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Exploradores europeos llegaron a California y fueron parte de los primeros habitantes.

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La importancia de las misiones coloniales españolas en nuestra historia nacional

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La importancia de las misiones coloniales españolas en nuestra historia nacional

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Author - Dorothy Jennings

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Who are the Chumash? In this text readers will discover the traditional beliefs and customs of the Chumash Indians of California.

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Author - Dorothy Jennings Create an Epic account to start reading! Who are the Chumash? In this text readers will discover the traditional beliefs and customs of the Chumash Indians of California. Read this Book on Epic!

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Camino Real fue el nombre que los españoles del siglo XVI dieron al trayecto que conducía a la capital de la Nueva España, hoy Ciudad de México.

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Between two and three thousand years ago, the ancestors of the Luiseños settled along the coast of what is now southern California.

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Create an Epic account to start reading! Between two and three thousand years ago, the ancestors of the Luiseños settled along the coast of what is now southern California. Read this Book on Epic!

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American Indian groups settled in the Monterey Bay area of California. Some groups, including the Esselen, have disappeared entirely.

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Create an Epic account to start reading! American Indian groups settled in the Monterey Bay area of California. Some groups, including the Esselen, have disappeared entirely. Read this Book on Epic!

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Author - Barbara M. Linde

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Conozca la cultura tradicional de los pueblos nativos de California incluyendo el período antes de Europa y los asentamientos estadounidenses.

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Author - Barbara M. Linde Create an Epic account to start reading! Conozca la cultura tradicional de los pueblos nativos de California incluyendo el período antes de Europa y los asentamientos estadounidenses. Read this Book on Epic!

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After 1769, the life of the California natives who came in contact with the Spanish was reshaped by the mission fathers, not the townspeople of the pueblos or the soldiers of the presidios. The Franciscans came to California not merely to convert the tribes to Christianity but to train them for life in a European colonial society. Conversion was seldom an entirely voluntary process, and converts (neophytes) were not left to return to their old ways but were required to live in the walled mission enclosure or on rancherías, separate settlements sponsored by missions located some distance from the mission proper. There they were taught Spanish as well as the tenets of their new religion and trained in skills that would equip them for their new lives: brickmaking and construction, raising cattle and horses, blacksmithing, weaving, tanning hides, etc.

Illustration III : Santa Barbara Mission. Reproduction of painting (20th century). Lot 4520. LC-USZ62-44216. #44449

In theory, the neophytes were to live at the missions only until this process of education was complete, and then they would establish homes in the nearby pueblos. As the native people of one region were Christianized and educated, the missionaries were to move on, leaving the old missions behind to become parish churches as they built new missions in more distant locations peopled by non-converted tribes or "gentiles." In fact, neither the Spanish government nor the Franciscans ever judged any of the neophytes ready for "secularization" or life outside the mission system, and Christian natives or "Mission Indians" and their descendants remained at the missions until the system was abolished in 1834.

By that time, sixty-five years of exposure to Europeans had reduced the number of California's native peoples by half to about 150,000. Although outright warfare cost few lives, Spaniards had introduced not only Christianity but also new diseases to which the neophytes had no resistance, and thousands died in epidemics. Crowded, harsh living conditions at the missions contributed to the Indians' health problems, and infant mortality and death rates among young children soared. It was the tribes of the coast, the "Mission Indians," who were most drastically affected. Tribes like the Modocs in the northern mountains had little or no contact with the Spanish and suffered little.

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The Missions | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

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After 1769, the life of the California natives who came in contact with the Spanish was reshaped by the mission fathers, not the townspeople of the pueblos or the soldiers of the presidios. The Franciscans came to California not merely to convert the tribes to Christianity but to train them for life in a European colonial society.

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Chumash: Chumash, any of several related North American Indian groups speaking a Hokan language. They originally lived in what are now the California coastlands and adjacent inland areas from Malibu northward to Estero Bay, and on the three northern Channel Islands off Santa Barbara. The Chumash were among

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Unidad 3 Como lanzar un proyecto de investigacion

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¿Cómo cambiaron los españoles el modo en que vivían los indígenas de California?

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¿Cómo cambiaron los españoles el modo en que vivían los indígenas de California?

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Native Resistance at California Missions

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Native Resistance at California Missions

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Newsela | Native resistance at California missions

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People have lived in what's now California and Baja California (a part of Mexico) for almost 20,000 years. Because the landscape has so many different habitats-the rainy redwood forests; the snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains; the Central Valley farmlands; the Mojave Desert; and the Pacific Ocean coastline-the ancient people who settled here split into hundreds of smaller groups, each developing their own culture and lifestyle.

The more than 500 tribes that lived in this region developed very different cultures from one another. The Pomo (POH-moh) lived along the northern coast and built homes using slabs of redwood tree bark. The mountain-dwelling Miwok (MEE-wuk) made cone-shaped bark houses, and the Maidu (MY-doo), who lived in valleys, created round lodges from earth. In the south, the Chumash (CHOO-mash) built circular frames using wooden poles, covering the structures with grass and marsh plants. In the summer, many tribes camped in temporary brush huts while they moved around to hunt and gather fruits and vegetables.

Tribal crafts differed depending on what natural resources were available. Tribes in the north, like the Tolowa (toh-LAW-wah), built canoes from giant redwood trees; in the south, the Cahuilla (kaw-WEE-ah) made clothing, nets, and sandals out of desert agave plants. In fact, these tribes produced so many different items that they created a huge trading network in which people traveled by foot or river to swap their goods. Some tribes, like the Chumash and Cahuilla, broke off pieces of giant clam shells to use as money.

People of the forest-based Cahto (KAH-toh) and Wintun (win-TOON) tribes ate caterpillars, bees, and grasshoppers. They also gathered acorns that could be ground into flour or made into soup. The desert-dwelling Cahuilla and Chemehuevi (cheh-meh-WAY-vee) snacked on snakes and lizards. Along the coasts, tribes like the Chumash fished and hunted sea lions and whales.

When gold was discovered in 1848 in Coloma, California, thousands of settlers rushed onto tribal lands, pushing out native people. By the late 1800s, the U.S. government had forced the Native Americans to live only on small pieces of land called reservations. Many tribal members still live on reservations today, where they express their heritage while living a modern life.

Elders teach children traditional tribal dances and ceremonies such as the World Renewal Ceremony, in which dancers move and sing to ensure plentiful food and prevent disasters like earthquakes, and the Jumping Dance, meant to remove evil from the world and replace it with good. The Cahto still walk to the coast once a year, following the path their ancestors took to fish and gather seaweed.

