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By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2018

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.

If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
Success and Failure In Stage One
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be "self control without a loss of self-esteem" (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child's life. According to Bee (1992), it is a "time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child's questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for "being a nuisance".

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child's life as they teach the child specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child's peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child's self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferiour, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g., being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is "a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one's appropriate sex role". During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society ("I don't know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).

Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).

Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings of bitterness and despair.

Erikson described ego integrity as "the acceptance of one's one and only life cycle as something that had to be" (1950, p. 268) and later as "a sense of coherence and wholeness" (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become seniour citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as a retired person.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Critical Evaluation

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development (McAdams, 2001).

Based on Erikson's ideas, psychology has reconceptualized the way the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.

Erikson's theory has good face validity. Many people find that they can relate to his theories about various stages of the life cycle through their own experiences.

However, Erikson is rather vague about the causes of development. What kinds of experiences must people have to successfully resolve various psychosocial conflicts and move from one stage to another? The theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs. For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a 'tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.' Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

One of the strengths of Erikson's theory is its ability to tie together important psychosocial development across the entire lifespan.

Although support for Erikson's stages of personality development exists (McAdams, 1999), critics of his theory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development (McCrae & Costa, 1997).

APA Style References

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child. London: HarperCollins.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues. New York, NY: International University Press

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52(5), 509.

How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson's stages of psychosocial development?

Maslow proposed a series of motivational stages, each building on the previous one (i.e., cannot progress without satisfying the previous stage).

Erikson proposed a series of predetermined stages related to personality development. The stages are time related.

Progression through the stages is based on life circumstances and achievement (i.e., it is flexible).

Progression through the stages is based a person's age (i.e., rigid). During each stage an individual attains personality traits, either beneficial or pathological.

There is only one goal of achievement, although not everyone achieves it.

The goal of achievement vary from stage to stage and involve overcoming a psychosocial crisis.

Individuals move up the motivational stages / pyramid in order to reach self-actualisation. The first four stages are like stepping stones.

Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths used to resolve subsequent crises.

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Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

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By Dr. Saul McLeod, updated 2018 Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

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Piaget's theory has four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. During the sensorimotor stage, which often lasts from birth to age two, children are just beginning to learn how to learn. Though language development, and thus thought, does begin during this time, the more major tasks occurring during this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies. They do this by experiencing everything with their five senses, hence "sensory," and by learning to crawl and then walk, point and then grasp, hence, "motor."

During the preoperational stage, which often lasts from ages two though seven, children start to use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play. In the concrete operational stage that follows, lasting from ages seven through eleven, children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize information they learn. However, they remain limited to considering only concrete, not abstract, information because at this stage the capability for abstract thought isn't well developed yet. Finally, during the formal operational stage, which often lasts from age eleven on, adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to think symbolically, e.g., about things that aren't really there concretely in front of them.

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Erickson's Developmental theories
-Trust vs Mistrust
Occurs between birth and one year of age.
At this stage the child is entirely dependent on the parents.
If the child develops trust he or she will feel safe and secure.
-Autonomy vs Shame and doubt
Takes place during childhood and is focused on children getting a better sense of personal control.
At this stage children are becoming a little more independent.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident and those who don't feel a sense of self- doubt.
-Initiative vs Guilt
Takes place during the preschool years.
Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

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The theory of psychosexual development was proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and described how personality developed over the course of childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most controversial.  Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.
The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.  Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.  According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents ​approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.​  Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.  The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

https://www.verywell.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

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Erik Erikson is a theorist who created the theory of development in stages. The stage theory of development is on the human growth throughout the entire lifespan. He believed each stage of development was centered on overcoming conflict.
Example: the conflict during the adolescent stage is trying to gain a sense of personal identity. Dealing with the conflicts during each stage can impact overall well being. If failure to develop an identity results in role confusion during the adolescence stage.

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Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society. During each of Erikson's eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.

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Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
He believed that Fred's theory was misjudged and developed a theory that was composed of eight stages from infancy to adulthood. Erikson thought that through theses stages humans grew through their lifespan. Erik is one of my favorite Developmental Theorist because you can actually see the growth and development in children through the stages.

Infancy (Birth to 1)
Basic Trust vs Mistrust
Infants learn to either trust or not trust that significant others.

Toddler (1 to 3)
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
Children learn to be either self-sufficient in activities of daily living or they doubt their own ability.

Preschool (4 to 6)
Initiative vs Guilt
Children want to take adult like tasks and going beyond limits set by parents and feeling guilty of doing so.

School age (7 to 11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Children want to learn and to be productive or feel inferior and unable to do any task well.

Adolescence (12 to 19)
Identity vs Role Confusion
Adolescence try to figure out who they are (sexual, ethnic and career) or they are confused about what roles they want to play.

Young Adult (20 to 44)
Intimacy vs Isolation
Young adults are seeking for love and companionship or they isolate themselves.

Middle Adulthood (45 to 65)
Generativity vs Stagnation
Middle aged adults are either active and raising a family or become stagnant and inactive.

Late Adulthood (65+)
Ego integrity vs Despair
Older adults are either reminiscing on all the productive things and accomplishments they did in their life or despair over goals they never met.

Foundations and Adult Health Nursing Cooper and Gosnell Pg. 703
http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/erikson.htm

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Jean Piaget is a theorist who categorized cognitive development divided in age groups. He theorized children’s thinking was much different than that of an adult. He was able to map out the age cognitive development in 4 stages.

