unable to keep up with the main force due to bad winds. "The burning heat and the lack of water destroyed a great part of the army and particularly the pack animals," Arrian wrote.

Why Alexander chose to lead part of his force through Gedrosia is a mystery. It could simply be because no one had ever attempted to bring such a large force through it before and Alexander wanted to be the first.

Return to Persia and death

Alexander returned to Persia, this time as the ruler of a kingdom that stretched from the Balkans to Egypt to modern-day Pakistan. In 324 B.C., he arrived in Susa in present-day Iran, where a number of his innermost advisers got married.

Alexander got married to two other women, in addition to Roxana, whom he had married in central Asia. One was Barsine, daughter of Darius III, and the other was a Persian woman Arrian identified as Parysatis. Roxana likely did not take kindly to her two new co-wives and, after Alexander's death, she may have had them both killed, Plutarch wrote.

In 323 B.C., Alexander was in Babylon in modern-day Iraq, and his next major military target was apparently to be Arabia on the southern end of his empire. In June 323 B.C., while he was readying troops, he caught a fever that would not go away. He soon had trouble speaking and eventually died, with some suggesting he was . However, his death may have been announced prematurely, according Katherine Hall, a senior lecturer in the Department of General Practice and Rural Health at the University of Otago in New Zealand.

Shortly before his death, Alexander was supposedly asked who his empire should go to. His answer was said to be "to the strongest man," although he had an unborn son. However, there was nobody strong enough to hold his empire together. "Alexander's untimely death, without any provision having been made for a smooth succession (if such were indeed possible), opened the floodgates for two generations of warfare among his marshals, generals and lieutenants for their slice of his hypertrophied empire," Cartledge wrote.

Alexander's legacy

"Perhaps the most significant legacy of Alexander was the range and extent of the proliferation of Greek culture," Abernethy said. "The reign of Alexander the Great signaled the beginning of a new era in history known as the Hellenistic Age. Greek culture had a powerful influence on the areas Alexander conquered."

Many of the cities that Alexander founded were named Alexandria, including the Egyptian city that is now home to more than 4.5 million people. The many Alexandrias were located on trade routes, which increased the flow of commodities between the East and the West.
Additional reporting by Jessie Szalay, Live Science contributor, and Jonathan Gordon, Editor of All About History.
Alexander's legacy remains alive today, according to Cartledge, and is reimagined and reinterpreted by each generation; "There have been many Alexanders, as many as there have been observers, enemies, admirers, worshippers or serious students of the man, and hero, and god."

Owen Jarus writes about archaeology and all things about humans' past for Live Science. Owen has a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Toronto and a journalism degree from Ryerson University. He enjoys reading about new research and is always looking for a new historical tale.

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Alexander the Great: Facts, Biography & Accomplishments

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(Image credit: Image courtesy Wikimedia, from an ancient mosaic in Pompeii, Italy) Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire that stretched from the Balkans to modern-day Pakistan. During his reign, Alexander the Great had a massive impact in his time and sent ripples into the future.