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People have lived in what's now California and Baja California (a part of Mexico) for almost 20,000 years. Because the landscape has so many different habitats-the rainy redwood forests; the snow-capped Sierra Nevada Mountains; the Central Valley farmlands; the Mojave Desert; and the Pacific Ocean coastline-the ancient people who settled here split into hundreds of smaller groups, each developing their own culture and lifestyle.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

Miwok, California Indians speaking languages of Penutian stock and originally comprising seven dialectally and territorially discrete branches: the Coast Miwok in an area just north of what is now San Francisco; the Lake Miwok in the Clear Lake Basin; the Bay Miwok (or Saclan), living along the delta of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers; the Plains Miwok, living farther up the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers; and, just eastward, three groups of Sierra Miwok-Northern, Central, and Southern-in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. The Sierra branches constituted the greatest number of Miwok individuals and had more than 100 villages at the time of European contact.

Miwok dwelling Urban

Traditionally, the groups near and on the coast-the Coast, Lake, and Bay Miwok-gathered acorns, fished, and hunted deer and other game with bow and arrow. They lived in semisubterranean pole- and earth-covered lodges and produced watertight basketry ornamented with beads or feathers. The interior Miwok-those of the Sierra and Plains-resided in the foothills and lowlands and generally moved into the high sierras only for summer hunting. Their main abodes were also semisubterranean earth-covered houses, while their mountain shelters were temporary lean-tos of bark over a sapling framework. Their chief food staple was acorns, which were stored in basketlike granaries. The interior Miwok also partook in the Kuksu cult, which included various rituals, costumed dances using animal skins, and impersonations of spirits.

Traditional Miwok society was organized into contrasting halves, or moieties, each with several lineages. The moieties controlled both kinship and politics, regulating such matters as descent, marriage, and relations with other tribes. Each moiety had chiefs and subchiefs, positions that were open to both men and women.

Miwok descendants numbered more than 5,700 in the early 21st century.

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Amy Tikkanen, Corrections Manager.

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Miwok, California Indians speaking languages of Penutian stock and originally comprising seven dialectally and territorially discrete branches: the Coast Miwok in an area just north of what is now San Francisco; the Lake Miwok in the Clear Lake Basin; the Bay Miwok (or Saclan), living along the

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Cahuilla, North American Indian tribe that spoke a Uto-Aztecan language. They originally lived in what is now southern California, in an inland basin of desert plains and rugged canyons south of the San Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains. The Cahuilla traditionally lived in thatched or adobe

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California Indian, member of any of the Native American peoples who have traditionally resided in the area roughly corresponding to the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja California (Mex.).

Distribution of California Indians Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

The peoples living in the California culture area at the time of first European contact in the 16th century were only generally circumscribed by the present state boundaries. Some were culturally intimate with peoples from neighbouring areas; for instance, California groups living in the Colorado River valley, such as the Mojave and Quechan (Yuma), shared traditions with the Southwest Indians, while those of the Sierra Nevada, such as the Washoe, shared traditions with the Great Basin Indians, and many northern California groups shared traditions with the Northwest Coast Indians.

A mosaic of microenvironments-including seacoasts, tidewaters, rivers, lakes, redwood forests, valleys, deserts, and mountains-provided ample sustenance for its many residents and made California one of the most densely populated culture areas of Northern America. The indigenous peoples of this region were considerably more politically stable, sedentary, and conservative and less in conflict with one another than was generally the case in other parts of North America; within the culture area neighbouring groups often developed elaborate systems for the exchange of goods and services. In general, the California tribes reached levels of cultural and material complexity rarely seen among hunting and gathering cultures.

Traditional culture patterns

Regional and territorial organization

The California culture area was occupied by a large number of tribes, each of which had distinct linguistic, social, and cultural traditions. Except for the Colorado River peoples (Mojave and Quechan) and perhaps some Chumash groups, California peoples avoided centralized governmental structures at the tribal level; instead, each tribe consisted of several independent geopolitical units, or tribelets. These were tightly organized polities that nonetheless recognized cultural connections to the other polities within the tribe; they were perhaps most analogous to the many independent bands of Sioux. Tribelets generally ranged in size from about a hundred to a few thousand people, depending on the richness of locally available resources; tribelet territories ranged in size from about 50 to 1,000 square miles (130 to 2,600 square km). See also Sidebar: The Difference Between a Tribe and a Band.

Within some tribelets all the people lived in one principal village, from which some of them ranged for short periods of time to collect food, hunt, or visit other tribelets for ritual or economic purposes. In other tribelets there was a principal village to which people living in smaller settlements traveled for ritual, social, economic, and political occasions. A third variation involved two or more large villages, each with various satellite settlements; in such systems, a designated "capital" village would be the residence of the principal chief as well as the setting for major rituals and political and economic negotiations.

Settlement patterns

In most of California the tribelets established permanent villages that they occupied all year, although small groups routinely left for periods of a few days or weeks to hunt or collect food. In areas with sparse economic resources, people often lived in seminomadic bands of 20 to 30 individuals, gathering together in larger groups only temporarily for such activities as antelope drives and piñon-nut harvests. As a rule, riverine and coastal peoples enjoyed a more settled life than those living in the desert and foothills.

Traditional house types varied from permanent, carefully constructed homes occupied for generations to the most temporary types of structures. Dwellings could be wood-framed (northern California), earth-covered (various areas), semisubterranean (Sacramento area), or made of brush (desert areas) or thatched palm (southern California). Communal and ceremonial buildings were found throughout the region and were often large enough to hold the several hundred people who could be expected to attend rituals or festivals. Houses ranged in size from five or six feet (almost two metres) in diameter to apartment-style buildings in which several families lived together in adjoining units. Sweat lodges were also common; these earth-covered permanent structures were used by most California tribes (the Colorado River groups and the northern Paiute, on the margins of California, were exceptions), with sweating a daily activity for most men.

Production and technology

Traditional subsistence in native California centred on hunting, fishing, and collecting wild plant foods. Typically, men hunted and fished while women and children collected plant foods and small game. Hunting and fishing equipment such as bows and arrows, throwing sticks, fishing gear, snares, and traps were made by men; women made nets, baskets, and other gathering implements as well as clothing, pots, and cooking utensils.

Edward S. Curtis Collection/Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZ62-114583)

Food resources varied across the landscape. Shellfish, deep-sea fish, surf fish, acorns, and game were the main subsistence staples for coastal peoples. Groups living in the foothills and valleys relied on acorns, the shoots and seeds of weedy plants and tule (a type of reed), game, fish, and waterfowl. Desert-dwellers sought piñon nuts, mesquite fruit, and game (especially antelope and rabbit) and engaged in some agriculture.

Native Californians developed a variety of specialized technological devices to help them maximize the productivity of the region's diverse environments. The Chumash of southern coastal California made seaworthy plank canoes from which they hunted large sea mammals. Peoples living on bays and lakes used tule rafts, while riverine groups had flat-bottom dugouts made by hollowing out large logs. Traditional food-preservation techniques included drying, hermetic sealing, and the leaching of those foods, notably acorns, that were high in acid content. Milling and grinding equipment was also common.