Sensorimotor birth to 2 years uses sense and motor skills to understand the world, develops schema, interacts, learns object still exits when not in sight

Preoperational thought 2 – 6 years egocentric thinking from one perspective, time In present times only, uses symbols, logical intuitive thinking, some distortion of reality, imaginative, decenter

Concrete operational thought 7 – 11 years understands operations and principles to specific perceptions, realistic views understands other viewpoints, improves memory, logical socialized thoughts, cause-and-effect relationships

Formal operational thought 12+ years uses scientific problem solving, recognizes present past future, thinks about abstractions and hypothetical concepts, interested in ethics, politics, social and moral issues ability to take more theoretic approach to experiences

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Piaget's theory of cognitive development explains how a child sees and makes of the world; he disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)- during this stage, the infant uses the sense to learn about self and environment. Infant's knowledge comes about primarily through sensory perception and motor activities.
2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 6)- develops egocentric thinking, which means the child understands the world from only one perspective, that one of himself.
3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)- understands and applies logical operations or principles to help interpret specific experiences or perceptions.
4. Formal operational stage (age 12+)- uses a systematic, scientific problem-solving approach, recognizes past, present, and future and is able to think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and is able to move in thought " from the real to the possible".

http://www.simplypsychology.org/

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To me, it is easier to relate to Eriksons Stages of Development because I can actually see these changes in children as they grow older, for example Trust vs. Mistrust- in this stage the child learns how to trust or not because they depend on their parents to show them a whole new world. It is important for them to feel trust towards their parents because this shows a sense of security. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt- the child is more active and is trying to do things for themselves, like putting on their shoes or picking out their own clothes. The importance here is for the parents to allow their child to experiment and do things for themselves without discouraging them when they do it wrong. Initiative vs. Guilt- Here the child is interacting with others by their own will, as parents they must encourage their interactions and allow them to explore without criticism because this can cause them to feel guilt. Lastly Industry vs. Inferiority-  I feel like this is an ongoing stage for many age groups. The child is learning something new, whether it is math, english or any subject and is seeking for approval from the superior, if it is not given the child feels inferior to the person.

Reference: simplypsychology.org

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Eriksons Stages of Development breaks down 8 stages in life where the person faces a developmental crisis and could alter in a positive or negative outcome for personality. Freuds theory also includes a crisis happening at each stage but Eriksons theory was more ego centered with surroundings.

Infancy | Birth to 1 | Basic trust vs mistrust | at this stage infants will learn if they can trust or not the person who cares for them and provides for them.
Toddler | 1 to 3 | Autonomy vs shame and doubt | the toddler will explore their own abilities or doubt that they can do certain tasks.
Preschool | 4 to 6 | Initiative vs guilt | kids in this stage will feel the initiative to act out many adult like activities and/or feel guilty about it
School age | 7 to 11 | Industry vs inferiority | Kids will feel competent to do a task or feel inferior if they cannot complete it.
Adolescence | 12 to 19 | Identity vs role confusion | adolescents will try to figure out who they are and what they want to do and sometimes this can cause confusion
Young adulthood | 20 to 44 | Intimacy vs isolation | People at this stage try to find someone to be with or isolate themselves
Middle adulthood | 45 to 65 | Generativity vs stagnation | people at this stage are busy running their life or they become inactive
Late adulthood | 65+ | Ego integrity vs despair | This stage they will think back on what they have contributed or reminisce about things they did not get to achieve

Foundations and Adult Health Nursing pg. 703

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John Dewy (1586-1952)

Mr. John Dewy believed that parents and educators needed to grasp the rapid changes of the world and teach our children to become responsive socially to it. He liked change and felt that it brought opportunities. By showing children to adapt to change he felt that it would help them feel more responsible rather than staying in the old fashion ways of the past.

Dewy theorized that education should be active and include the child’s social world and community. He felt that the child’s education should also include the child’s interests, backgrounds, and social and cultural world. He felt that educators should not only teach academic skills but show children life skills to be able to function and survive society.

Dewy was all for collaborative learning. He had a vision for educators to build the child’s mind by not just instruction but for them to see a bigger picture outside the classroom.

https://sielearning.tafensw.edu.au/MCS/CHCFC301A/12048/chcfc301a/lo/12020/index.htm#d27e190

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· Jean Piaget was a clinical psychologist that is known for his work in child development.

·  Piaget's theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world.

·      Piaget did not agree with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait.

· Regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

·  His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.

·  Before Piaget’s studies, children were though of less competent thinkers than adults.

·  The theory explains how an infant and then child develop into individuals who can reason and think. Piaget considered cognitive development was a progressive recognition of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

3 basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

o   Schemas (building blocks of knowledge).

o   Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) object prominence

Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7) thinks of things symbolically

Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11) work things internally in head

Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood) begin to think abstract concepts and test hypotheses

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html#schema

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Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget (1936) described his work as genetic epistemology (i.e. the origins of thinking). Genetics is the scientific study of where things come from (their origins). Epistemology is concerned with the basic categories of thinking, that is to say, the framework or structural properties of intelligence.

What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

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Sidney W. Bijou (November 12, 1908 – June 11, 2009) by Jacqueline De La Garza A01

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Sidney W. Bijou (November 12, 1908 – June 11, 2009) by Jacqueline De La Garza A01

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Bijou was a developmental behavioral theorist who specialized in treatment of childhood disorders such as autism and attention deficit disorder. His theory of applied behavioral analysis therapy was focused on rewarding positive actions by children and ignoring negative behaviors instead of punishing them. This therapeutic technique was widely successful in enhancing the social skills children with behavioral disorders. He published several journals of his studies that proved that encouragement of good behavior illicited more positive behavior in even unruly children. One of the mainstays was putting a child that had misbehaved in "time-out" in the same room where the well behaved children played such that the bad behavior was punishment in itself. In time, the children would improve their behavior just so that they could rejoin the group. This theory can be useful in many situations and can be practiced by the nurse in the clincal or hospital setting as the nurse can reward cooperative and good behavior and not respond the bad unless it endangers the child or others. It is a tried technique as children are usually warrant to doing that which garners the response of others and learns which actions are more worth doing by observing for that response. Acknowledging only the positive behavior will teach the child that positive behavior is worth doing repeatedly as they garner the best rewards and attention.

Reynolds, Cecil R.; and Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine. "Encyclopedia of special education", p. 248. John Wiley & Sons, 2007. ISBN 0-471-67802-3. Accessed March 3, 2017

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One of my favorite theorists is Sigmund Freud. When I took the class,  Lifespan Growth & Development, my professor talked about Freud and his many proposed theories. I learned quite a bit about him. The theories proposed by Freud pointed out the importance of childhood events and experiences, but focused primarily on mental disorders rather that normal functioning. According to Freud, child development is described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.' In "Three Essays on Sexuality" (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves satisfying a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behavior.

Resource: https://www.verywell.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

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According to Freud’s psychosexual theory, child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. He believed that life was build around tension and pleasure. Freud believed that tension was due to the build-up of libido, or in other words, sexual tension and that the pleasure came from the discharge of tension.  The series of fixed stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital.

The first stage, oral, occurs when the child is 0-1 years old and the development is centered in a baby’s mouth. Babies get satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in their mouth. Sigmund Freud said that oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation later on in life such as, smoking, nail biting, and thumb sucking.

The second stage, anal, occurs when a child is 1-3 years old. Their libido now becomes focus on the anus and it’s when their ego develops.

Third stage, phallic, occurs when a child is 3 to 5 and 6 years old.  The development becomes concentrated on their genitals. Masturbation becomes a new source of pleasure and the child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences.

Latency stage, psychosexual development doesn’t take place during this stage.

The last stage of Freud’s psychosexual development theory is the genital stage. It begins in puberty and it is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html

https://www.verywell.com/major-developmental-theorists-279509

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John Bowlby (1907-1990) British child psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known for his theory on attachment
Attachment Theory
Attachment is described as a long lasting psychological connection with a meaningful person that causes pleasure while interacting and soothes in times of stress. The quality of attachment has a critical effect on development, and has been linked to various aspects of positive functioning, such as psychological well-being. Bowlby believed that children have an innate need to develop a close relationship with one main figure, usually the mother. When this does not occur, it has negative consequences on development, causing a decline in intelligence, depression, aggression, delinquency, and affectionless psychopathy
Stages of attachment
Preattachment (newborn-6 weeks): Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adults, such as crying, smiling, cooing, and making eye contact. Although not attached to their mothers yet, they are soothed by the presence of others.

Attachment in making (6 weeks- 6 to 8 months): Infants begins to develop a sense of trust in their mothers, in that they can depend on her in times of need. They are soothed more quickly by their mother, and smile more often next to her.

Clear cut attachment (6 to 8 months- 18 months to 2 years): Attachment is established. The infant prefers his mother over anyone else, and experiences separation anxiety when she leaves. The intensity of separation anxiety is influenced by the infant’s temperament and the way in which caregivers respond and soothe the infant.

Formation of reciprocal relationship (18 months- to years +): As language develops, separation anxiety declines. The infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back. In addition, a sense of security has developed, in that even when his mother is not physically there, he knows she is always there for him. Bowlby called this sense of security an internal working model.

Resource: https://www.learning-theories.com/attachment-theory-bowlby.html

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Anamaria Galvan A01 Albert Bandura's Social learning Theory 

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Anamaria Galvan A01 Albert Bandura's Social learning Theory 

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According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioral theories, He believes that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcement such as sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.  -verywell.com/child-development-theories

I feel this true because giving our generation now children are easily influenced by what they see and hear.

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The theorist that i like the most is Erik Erikson, because his developmental stages are met by task or challenges. It makes sense that people become who they are from what they accomplish in life. At least this is how i see the developmental stages.
The 1st stage is Basic trust Vs. Mistrust
The 2nd stage is Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt
The 3rd stage is Initiative Vs Guild
The 4th is Industry Vs Inferiority
The 5th is Identity Vs. Role confusion
The 6th Intimacy Vs. Isolation
The 7th is Generative Vs. Stagnation
The 8th Ego integrity Vs. Despair

The developmental stages are suppose to be met by a healthy individual through infancy and late adulthood.
References: Foundations and Adult Health Nursing

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Jean Piaget - (1896-1980) developed the cognitive theory and he placed great importance in children's education. His cognitive theory explains how children construct a mental model of the world. He believes that cognitive development is a process that occurs due to interaction with the environment. Piaget's cognitive theory is based on four stages:
Sensorimotor: birth- 12 months- child learns that object still exists when it is out of reach (object permanence) and develops schema (mental representation.)
Preoperational though: 2 - 6 yrs- develops more logical and intuitive thinking. Child also develops egocentric thinking.
Concrete operational thought: 7 - 11 yrs-  more realistic views, recognizes cause and effect relationships, and focuses on more than one task.
Formal operational thought: 12 + years- uses systemic, scientific problem solving, recognizes past, present and future, and moves in thought from real to possible.

“intelligence, the most plastic and at the same time the most durable structural equilibrium of behaviour, is essentially a system of living and acting operations.”