Property and exchange systems

Traditional concepts of property tended to vary in degree rather than kind in native California. In general, larger groups such as clans and villages owned the land and protected it against infringement from other groups. Individuals, lineages, and extended families usually did not own land but instead exercised exclusive use rights (usufruct) to certain food-collecting, fishing, and hunting areas within the communal territory. Areas where resources such as medicinal plants or obsidian, a form of volcanic glass used to make very sharp tools, were unevenly distributed over the landscape might be owned by either groups or individuals. Particular articles could be acquired by manufacture, inheritance, purchase, or gift.

Goods and foodstuffs were distributed through reciprocal exchange between kin and through large trading fairs, which were often ritualized. Both operated similarly in that they served as a redistribution and banking system for easily spoiled food; a group with surplus edibles would exchange them for durable goods (such as shells) that could be used in the future to acquire fresh food in return.

Most California groups included professional traders who traveled long distances among the many tribes; goods from as far away as Arizona and New Mexico could be found among California's coastal peoples. Generally, shells from the coastal areas were valued and exchanged for products of the inland areas, such as obsidian. Medicines, manufactured goods such as baskets, and other objects were also common items of exchange.

key people

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California Indian, member of any of the Native American peoples who have traditionally resided in the area roughly corresponding to the present states of California (U.S.) and northern Baja California (Mex.). The peoples living in the California culture area at the time of first European contact in

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Land

The Chumash lived on the southern California coast from Malibu northward to San Luis Obispo and inland from the coast to the edge of the San Joaquin Valley. They also lived on the Channel Islands, about 30 miles (48 kilometers) off the coast of Santa Barbara.

Shelter

The Chumash lived in dome-shaped shelters called 'aps. The frame was made with willow branches, and tule reeds were folded and woven onto the frame. The inside could be divided into different rooms with hanging reed mats. 'Aps were different sizes. One 'ap could fit as many as 50 people or as few as 4.

Chumash villages varied in size. A village could be as large as a few hundred people, or it could be as small as an extended family. Each village had special activity areas. There was often a central fire for warmth and cooking, an area where men made stone tools and processed animals, and an area where women wove baskets and made other goods. There was also a game field, or malamtepupi, in every Chumash village. Popular Chumash games were shinny ( tikawich, similar to field hockey and lacrosse), a hoop and pole game ( payas, in which players threw a spear through a rolling ring), and peon ( 'alewsa, in which teams guess which hand is holding a stick or bone).

Food

The Chumash territory provided abundant food sources. Like many other California Indians, the acorn was a staple food. Other plant foods in the Chumash diet included berries, roots, and nuts. Depending on where they lived in the territory, they ate deer, rabbits, fish, or other sea creatures. The island Chumash would trade fish, sea lion meat, and sea otter skins to the mainland Chumash for things they could not find on the islands.

Organization, Tradition, and Ceremonies

A Chumash chief was called a wot. The wot was a hereditary position, which means it was passed on through the family. The wot could be a man or a woman and lived in the largest 'ap. The wot provided political leadership, sponsored feasts, and made sure there was a good supply of food. The paxa' was the spiritual leader who organized ceremonies.

The Chumash and the Tongva (a tribe who lived to the south of Chumash territory) were the only natives on the Pacific coast of North America who made plank canoes. (The other groups made dugout canoes.) Plank canoes, called tomols, allowed the Chumash to access villages up and down the coast and to reach the Channel Islands. A tomol could carry up to 350 pounds of fish.

Two important traditions among the Chumash were basket weaving and rock art. The Chumash made some of the most complex baskets in North America. Their baskets can be found in museums all over the world. The Chumash painted rock art in their territory. They mixed natural elements (chalk, ochre, and charcoal) with oil (pine sap or animal fat) to make paints. They then used items such as sticks, squirrel tails, and yucca plants to apply the paints to the rock.

The Chumash used 'alchum to trade with people all over the area. 'Alchum has been found as far away as Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. The Chumash traded 'alchum for food and other objects. For instance, obsidian (a black volcanic glass) has been found in every Chumash village, even though the closest source of obsidian is in present-day Bakersfield, far from Chumash territory. Other things the Chumash traded include acorns (used for food, toys, and jewelry), chia (food, drink, eye medicine, and poison oak medicine), pine nuts (jewelry, food, and ceremony offerings), and dogbane (fishing line, canoe stitching, and headdress string).

Mission Life

The Spanish government set up missions in California starting in 1769. Many Chumash were forced to live and work on missions. They and other tribes throughout California became part of a group known as the Mission Indians. Their traditional names were often replaced with the name of the mission they worked on. The Chumash worked at the missions San Luis Obispo de Tolosa, La Purísima Concepción, Santa Ynez (Inés), Santa Barbara, and San Buenaventura. The Chumash at these missions were then called the Obispeño, Purismeño, Ynezeño, Barbareño, and Ventureño by the Spanish.

The Chumash were treated as slaves, and in 1824 the Chumash at Santa Ynez revolted. They burned down the soldiers' quarters, and the soldiers burned down the Chumash houses. The revolt lasted less than a week, but it spread south to Mission Santa Barbara. By the end of the mission period many Chumash had died from forced labor and from diseases, such as smallpox.

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The Chumash are a group of California Indians who lived on islands and along the coast of southern California. They are one of the oldest tribes in North America. Some bones...

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Land

The traditional homeland of the Cahuilla was spread over an area of high mountains, desert plains, and rugged canyons. It stretched from the San Bernardino mountains south through the Coachella Valley and the San Jacinto and Santa Rosa mountains to the northern shore of the Salton Sea.

Shelter

The Cahuilla lived in shelters called kishes. Kishes were typically circular with domed roofs, but some were rectangular. They were made with arrowwood poles. Arrowwood is flexible, so the poles were inserted into the ground and tied together at the top. The frame was then covered with palm tree fronds, reed mats, and leaves.

The Cahuilla built their villages in different places, such as canyons or at the base of a mountain. Wherever the village was built, it was important that it was close to food and water. In addition to the kishes, every Cahuilla village had a ceremonial house, or kishamnawet. It was a social and spiritual place.

Food

The Cahuilla depended on acorns, mesquite, and small animals for their diets. They used traps and snares to catch smaller animals, such as squirrels, rats, and ducks. Deer, antelopes, and larger animals were hunted with bows and arrows. In addition to gathering plant food, the Cahuilla planted foods (corn, beans, and squashes) where the plants grew well.