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Cooper, Kim, and Kelly Gosnell. Foundations and adult health nursing. 7th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier/Mosby, 2015. Print.

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Sigmund Freud was a Viennese doctor who introduced the theory of psychosexual development (considered the most controversial)  which described how personality developed over childhood via four stages.  Oral, anal, latency, and genital are the four stages that Freud developed in which he believed that depending on the parents dealing with the child’s sexual and aggressive desires would determine if the child would grow to be well adjusted. Freud believed that personality developed over these four stages via pleasure seeking energies or actions.  He believed that if a child did not complete each stage successfully then fixation would occur with that particular stage.  Oral is the first stage which begins at birth through age of 1 year. during this stage the oral cavity is the infants main source of stimulation. if a child were to not complete this stage successfully he might grow to seek pleasure or stimulation via smoking, drinking, ect. The second stage is anal during ages 1 through 3 years. In this stage the child begins to be toilet trained. The third stage is genitals during ages 3 through 6 years in which children begin to discover the differences between genders. the last stage is latency during ages 6 to puberty in which two of his other theories come into play which are ego and super ego. During this stage the child becomes peer centered.

Resources:
http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7926&cn=28%5C%22
https://www.verywell.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962

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I like Erik Erikson stages of Psychosocial Development. They are very interesting and it surprises me that i did not know of these until last semester.

Basic Trust vs mistrust--> infants will either trust or not trust you.
Autonomy vs shame and doubt-->they will learn to do things on their own but will doubt what they are capable of doing.
Initiative vs guilt--> children begin to do adult like things and go beyond the limits set by their parents and feel guilty about it.
Industry vs inferiority --> children might feel like they are accomplishing things and may feel like they are not.
Identity vs role confusion --> teens are trying to figure out who they are and in that process will sometimes feel like they do not have any sense of direction.

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“Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare. How these groups or organizations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts to these people in the microsystem will affect how they treat her in return. Each child's special genetic and biologically influenced personality traits, what is known as temperament, end up affecting how others treat them. This idea will be discussed further in a later document about child temperament.

Bronfenbrenner's next level, the mesosystem, describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For example, if a child's caregivers take an active role in a child's school, such as going to parent-teacher conferences and watching their child's soccer games, this will help ensure the child's overall growth. In contrast, if the child's two sets of caretakers, mom with step-dad and dad with step-mom, disagree how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons when they see him, this will hinder the child's growth in different channels.

The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood, etc. For example, if a child's parent gets laid off from work, that may have negative affects on the child if her parents are unable to pay rent or to buy groceries; however, if her parent receives a promotion and a raise at work, this may have a positive affect on the child because her parents will be better able to give her her physical needs.

Bronfenbrenner's final level is the macrosystem, which is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child. The macrosystem includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc. These things can also affect a child either positively or negatively.” (Angela Oswalt, 2017)

Angela Oswalt, M. (2017, March 6). CHILD & ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT: OVERVIEW URIE BRONFENBRENNER AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT. Retrieved from Gulf Bend Center: http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7928&cn=28

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My favorite theorist is Erik Erikson, he viewed the life cycle as a series of developmental stages.
I find that his developmental stages are bit more precise than Piaget.  As per Erikson, if the child is successful in each stage can result in a healthy personality. Table 23-2 in our book gives the breakdown of each stage of the life cycle.
Basic trust vs mistrust – In this stage the infants learn to either trust their caregivers or not to trust them
Autonomy vs shame and doubt- as caregivers, we need to let them be self-sufficient in activities or it will lead to them doubting their own abilities
Initiative vs guilt
At this stage they start taking on adult-like activities, and if the care givers don’t applaud them it will make them feel guilty
Industry vs inferiority
they start to learn to be  more productive or they we be unable to do any task well
Identity vs role confusion
Trying to identify  who they are can lead to being confused about their future roles
Intimacy vs isolation
wanting and seeking companionship VS isolating themselves
Generativity vs stagnation productive VS inactive
Ego integrity vs despair
They can start to reflect on their life seeing as meaningful VS despairing at goals never reached

References:
Foundations and Adult Health Nursing, 7th edition

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Lawrence Kohlberg, a professor at Harvard University. He became famous for his theory and work of moral development. Kohlberg demonstrated through his work that people progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical behavior). He identified six stages, but generally classified as three levels

    LEVEL           STAGE             SOCIAL ORIENTATION

Pre-conventional      1            Obedience and Punishment

                      2         Individualism, Instrumentalism,
                                        and Exchange


  Conventional        3                "Good boy/girl"

                      4                 Law and Order


Post-conventional     5                Social Contract

                      6              Principled Conscience

The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school level. In the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g., parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. The second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one's own best interests.

References

Robert N. Barger, P. (2000). A Summary of Lawernce Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Developement . Retrieved from csudh.edu : http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kohlberg01bk.htm

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Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005), Developed the ecological system theory to explain how everything in a child and a child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. Developed four stages:
*Microsystem- child's immediate environment, the child lives in.
*Mesosystem- describes how the different parts of the child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child.
*Exosystem- includes the other people or places that the child herself may not interact with often but still have a large effect on her.
*Macrosystem- the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child. These things could either affect a child positively or negatively.

References: http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930&cn=28

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John B. Watson developed the Behaviorism Theory. When developing this theory, he aimed at the natural science for the prediction and the control of behavior. He believed that an unhealthy adult personality was due to bad habits that were started from infancy. One of his famous statements was "Give me a dozen healthy infants … and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select … regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors." He believed that since he knew the way to raise a child with the right behaviorism, then he'd be able to make any child become a successful adult. He made many observations and experimental work on newborns and infants that way his research was solid. He believed that a child would be an autonomous, fearless, self-reliant, adaptable, problem-solving being, who does not cry unless physically hurt, is absorbed in work and play, and has no great attachments to any place or person. Watson warned against the dangers of "too much mother love," and advocated strict routines and a tight control over the child's environment and behavior. He basically believed that the parents needed to raise their child a specific way in order for their behaviors to be that of what he expected.

http://psychology.jrank.org/pages/649/John-Broadus-Watson.html

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Maria Davila MVC Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson, an American psychoanalyst, viewed the life cycle as a series of developmental stages, each accompanied by a developmental task or challenge. Table 23-2 provides an overview of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Many of the subsections that follow include stage-appropriate characterization according to Erikson's framework.

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My favorite theorist is Erik Erikson, he proposed a psychosocial development comparing eight different stages. He developed a framework for understanding different personalities depending on the different stage. According to Erikson , successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

1.Infancy - Basic trust vs mistrust
Infants learn to either trust or not trust that significant others will properly care for their basic needs.

2.Toddler - Autonomy vs shame
and doubt
Children learn to be either self-sufficient in many activities or doubt their own abilities.

3.Preschool- Initiative vs guilt Children want to undertake many adult-like activities, sometimes going beyond the limits set by parents and feeling guilty because of it.
4. School age - Industry vs inferiority
Children eagerly learn to be competent and productive or feel inferior and unable to do any task well.
5.Adolescence - Identity vs role confusion
Adolescents try to figure out “Who am I?” or are confused about what future roles to play.

6. Young adulthood -  Intimacy vs isolation
Young adults seek companionship and love with another person or become isolated from others.

7. Middle adulthood -Generativity vs stagnation
are productive, performing meaningful work and raising a family, or become stagnant and inactive.
8. Late adulthood-  Ego integrity vs despair
Older adults try to make sense out of their lives, either seeing life as meaningful or despairing at goals never reached and questions never answer.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
Foundations and Adult Health nursing

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Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) developed a theory of moral development. He defined three levels of moral development occurring along cognitive growth:
~ Preconventional reasoning--Young children obey rules to avoid punishment. Moral values are not internalized. Most children are in this stage until about age 9.
~Conventional reasoning--At this level, children and adults conform to social standards to avoid disapproval or to avoid guilt. Decisions are based on understanding the social order, laws, justice, and duty. Children begin using conventional reasoning at around 11 and may remain in this stage throughout life.
~Postconventional reasoning--People at this level have internalized moral principles. They are generally law abiding and follow their conscience. Kolhberg believes that only a minority of adults operate at this level.

Fundamental Concepts And Skills For Nursing/ Susan C. deWit, Patricia O'Neill. 4th ed. Ch. 11 pg. 135.

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"Intelligence is what you use when you don't know what to do." -Jean Piaget

My favorite theorist is Jean Piaget. Piaget studied his children's intellectual development since infancy.  He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.  Piaget a Swiss Psychologist was the first to make a systematic study of cognitive development.  His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
Stages of Cognitive Development:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): senses and action

2. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7): symbols, language, and play

3. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11): Classification and reason

4. Formal operational stage (age 12+): comparative reasoning, deductive reasoning, and abstract reasoning

According to Piaget's theory children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.  Assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.  Within the classroom learning should be student centered and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition.  Direct tuition  means teaching young children how to behave by reinforcing "appropriate" behaviors/conduct and by punishing or otherwise discouraging "inappropriate" conduct/behaviors.

Jean Piaget has enormously contributed to the field of education. To me personally, it has help me understand and communicate with my children.  I want my children to be original and creative in thinking, and that they are capable to doing new things/accomplishments.

McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
Psychology Glossary (2017). http://www.psychology-lexicon.com/cms/glossary/37-glossary-d/8366-direct-tuition.html

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Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stake development from birth to death. In contrast to Freud's focus on sexuality. Erikson focused on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society. Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people it's called 'psychosocial' theory.  Erikson's stages are, in chronological order in which they unfold: trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity versus identity confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair. Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span. For each stage, Erikson's theory explains what type of stimulation children need to master that stage and become productive and well adjusted members of society and explains the types of problems and developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.

www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7927&cn=28

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"Erick Erickson Theory"   1950, 1963) proposed a psychoanalytic theory of psycho-social development comprising eight stages from infancy to adulthood. I really like Erickson theory the most because he show how in every stage of life a person was going develop a positive or negative personality.  Erickson developed eight distinct stages, taking in five stages up to the age of 18 years and three further stages beyond into adulthood.
" Basic trust Vs Mistrust" is the first stage Erickson developed in this stage what is trying to say is that during infancy the infants are not aware how life is and there starting to develop there trust round the people there around with. Therefore if the infant receives all there care they need and there nourish properly they will start to develop the sense of trust. But if don't provide the right care for the infants they feel unsafe and It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them. The other stage that I really like about Erickson theory is the 3rd stage "Initiative vs Guilt" because it reminds me so much of my daughter she a very curious. At this stage, children display great curiosity about the world, and “begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.” (Van Wagner)