Organization and Traditions

The Cahuilla were divided into two large units called moieties. They were called Wildcat (Tuktum) and Coyote (Istam). Every Cahuilla was a member of their father's moiety. People were not allowed to marry within their moiety. Within each moiety were groups called Sibs. Members of a Sib were determined by each relationship to the patriarch of the family. Members of a Sib lived near one another. Each Sib, which could include as many as 2,000 people, had its own territory.

Every Cahuilla village had a leader, or net. The net was hereditary, which means it was usually passed down from father to son. The net took care of problems, led ceremonies, ruled the economy, and arranged hunting and trading trips. The paxaa helped the net during ceremonies. The paxaa made sure everyone followed the rules and punished those who did not.

Like other California Indians, the Cahuilla created complex baskets. These tightly woven vessels were used to carry, store, and cook food and water, in addition to other purposes. Cahuilla women still make baskets that are highly prized today.

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Land The traditional homeland of the Cahuilla was spread over an area of high mountains, desert plains, and rugged canyons. It stretched from the San Bernardino mountains south through the Coachella Valley and the San Jacinto and Santa Rosa mountains to the northern shore of the Salton Sea.

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The Native Americans known as the Miwok (or Mewuk) traditionally lived in central California. There were several different groups of Miwok. The largest group was the Sierra Miwok, who lived in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains. The Sierra Miwok had more than 100 villages when Europeans arrived in their territory.

The Miwok lived in large, earth-covered houses. Some Miwok also made simple shelters called lean-tos from bark. The Miwok fished and hunted birds, deer, and other game with bows and arrows. They also gathered nuts, berries, and roots.

By the early 1800s Spanish priests and soldiers had started to build missions in Miwok territory. The Spanish forced some Miwok to live and work at the missions. In addition, Russian traders who came from the north sometimes attacked the Miwok.

In 1848 gold was discovered in California. Gold-seeking Americans rushed to California and took over Miwok lands. The settlers killed many Miwok.

The surviving Miwok scattered. Without land, many gave up their old way of life. They moved from place to place looking for work, often on farms or ranches. At the end of the 20th century there were about 3,000 Miwok.

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The Native Americans known as the Miwok (or Mewuk) traditionally lived in central California. There were several different groups of Miwok. The largest group was the Sierra...

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Utilizado como forma de castigo.

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Indian Grinding Rock

A Gathering Place

This rock and the oak tree that stands behind it honor the contributions, past and present, that California Indians have made to the state's history and culture.

For thousands of years, native Indians lived in harmony with nature on the land that would later become the state of California. The men fished and hunted. The women harvested seeds, dug roots, and gathered herbs. And each fall men, women, and children came together to gather acorns, an important source of food.

In three days a family could harvest enough acorns to feed themselves for an entire year. Once harvested the acorns were dried. The women then pounded the acorns into meal Stone for Grindingfrom which they would make soup and mush, often using a rock like the one displayed in Capitol Park. Native Californians differ on the use of the name "grinding rock." Some prefer to call such rocks "pounding rocks," since acorns were really pounded into meal rather than ground. Acorns and FlourOthers call them "bedrock mortars," because the rocks served as a mortar against which women pounded the dried acorns using a stone pestle. This process left holes in the rock over many generations of use.
"From the village...to this boulder many women would come to sit and work. They sat and pounded, winnowed, gossiped, scolded children, pounded acorns until they had deep holes sculptured in this hard black bedrock outcrop."
- Ooti, A Maidu Legend

Making the acorn meal was a time-consuming and tedious job. To pass the time, women told stories and sang songs as they worked. The children who played nearby learned the traditions of their people through their mothers' stories and songs.

Today these traditions remain important aspects of California Indian life. Each year California Indians gather at Capitol Park's grinding rock to honor the oak tree and its food-producing ability. They conduct centuries-old ceremonies to pay tribute to their ancestors as well as present-day and future Indian people through dance, song, and prayer. In their homes California Indians still prepare and eat acorn mush using modern-day appliances and sometimes the traditional rock and pestle.

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A Gathering Place This rock and the oak tree that stands behind it honor the contributions, past and present, that California Indians have made to the state's history and culture. For thousands of years, native Indians lived in harmony with

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Misionero espanol enviado a la Alta California.

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Padre Luis Jayme fue atacado en mision San Diego de Alcala.

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Muerte de Padre Luis Jayme en mision San Diego de Alcala

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Explorador espanol.

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Mission San Carlos Borromeo del Rio Carmelo

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Mission San Carlos Borromeo del Rio Carmelo

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Instantly access The Miwok plus over 40,000 of the best books & videos for kids.

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The Ohlone were characterized by how they lived and the language they spoke. Learn how this changed when the Europeans invaded in 1769.

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Create an Epic account to start reading! The Ohlone were characterized by how they lived and the language they spoke. Learn how this changed when the Europeans invaded in 1769. Read this Book on Epic!

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The ancient Tongva people lived in the area known as Los Angeles. This book provides a look into the culture and traditions of the Tongva.

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Create an Epic account to start reading! The ancient Tongva people lived in the area known as Los Angeles. This book provides a look into the culture and traditions of the Tongva. Read this Book on Epic!

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Read Native American Encyclopedia Cumulative Index & Projects on Epic

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Read Native Peoples of California on Epic

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Author - Barbara M. Linde

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Learn about the traditional culture of the native peoples of California, including the time period before European and American settlement.

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Qué influencia tuvo España en California

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Aquí aprenderás acerca de la vida diaria de los indígenas y los colonizadores que residían en los presidios, las misiones, los ranchos y los pueblos.

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Aquí aprenderás del papel de los franciscanos en el cambio de la economía de California, de una economía de cazadores-recolectores a una economía agrícola.

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Traditional stories of the California Nations

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Traditional stories of the California Nations

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Author - Samantha S. Bell

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Traditional Stories of the California Nations features stories from several of the region's Native Nations.

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This title introduces readers to the Miwok people. Text covers traditions, including social structure, homes, food, art, clothing, and more.

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Create an Epic account to start reading! This title introduces readers to the Miwok people. Text covers traditions, including social structure, homes, food, art, clothing, and more. Read this Book on Epic!

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Exploradores europeos llegaron a California y fueron parte de los 

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La importancia de las misiones coloniales

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La importancia de las misiones coloniales

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Recreadores históricos vestidos con ropa del siglo XVI, uno de los platos fuertes del festival anual de Cabrillo.
Foto del NPS.