Children at this stage are taking initiatives and seeing the cause and effect relationships of their actions.  “ For example my daughter always goes to my mother in law garden to cut roses for me and I tell her thank you and that i love then and she continues cutting more roses until all the sudden she comes dirty from mud and get mad her and then she tells me im never going to cut you roses no more mommy and i could see her little face of guilty in her. Therefore  According to Erickson, the child at this stage will feel guilt when there is a negative reaction to the initiative taken.  The hope, as the child approaches the end of this stage, is for feelings of guilt over a negative initiative to be transformed to feelings of remorse.  Therefore my daughter realizes that her action has caused Mommy spending almost an hour cleaning up the mud and she feels badly that the initiative caused me disappointment.
Refrences :http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html
https://sites.google.com/site/childrenslifeonline/home/screen-time/three-to-six-years-psychosocial-stage-3---initiative-vs-

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Erik Erikson’s theory involved eight different psychosocial developments from infancy to adulthood. In each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis resulting in a positive or negative outcome. His ideas were influenced by Freud but Erikson was an ego psychologist. Erikson focused on the role of culture and society and the conflict that can take place within the ego. He believed that personality develops and builds up as the person experiences a crisis. Erikson believed that nature determines the order of the stages and that all must pass through one stage before going into another stage. The stages are as follows:

Basic trust vs mistrust
(Infants learn to trust/not trust)

Autonomy vs shame and doubt (self-sufficient in activities/doubt their own abilities)

Initiative vs guilt
(undertake adult-like activities/feeling guilty)

Industry vs inferiority
(learn to be productive/unable to do any task well)

Identity vs role confusion
(identify themselves/confused about future roles)

Intimacy vs isolation
(seek companionship/isolate themselves)

Generativity vs stagnation
(productive/inactive)

Ego integrity vs despair
(seeing life as meaningful/despairing at goals never reached)

References:
Foundations and Adult Health Nursing, 7th edition

http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

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Blanca Gonzalez MIDVALLEY W01

"Erik Erikson Theory"
My favorite theorist is Erik Erikson because he demonstrated what needed to be accomplished in the different ages of life to be able to develop a healthy personality. Erikson mainly focuses on Ego psychologist. He developed 8 stages starting from infancy all the way to late adulthood. On each stage he developed a task which is positive and negative. For example, in the first stage which is infancy the developmental task would be “Basic trust vs. Mistrust”. This task basically tells us that during infancy the infant is developing his trust with the people around him. So if you care for his basic needs and provide nourishment he would gain trust in you. On the other hand, if you don’t feed him and forget about him he would not be trusting you and there would always be that gap between the relationship both. This is what I really like about Erikson that every developmental task that he developed, goes perfectly with the age, the fears, and the level of understanding on each stage. According to Erikson, “the ego develops successfully when it resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature”. Which in my understanding is that the ego develops depending on the environment that the person would have encountered during his life. Below is a chart that explains the psychosocial crisis that needs to be successfully encountered to develop a healthy ego/ personality. I like this chart because the basic virtue is added on which is basically the “umbrella term” that would explain the psychosocial crisis goal that needs to be met.

References:
Foundations and Adult Health Nursing, 7th edition Pg. 703 Box 23-2

McLeod, Saul. "Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development." Simply Psychology. N.p., 01 Jan. 1970. Web. 08 Mar. 2017. <http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html>.

Expand the image below so you could what I mean about achieving the basic virtues on each stage. :D

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Jean Piaget (1936) theory of cognitive development is a work in psychology which is concerned with children, rather than all learners.  Piaget focuses on development, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.  His theory proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts and ideas.  Piaget’s goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.  To Piaget, children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

"Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development"

- Sensorimotor:  Birth to 2 years

- Preoperational Thought:  2 to 6 years

- Concrete Operational Thought:  7 to 11 years

- Formal Operational Thought

References:

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

https://pageburstls.elsevier.com/#/books/9780323100014/cfi/10/4!/4/2/32/6/4/2@0:0

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“Paget’s Stages Of Cognitive Development”

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations. Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) and that would determined how the child would learn or acquire knowledge and that is how Piaget’s stages of cognitive Developed. The stages of Cognitive Development are as follows:

Sensorimotor: Birth to 2 Years

·   Uses senses and motor abilities to understand the world and coordinates sensorimotor skills; this period begins with reflexes

·   Develops schema

·   Begins to interact with environment

·   Learns that an object still exists when it is out of sight (object permanence) and begins to remember and imagine experiences (mental representation)

·   Develops thinking and goal-directed behavior

Preoperational Thought: 2 to 6 Years

·   Develops egocentric thinking (understands the world from only one perspective—that of the self)

·   Uses trial and error to discover new traits and characteristics

·   Conceptualizes time in present terms only

·    Uses symbols to represent objects

·    Develops more logical, intuitive thinking

·    Centers or focuses on a single aspect of an object, producing some distortion of reality

·    Gains in imaginative ability

·    Gradually begins to “decenter” (becomes less egocentric and understands other points of view)

Concrete Operational Thought: 7 to 11 Years

·     Understands and applies logical operations or principles to help interpret specific experiences or perceptions

·     Has more realistic views; better understands other viewpoints

·     Improves use of memory

·     Focuses on more than one task; develops logical, socialized thoughts

·     Recognizes cause-and-effect relationships

·     Learns to identify behavior outcome

·     Understands basic ideas of conversation, number classification, and other concrete ideas

Formal Operational Thought: 12+ Years

·     Uses a systematic, scientific problem-solving approach

·     Recognizes past, present, and future

·     Is able to think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and is able to move in thought “from the real to the possible”

·       Becomes more interested in ethics, politics, and all social and moral issues as ability to take a broader and more theoretic approach to experience increases

Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

http://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development#

Foundations and Adult Health Nursing, 7th edition Pg. 705 Box 23-6

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Ecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He called these systems the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. He later added a fifth system, called the Chronosystem. Each system contains roles, norms, and rules that can powerfully shape development. Bronfenbrenner recognized that not only is it necessary to understand how the family or school influences human development, but broader influences as well.