A finales del siglo XV, la Edad Media llegaba a su fin a medida que el mundo moderno emergía. El legado de la Edad Media, la "Edad de la Fe", dejó su marca en el futuro de la religión en Europa y, después de 1492, en las Américas. Ese año, España derrotó militarmente a los musulmanes de la península e inició un período de expulsión de aquellos que no quisieran convertirse al cristianismo. Tras el primer viaje de Colón, España tenía un nuevo objetivo en ese sentido. Cuando el cartógrafo Juan de la Cosa dibujó el primer mapa de las Américas en 1500, situó un símbolo del pasado medieval en el extremo izquierdo de su mapa, donde había colocado la costa de América del Norte -San Cristóbal llevando al niño Jesús al otro lado el mar. En su Libro de las Profecías (1501), una colección de textos bíblicos presentado a los soberanos de España, Cristóbal Colón, que firmó su nombre como Christo Ferens, o Portador de Cristo?, afirmó que se habían dado los primeros pasos para llevar el cristianismo a través del Atlántico.

Simbólicamente, al igual que San Cristóbal había llevado al niño Jesús a través de un río embravecido, España estaba a punto de enviar misioneros a cristianizar el Nuevo Mundo. En la bula papal de 1508, Universalis Ecclesiae (De la Iglesia Universal), el Papa Julio II declaró que el rey de España sería el jefe de la Iglesia en España y su imperio. Tal atribución significaba claramente que junto con la ley española, la gobernanza, el lenguaje y la cultura, la religión católica romana también cruzaría desde Europa a las Américas, y que el rey de España participaría en la difusión del cristianismo entre los pueblos nativos del Nuevo Mundo. Su cometido sería el establecimiento de misiones por el Hemisferio Occidental y, más tarde, por Filipinas. Así comenzó la historia de las misiones, que a través del tiempo se convertiría en una parte de nuestra historia nacional que refleja nuestra historia común compartida con España, México y América Latina.

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La Importancia de las Misiones Coloniales Españolas en Nuestra Historia Nacional y Nuestro Patrimonio Común con España, México y América Latina - Spanish Missions/Misiones Españolas (U.S. National Park Service)

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A finales del siglo XV, la Edad Media llegaba a su fin a medida que el mundo moderno emergía. El legado de la Edad Media, la "Edad de la Fe", dejó su marca en el futuro de la religión en Europa y, después de 1492, en las Américas.

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The Spaniards, of course, were hardly the first to discover this land of wonder and extremes. The earliest Californians were adventurous Asians who made their way across the Bering Straits to Alaska thousands of years ago when a warmer climate and a now-vanished land bridge made such travel easier. These men and women and their descendants settled North and South America, spreading out to form the various nations and tribes whom the first European visitors to this hemisphere dubbed "Indians." The mountain ranges of the Pacific Coast isolated these early settlers from the cultures that developed in neighboring Mexico and the western United States. Thus, the early population of California bore little physical resemblance to the Native Americans of the Great Plains and apparently shared no ties of language or culture with these nations. California's rugged topography, marked by mountain ranges and deserts, made it difficult for her indigenous groups to travel great distances, and the region's native peoples were even isolated from each other, tending to live in large family groups or clans with little political structure, unlike the larger tribes and nations to the east. As European settlement came late to California, her natives were also denied access to the newcomers' horses, whose runaways fathered the wild herds that gave Great Plains tribes new mobility as early as the sixteenth century. Thus divided and isolated, the original Californians were a diverse population, separated by language into as many as 135 distinct dialects. Tribes included the Karok, Maidu, Cahuilleno, Mojave, Yokuts, Pomo, Paiute, and Modoc. On the other hand, the mountains that divided the groups made extensive warfare impractical, and the California tribes and clans enjoyed a comparatively peaceful life.

Illustration IV: Mount Shasta with Indians and TeePees. Steel engraving by E.P. Brandard, after, S.S. Gifford, ca. 1873. Published in William Cullen Bryant, Picturesque America, v.1. LC-USZ62-52626. #605.

The region's lack of rain during the growing season meant that agriculture was not a practical means of livelihood for early Californians, but the gentle climate and rich soil enabled these groups to live by skillfully harvesting and processing wild nuts and berries and by capturing the fish that crowded the streams. The acorn, leached of toxic acids and turned into meal, was a staple of the diet of most California native peoples. Indeed, the first English-speaking Europeans to encounter California Native Americans were so struck by their focus on gathering nuts from the ground and unearthing nutritious roots that they nicknamed them "Diggers," and "Digger Indian" became a vague nickname for many of the groups.

An ample food supply, temperate climate, and absence of wars contributed to a large, healthy population. It has been estimated that when Europeans first came to California, the native population was probably close to 300,000--13 percent of the indigenous peoples in North America.

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The First Peoples of California | Early California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress

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The Spaniards, of course, were hardly the first to discover this land of wonder and extremes. The earliest Californians were adventurous Asians who made their way across the Bering Straits to Alaska thousands of years ago when a warmer climate and a now-vanished land bridge made such travel easier.

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Database Tells the Stories of 100,000 Mission Indians

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Database Tells the Stories of 100,000 Mission Indians

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Reclaiming a neglected part of California's past, historians Monday unveiled an immense data bank that for the first time chronicles the lives and deaths of more than 100,000 Indians in the Spanish missions of the 18th and 19th centuries.

In an eight-year effort, researchers at the Huntington Library in San Marino used handwritten records of baptisms, marriages and deaths at 21 Catholic missions and two other sites from between 1769 and 1850 and created a cross-referenced computerized repository that is now open to public access.

The Early California Population Project, its creators hope, will help bring the state's Spanish colonial and Mexican eras from out of the long shadows cast by the 13 English colonies on the East Coast.

"What we are trying to do here is to say these people have a history, and it's not a history that can be caricatured," said the project's general editor, historian Steven W. Hackel. "It's a history that emerges from a deep native past and a deep Spanish past and shows how the two came together for better or worse."

Huntington officials say scholars and amateur genealogists will be able to track, among other things, how many descendants of a Miwok Indian survived into the era of U.S. statehood, how many people died in an earthquake or a measles epidemic, how frequent intermarriage was between Spanish soldiers and Indian women, or how many Indians worked in farming or became skilled artisans.

The database does not offer judgments on the long debates about whether the Franciscans forced Indians into the missions and treated them brutally or whether Father Junipero Serra, founder of the California mission system, deserves to be, as he is now, just one step from sainthood in the Roman Catholic Church.

However, it does document the Franciscans' obsessions with converting Indians to Catholicism and its bans on polygamy and illegitimacy. And, death by death, it shows an extraordinarily high mortality rate as Indians became exposed to European diseases such as measles, influenza and smallpox.

"People who think the missions were places of cultural genocide and terrible population decline can look at this database, and they'll see that people came into the missions and died soon after," said Hackel, a history professor at Oregon State University. "People who want to see something else in the missions can look here too. It also shows tremendous Indian persistence and attempts to maintain their own communities within the missions."

The public can gain access to the database through an Internet link at https://www.huntington.org. Conducting searches on the site can be complicated at first because of the many choices involved.

The project, which cost $650,000, used records mainly taken from microfilm of the originals. They overwhelmingly concern Indians in the coastal regions from the San Diego to Marin County areas, perhaps as many as half of the Indians within the current state borders. Some Spanish soldiers and Mexican settlers are included through the turbulent times of Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821 and California U.S. statehood in 1850.

There are some gaps in the documents as the missions declined, the Franciscans were stripped of their authority and Indians revolted. After the San Diego mission was burned down in an insurrection in 1775, the priests re-created the logs from memory, Hackel said.

Still, the Franciscans remained good record-keepers. They assigned numbers to each baptism and carefully noted parents and godparents, village of origin, ethnic background and trades. As a result, many people can be traced with astonishing specifics through life and, with computer links, their progeny.

For example, a 2-day-old Indian boy, given the name Francisco, was baptized Aug. 11, 1786, at Mission San Diego, the project shows. The information links to his marriage at 18 to a woman named Maria Loreta, also 18 (a spinster by that era's customs) and her death five years later with no children.

Francisco married again the next year to Antonina, who died childless 10 months later. He married a third time, to Thomasa (she was 13 and he was 26) and had a baby girl, Ynes, who died at 6 months. Francisco died April 4, 1817, apparently held in high regard by the Franciscans because he was given a deathbed communion, not just an anointing.

Thomasa married twice more and had 10 more children, two of whom are recorded as dying in infancy.

The causes of deaths in that clan were not given, but other records reveal risks of Western life beyond disease. Some people died from bear and snake attacks and others drowned in wells. The 1812 San Juan Capistrano earthquake killed 39, all buried in the ruins of the mission church.

"It tells us one heck of a lot about the people of California before 1850," said Robert C. Ritchie, the Huntington's director of research. "It has an enormous amount of detail that sits below the big story we know: the dying of so many native people along the coast."

Although surveys of smaller groups of missions were done in the past, none pulled together populations from across what was known as Alta California, scholars say. Plus, no other project on this topic was designed for the average person, not just experts, to navigate.

"The goal is democratic and open access to records that previously were, if not inaccessible, very, very hard to get," said Hackel, whose 2005 book, "Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis," examined Indian-Spanish relations in that period.

The raw records can be difficult to read, interpret and put into context, he added.

The project involved eye-straining work that took the equivalent of between two and four full-time employees since 1999. Their job was to take hundreds of thousands of bits of information from the microfilm of sometimes damaged and illegible mission books and put them into easy-to-read computer formats.

Anne Marie Reid, the inputting team leader, recalled feeling ill sometimes after long days staring at dark microfilm in Spanish and Latin and entering names and dates into computer logs.

But she said she also gained a feeling of fellowship with the Indians and priests as she recognized their names in various references. "You come to know these people," she said recently in her small workroom with consoles and screens.

In all, statistics were gleaned on an estimated 120,000 people, including some with incomplete records and some mentioned just once as a parent. Included are about 101,000 baptisms, 28,000 marriages and 71,000 burials at all 21 missions and from the Los Angeles Plaza Church and the Santa Barbara Presidio.

Partly because of the size, the project experienced some delays this summer because of software glitches.

The Huntington has a few original and very valuable mission records, including a page in Serra's very legible hand about three baptisms on Dec. 1, 1783, at Mission San Luis Obispo. Missions and other Catholic archives hold most of the surviving books but usually allow scholars to see only microfilm copies, some made 50 years ago.

Among the institutions lending microfilm for the project were the Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library, the archdioceses of San Francisco and Los Angeles, and Santa Clara University. John R. Johnson, curator of anthropology for the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, and Randall Milliken, a Davis-based anthropologist and mission expert, helped with planning.

The largest financial support for the project came from the National Endowment for the Humanities ($294,000), the California State Library ($163,000) and the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation ($110,000).

The Dan Murphy Foundation and the Giles W. and Elise G. Mead Foundation were among other donors.

Anthony Morales, tribal chair and chief of the Gabrieleno/Tongva Band of Mission Indians of San Gabriel, said he thought the project would "really catch the interest of all kinds of people like educators and researchers and just average folks who are interested in their families."

Some people, he said, will search for evidence of brutality in the mission system such as forced conversions and labor, while others will look for a more positive picture, such as "what did happen after my great-great-grandmother got converted and baptized."

Robert Senkewicz, a Santa Clara University historian who is an expert on early California, said the accessibility of the database is its "great virtue."

"It will make genealogists feel like they died and went to heaven," he said.

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Database Tells the Stories of 100,000 Mission Indians

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Reclaiming a neglected part of California's past, historians Monday unveiled an immense data bank that for the first time chronicles the lives and deaths of more than 100,000 Indians in the Spanish missions of the 18th and 19th centuries.

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How did native people live at the Spanish missions in Alta California? What were their jobs? What did they eat? An in-depth look at Native American life in the California missions.
Prior to the arrival of Spanish explorers, missionaries and soldiers, human beings had occupied the territory that would later be known as Alta California for as many as 15,000 years. Important changes occurred in Native American life with the establishment of the California missions.

Spanish Exploration

Europeans, particularly the Spanish, began to explore the coastline of North America as early as the 1530s. However, in the late 18 th century, thanks to competition with England and Russia, Spanish leaders decided to establish a military presence in Alta California, as a deterrent against their foreign rivals.

Establishing Missions

An important part of Spanish policy in North America was the establishment of missions. In places such as the coastal areas of Florida, Georgia and New Mexico, missions were founded in the midst of Indian towns with the agreement of the local chieftain or leader.

In Alta California, the Spanish established missions near Native American settlements and encouraged them to join the missions, persuading them of the advantages they would obtain.

Such advantages would include access to a stable food supply, protection from their enemies by becoming allies of the King of Spain, and a new religion (Christianity), which promised eternal life for the people and freedom from the power of shamans or native religious leaders.

Along with missions as a way of establishing alliances with indigenous people, Spanish policy foresaw the founding of army garrisons, called presidios, and eventually, civilian towns, known as pueblos. With the establishment of missions, presidios and pueblos in Alta California, the life of native groups along much of the western coastline was changed profoundly.

Mission Location

In Alta California, missions were usually founded in locations where there was good land for agriculture and a reliable water source. This would happen after consultations and negotiations with local Indian groups, which was crucial, since the the mission could be destroyed if it was not supported by local native people.

According to Spanish and Church law, Indians could be persuaded, but not forced to join the mission. Once they did join, however, they were considered citizens of the mission and of Spain, and were expected to live within its boundaries. These boundaries corresponded roughly to the borders of their traditional lands, unless they joined the mission from far away, as was the case with many Yukuts people from the San Joaquin Valley.

Of course, not all Indians in areas under Spanish control joined the missions or became Christians. Long into the Mexican era, there were Native American settlements or rancherías in many places in Alta California. We also know of cases where non-Christian Indians lived and worked in towns and ranchos, speaking Spanish and even adopting Hispanic dress.