The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare. How these groups or organizations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the child will be able to grow.

The mesosystem, describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child. If a child's caregivers take an active role in a child's school, such as going to parent-teacher conferences and watching their child's soccer games, this will help ensure the child's overall growth. In contrast, if the child's two sets of caretakers, mom with step-dad and dad with step-mom, disagree how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons when they see him, this will hinder the child's growth in different channels.

The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood.

The macrosystem, which is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child. It includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc. These things can also affect a child either positively or negatively.

The Chronosystem, which is he patterning of environmental events and transitions over the course of life.
It refers to the way the each level has an influence on the one before and after it in a back and forth motion.

Reference:
http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930&cn=28

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John Bolby (1969)- Attachment theory.
John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the concept of attachment, describing it as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings."
Our early attachment styles are established in childhood through the infant/caregiver relationship.
Bowlby believed that attachment had an evolutionary component; it aids in survival. Bowlby believed that there are four distinguishing characteristics of attachment:

1. Proximity Maintenance - The desire to be near the people we are attached to.
2. Safe Haven - Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat.
3. Secure Base - The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment.
4. Separation Distress - Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment figure.
Bowlby made three key propositions about attachment theory.

First, he suggested that when children are raised with confidence that their primary caregiver will be available to them, they are less likely to experience fear than those who are raised without such conviction.

Secondly, he believed that this confidence is forged during a critical period of development, during the years of infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and that the expectations that are formed during that period tend to remain relatively unchanged for the rest of the person's life.

Third, children develop expectations that their caregivers will be responsive to their needs because, in their experience, their caregivers have been responsive in the past.

https://www.verywell.com/attachment-styles-2795344

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Jean Piaget, theorist of 1936 explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagrees that was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development that occurs due to biological maturation and development with the environment. He described his work as genetic, where it comes from its origins. He made test to see the IQ of children he was more interested in what fundamental concepts very idea in number, time, quantity, casual and justice and so forth. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based. According to Piaget no stage should be missed, but out there, there are development progress that differ in how children progress and some may never meet the later stages.H e never claimed that every child would reach each stage but the average child  may.

Sensorimotor: Birth to 2 Years

• Uses senses and motor abilities to understand the world and coordinates sensorimotor skills; this period begins with reflexes

• Develops schema

• Begins to interact with environment

• Learns that an object still exists when it is out of sight (object permanence) and begins to remember and imagine experiences (mental representation)

• Develops thinking and goal-directed behavior

Preoperational Thought: 2 to 6 Years

• Develops egocentric thinking (understands the world from only one perspective—that of the self)

• Uses trial and error to discover new traits and characteristics

• Conceptualizes time in present terms only

• Uses symbols to represent objects

• Develops more logical, intuitive thinking

• Centers or focuses on a single aspect of an object, producing some distortion of reality

• Gains in imaginative ability

• Gradually begins to “decenter” (becomes less egocentric and understands other points of view)

Concrete Operational Thought: 7 to 11 Years

• Understands and applies logical operations or principles to help interpret specific experiences or perceptions

• Has more realistic views; better understands other viewpoints

• Improves use of memory

• Focuses on more than one task; develops logical, socialized thoughts

• Recognizes cause-and-effect relationships

• Learns to identify behavior outcome

• Understands basic ideas of conversation, number classification, and other concrete ideas

Formal Operational Thought: 12+ Years

• Uses a systematic, scientific problem-solving approach

• Recognizes past, present, and future

• Is able to think about abstractions and hypothetical concepts and is able to move in thought “from the real to the possible”

• Becomes more interested in ethics, politics, and all social and moral issues as ability to take a broader and more theoretic approach to experience increases

(Cooper 705)

Cooper, Kim, Kelly Gosnell. Foundations and Adult Health Nursing,  7th Edition. Mosby, 082014. VitalBook file.

McLeod, S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.htmlhttp://i.imgur.com/MIP0L.jpghttp:/

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Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget's perception of developmental theory is quite fascinating.  Piaget deviates from the norm starting with the age ranges that classify the human being for example a toddler, infant, preschool age.  He brings to light the fact that the cognitive development of a child and the way he or she learns and perceives their surrounding is a specific thought process that transcends the standard age classifications.  This is important to know and a great contribution to society because during his time people did not acknowledge the child as an innocent and defenseless human being.  Expectations from children were actually heavy burdens imposed on them and some of these expectations are now considered child abuse.  Piaget's cognitive developmental theory is a great contribution because it has helped people to understand how children learn and what possible barriers they might have. In identifying these developmental barriers we can then as adults help the child confront and overcome them to produce healthy adults for our society.

Cooper, K., & Gosnell, K. (2015). Foundations and Adult Health Nursing. St.Louis, Missouri, US: Elsevier Mosby.

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Jean Piaget
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. Piaget (1936) described his work as genetic epistemology (i.e. the origins of thinking). Genetics is the scientific study of where things come from (their origins). Epistemology is concerned with the basic categories of thinking, that is to say, the framework or structural properties of intelligence.What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities
http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

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Erik Erikson, an American psychoanalyst, viewed the life cycle as a series of development stages, each accompanied as a task or challenge. His theory has eight stages, five stages into adolescence and three further into adulthood. During each stage, the person experienced either a positive or negative encounter. Erikson’s ideas were greatly influenced by Freud; Freud was an id psychologist, as Erikson was an ego psychologist. He considered how the role of culture and society and the conflicts could take place within the ego itself. If the person was successful in the stages they were at, it resulted in a healthy personality. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in reduced ability to complete further stages, therefore an unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages, however, could be resolved at a later time.