Living Quarters

In the early years of the establishment of a mission, Indians would live in their traditional dwellings, usually conical-shaped houses made of tree branches.

As time went on, however, some Indians would build permanent houses for themselves made of adobe bricks, or move into the pre-existing adobe family quarters close to the mission church.

Natives could travel outside the mission periodically to visit kin, go on trading or hunting trips, or take part in military expeditions. Others would live in asistencias or doctrinas, native ranches that were connected to aparticular mission.

At some missions, such as San Diego de Alcalá, Christian Indians would live in their own villages among non-Christian natives. They would come to the mission church for Mass and to receive the sacraments. Some families, usually those with the highest social status within their communities, would live within the mission compound, close to the padres' quarters.

Who Lived in the Mission?

Native American mayordomos or supervisors would oversee the day-to-operation of the mission. These were normally chosen from among Indians who had become most familiar with and adapted to the mission lifestyle. Spanish law also required that the Indians elect alcaldes (a combination of mayor and judge) and regidores (town councilmen) from amongst themselves, as the political representatives of the people on the mission.

At the height of the mission period, as many as 1,500 native people could be living within the boundaries of each mission.

Every mission would be staffed by one or usually two priests from the Franciscan Order. One would focus on the administrative aspects of the mission, and another would address the spiritual needs of the Indians. There was also a small cadre of 5-7 soldiers who, if they were married, lived with their families on the mission grounds. These were there to guard the mission against attack, and to serve as a police force.

Gentiles, Neophytes and Gente de Razón

Much of the information we have about native life at the California missions comes from the records kept by the priests who administered the missions. They were bound to record the times that they baptized, married or celebrated other sacraments in their communities.

A particularly important source of information are the answers to the questionnaires or interrogatorios that the Spanish government sent to each mission community regarding Indian life in 1812. The information that the missionaries provided gives a precious snapshot of native life at each of the missions through the padres' eyes.

The Spanish government and the padres had a way of classifying people according to their level of acceptance of Christianity and Hispanic culture. Those who were not Christian were known as gentiles. In the Roman Empire, the word "gentile" was one that Jewish people used to indicate people who did not belong to the Jewish faith.

Indians who had accepted Christianity, but who had not fully adopted Hispanic customs were known as neophytes. This term had its origins in the early days of Christianity, when those who had recently embraced the Christian faith, but were still learning about it, were called neophytes. Thus, Indians who lived on mission lands were generally referred to as neophytes.

People who lived according to a Hispanic lifestyle, including settlers, soldiers, priests, were known as gente de razón or "civilized people." This category also included Indians from other parts of the Spanish empire who came to settle in Alta California.

Native American Languages at the Missions

When the Spanish arrived in Alta California, there were as many as 80 different languages spoken among native people. Sometimes neighboring Indian groups were not even able to understand each other's languages.

For example, at Mission Santa Clara de Asís, three or four different Indian languages were spoken amongst the native people there. Where possible, the padres learned the local Indian languages.

Fr. Felipe Arroyo de la Cuesta of San Juan Bautista wrote grammars of local native languages. At many of the missions, the missionaries composed catechisms, or short books about the Christian faith, in native languages.

When more than one group lived at a mission, communication could be a challenge, though younger people would often learn Spanish. Indians learned Spanish through their dealings with local soldiers and settlers, and because the padres would often teach them.

Because more than one tribe would often live together at a particular mission, groups that had traditionally been enemies would sometimes be in the same area. This could be a source of friction and conflict, but the padres encouraged people to marry spouses from other tribes, and with time, some of these conflicts could be overcome.

A Working Farm

Native American life in the California missions followed an agricultural rhythm. Each mission was a functioning ranch or farm. Cattle ranching was especially important, because the beef that was produced fed the mission Indian population, and products derived from cattle, especially the hides, would be traded or sold to the military, and to merchants who came on ships from other places.

Most missions produced a large number of agricultural goods to feed their community, especially grains like wheat, but also fruits and vegetables, grapes for wine and olives for oil.

Some Indians, if they showed interest, were given their own teams of oxen and seeds to sow for their own personal use.

Typically three meals a day were administered at the missions. At breakfast there would be a type of corn soup called atole, which is still very popular in Mexico today. At lunch, people would generally eat boiled wheat, corn, peas, beans and vegetables, as well as seasonal fruit. At dinner they would have the same type of meal as at breakfast. Cattle were slaughtered regularly, so mission members also ate a great deal of beef throughout the year.

In addition to the communal meals offered at the mission, Indian families would eat in their own homes. They would often go hunting or fishing or gather their traditional foods.

One Spanish ship's captain who visited Monterey in the 1790s observed Indians from the Mission San Carlos Borromeo hunting deer. According to him, the men kept

the skins of some heads of these animals with their horns and part of the neck, and skinned with much care. Next, they fill these with dry grass, trying to conserve the shape that they had when they were attached to the head. On going out to hunt, they fit these caps over their heads."

They would then wait, moving their heads from time to time, in order to attract the deer. As the deer would approach, the men would be able to shoot them with their arrows from a close range.

Native American Clothing

In most California Indian communities, it was not customary to wear much clothing. Women often wore skirts made of animal skins or plant fibers woven together. Men generally went about completely naked, except when they dressed up for ceremonial dances or other special occasions. Indians had to adjust to the idea of wearing clothing at the missions.

For the padres, nakedness was a sign of poverty, an idea that originated in the ancient Near East and was transmitted through the Bible. So for them it was important that the Indians received a minimum of clothing.

When both men and women entered the missions, they were given a shirt with long sleeves called a cotón, and a blanket. Both were made of wool. Women were also given a woolen petticoat and men received a breechclout to cover their groin area. Each year everyone would receive a new set of garments.

Those who took up certain occupations, such as vaqueros or cowboys, would wear clothes appropriate to their jobs. Vaqueros, for example, would wear trousers and boots suitable for horsemanship. As the years passed, and Indians became more accustomed to dealings with soldiers and settlers, many would adopt clothing similar to what was worn throughout Latin America.

Daily Life in the California Missions

In order for the ranch and the farm to function, everyone had a task, and most Indian members worked as members of the farm. In general, they worked approximately five hours per day during fall and winter time, and between six and seven hours per day during spring and summer, Monday through Saturday.

Sundays were reserved for rest and religious services, as were the special feast days of the Catholic calendar. There could be as many as 92 throughout the year.

Mission Work Schedule

For Indians on the mission, the church bell marked the rhythms of the day. Each day would begin with prayers and mass, then breakfast. After breakfast each person would go to work on his or her particular occupation until midday.

At midday they would gather for prayers and lunch, followed by a break, which often involved a nap or siesta, as was common all over Spain and Latin America.

After the break, they would return to work until about an hour before sunset, which was the end of the workday. If they had already finished their tasks, they could use the time as they pleased.

At sunset, people once again gathered for prayers and then supper.

Jobs at the California Missions

Since the majority of crops grown at the missions was seasonal, the agricultural tasks the Indians carried out would change throughout the year:

From December through March, for example, it was time to sow the seeds of the various crops. In April and May, it would be time for shearing sheep, branding cattle and other livestock-related jobs. June through September was spent harvesting the crops planted earlier in the year. During the rest of the year, there were plenty of maintenance tasks to take care of.

Specialized Jobs

There were also more specialized workers who made soap, tanned leather, did weaving, or worked as blacksmiths year round. Some of these jobs were performed by men, others by women.

The jobs of cowboys, shepherds, cobblers, masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, tanners and farmhands were common male chores at the California missions.

Women's Jobs

Women often did chores such aswashing, sewing or grinding wheat. Many of these more skilled tasks would be taught by artisans from Mexico, or Indians from missions in Baja California, who immigrated north.

Most work was done on a quota system. Each person would have a set amount of number of things to produce each day or week, like a certain number of adobe tiles to make or cloth to weave. Once they met their quota, the workers were free to spend their time as they wished.

Children's Jobs

Even children did work at the missions, though not the type of work adults performed. Typical children's jobs would things like keeping birds or small animals out of the gardens, or serving at Mass or other religious functions.

Military Service

In addition to working in agricultural tasks, Indian men would often serve on military expeditions. Since the earliest days of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, Indians has fought alongside Spanish soldiers. In Paraguay, for example, Indian militias had defeated Portuguese slave traders.

The Spanish couldn't supply enough soldiers to keep their rivals, the English and Russians, from moving into Alta California, so their plan was to have Indians serve as militiamen to protect the coast. Many of the soldiers who came to Alta California in the first Spanish expeditions had native ancestry themselves.

As time went by, and especially during the Mexican era, Christian Indians from the missions would help protect the missions from attack by hostile tribes, or go out with soldiers on military missions.

There were cases when natives of nearby settlements, at times in alliance with Indians who had left the missions, would attack a mission. In 1775, Kumeyaay warriors assaulted Mission San Diego, killing one of the missionaries and other people.

In 1824 a dispute with soldiers at Mission Santa Inés sparked a revolt among the Chumash people. The revolt eventually involved Mission Santa Inés, La Purísima and Santa Bárbara.

Illness and Disease

The fathers who had responsibility for the missions kept records about the number of people whom they administered the sacraments.

Thanks to these notes, we know that at times the mortality rate of Indians living on mission lands was particularly high. This was often because of the outbreak of epidemics and exposure to diseases carried by Spanish and Mexican soldiers and settlers.

Since medicine was very primitive on the California frontier, many native people lost their lives to these diseases.

There are a number of letters conserved in archives in which Spanish missionaries complain of the lack of doctors and urge the Spanish government to send some to care for the Indians.

Some Indians abandoned the mission after a period of time and became fugitives. They did not like life at the missions or had committed some offense. Often other Indians from the mission would be sent to persuade them to return, or the padres themselves would go to speak with them. At other times, soldiers would go to try and retrieve them.

This began to happen especially after 1810, when the Spanish government stopped supplying the presidios. Missions were ordered to provide food and other goods to the military garrisons. This greatly increased the amount of work Indians were asked to do and created resentment among many natives.

One of the most famous cases of fugitives is that of Estanislao, an alcalde from Mission San José. Estanislao led a large group of fugitives into the San Joaquín valley in 1828-1829 and resisted the Mexican army. After a number of battles with the army and native troops, Estanislao eventually returned to the mission and spent the rest of his life there.

Secularization and the End of the Missions

The missions were not meant to be permanent institutions. The Spanish government's plan was that each mission would develop into a town, with the same structure as the towns throughout Latin America. Ideally, this was supposed to happen within ten years after the founding of a mission.

In Alta California, the missionaries generally believed that ten years was not enough time for indigenous people to fully adapt to Hispanic ways, so they were resistant to the Spanish government's timeline.

Nevertheless, after Mexico gained its independence from Spain, Mexican officials set this process, known as secularization, into motion. By the mid-1830s they removed the missions from the authority of the Franciscans.

Native American life in the California missions changed after secularization. After the missions were secularized, civilian administrators were put in charge of each mission. Their job was to transfer the goods and property of the missions into the hands of the government, and to oversee Indian labor.

These men were unpopular with the Indians, who claimed that they took the mission goods for themselves. Julio César, an Indian born at Mission San Luis Rey, talked about native life in the missions after secularization. He said that one administrator managed to take even the glasses and plates from the mission.

Most of the land that had previously belonged to the mission was sold or distributed to the families of local ranchers or to the administrators themselves. Occasionally Indians from the missions would be granted parcels of land, as was the case of Rancho Ulistac in Santa Clara. Most Indians did not receive a land grant, and either went to live in areas far away from the Hispanic population, or used the skills they had learned at the missions to become laborers in towns or on local ranches.

Native American life in the California missions underwent many changes from the founding of the mission chain.
Do you still have questions? Is there any information you did not find here? If so, leave a comment at the bottom of this page!
Study Questions

1. How did the Spanish try to persuade native people to join the missions?

2. Where were missions usually located?

3. Where did native people live before joining the mission? Where did they live after joining the mission?

4. Who oversaw Native American life in the California missions?

5. What languages did native people speak at the mission?

6. What did native people eat before they joined the mission? What did they eat after joining the mission?

7. What was their work schedule like at the mission?

8. What kind of jobs did native people do at the mission?

9. What is a fugitive, and who is one of the most famous fugitives from the missions?

10. What happened to the land that belonged to native people after the missions were closed down?

More Resources About Native American Life in the California Missions

Native Americans of the California Missions: A Guide to 19 Tribal Groups.

All of the most important information about the Indian tribes of the California missions at your fingertips. Use it as background for your own lessons, or assign it to students for their Native American or mission research projects. Includes an introduction to California Native American life before, during and after the mission period. The California Native American groups are arranged in alphabetical order by name and provides information about their ancestral territories, the missions they were linked to, and the groups that represent them today.

There are a number of books that provide information about Indian life at the California missions. The ones below are some of the works that were used to prepare this article:

George Harwood Philips. Vineyards and Vaqueros: Indian Labor and the Economic Expansion of Southern California, 1771-1877 .

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How did native people live at the Spanish missions in Alta California? What were their jobs? What did they eat? An in-depth look at Native American life in the California missions. Prior to the arrival of Spanish explorers, missionaries and soldiers, human beings had occupied the territory that would later be known as Alta California for as many as 15,000 years.

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Relatos de residentes del área de las misiones

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Relatos de residentes del área de las misiones

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