1.Basic trust vs. mistrust: Infants learn to either trust or not that significant others will properly care for their basic needs.

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: children learn to be either self-sufficient in many activities (toileting, feeding, walking, etc) or doubt their own abilities.

3. Initiative vs. guilt: children want to undertake many adult-like activities, sometimes going beyond the limits feeling guilty because of it.

4. Industry vs. inferiority: Children eagerly learn to be competent and productive or feel inferior and unable to do any task well.

5.Identity vs. role confusion: Adolescents try to figure out who they are. They establish sexual, ethnic, career identities or are confused about what future roles to play.

6. Intimacy vs. isolation: young adults seek companionship and love one another person or become isolated from others.

7. Generativity vs. stagnation: middle-aged adults are productive or become stagnant or inactive.

8. Ego integrity vs. despair: older adults try to make sense out of their lives, either seeing life as meaningful and whole or despairing at goals that were never met and questions never answered.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

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Vygotsky 1896-1934) Social Influences on Cognitive Development : Vygotsky believed that children are always involved in their own learning. They learn through socialization in which they observe or have a "tutor" explain things to them. Vygotsky referred to this as "Cooperative or Collaborative Dialogue". With this occurring, the child would use the instructions provided by the tutor and use them in their own benefit. Once they have an understanding they are capable of using the skill for their own performance. For example, a child may not be aware of how to open a jar until they witness someone else open a jar or are instructed on how to open the jar. I like this theory because I have always learned from my surroundings. I believe that this is a great theory with a great point. Many people might not realize or believe that young children do learn from what they see and hear. They are new beings with extraordinary minds, and they are capable of many things. http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

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Erik Erikson
developed a theory about human stage development from birth to death. He focused on how people's sense of identity develops and the beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive members of society.
Erikson's stages:
1. Basic trust vs. mistrust: this stage is in the infancy from birth to 1 year old. Infants learn to either trust or not trust that significant others will properly care for their basic needs.
2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: this is the toddler stage. Children learn to be either self-sufficient in many activities or doubt their own abilities.
3. Initiative vs guilt: this is the preschool. Children want to undertake many adult-like activists, limits set by parents and feeling guilty.
4. Industry vs inferiority: this stage is the school age. Children eagerly learn to be competent and productive.
5. Identity vs role confusion: this is the adolescence stage. adolescents try to figure out "who am i?".
6. Intimacy vs isolation: young adult. Young adults seek companionship and love with another person.
7. Generativity vs stagnation: middle adulthood. Productive, performing meaningful work and raising a family. Or become stagnant and inactive.
8. Ego integrity vs despair: late adulthood. Try to make sense out of their lives, either seeing life as meaningful and whole or despairing at goals never reached and questions never answered.
Each stage is associated with at time of life and a general age span. In each stage, it explains what children need to master in that stage and become productive and well-adjusted members of society. It also explains the types of problems and developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.

http://gulfbend.org/poc/center_index.php?cn=28
Foundations and Adult Health Nursing Cooper Gosnell Ch.23

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A01
Lawrence Kohlberg

(1927-1987)

Lawrence Kohlberg was a professor in the psychology department at the university of Chicago and the graduate school of education at Harvard. His theories were brought on as an extension of works like paiget and Baldwin.  Kohlberg's theory of development was based on the premise of morality. He concisely separated the levels of moral development into 3 stages.  The first stage labeled “preconventional” was centered on what children perceive to be right in wrong.  The reason behind this is children tend to get away with more so associative properties deal with the leniency of parents and very light to no repercussions for wrong doing.  The second stage he labeled “conventional” morality described people who act in moral ways because they believe that following rules is the best way to promote good relationships and a healthy community.  The final post conventional level described people whose view of morality transcend what the rules or laws say. For example, draft dodgers against the Vietnam war fleeing from the country because the law transcends their beliefs and moral values.  Yes war and fighting are bad but the law says we need to defend our country

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Maria Diaz (Nina)W-01           Abraham Maslow ( April 1, 1908-June 8, 1970) "Maslows Model of Health And Illness"

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Maria Diaz (Nina)W-01           Abraham Maslow ( April 1, 1908-June 8, 1970) "Maslows Model of Health And Illness"

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He was the oldest of seven and classed as "mentally ill"
His believe people new fraudulent from genuine. Self-actualizing people tend to focus on problems outside themselves; have a clear sense of what is true and what is false; are spontaneous and creative; and are not bound too strictly by social conventions. ( Maslow wikipedia).

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Jean Piaget August 9, 1896 - September 16, 1980 was a Swiss clinical psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. His theory of cognitive development consists of the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete opertional, and formal operational stage.
Sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years. The infant differentiates self from objects. The infant recognizes self as an agent of action and begins to act intentionally. The infant begins to experience object permanenence and is able to pull or shake toys that rattle and make noise.
Preoperational stage from 2 - 7 years the child learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words. The child had difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. The child will sort objects by a single feature. The child will group together all red blocks regardless of shape.
Concrete operational stage from 7 - 11 years the child can think logically about events and objects. The child classifies objects according to size and features and can order them based on color and size. The child achieves conservation of number, mass , and weight.
Formal operational stage from 11+ the child can think logically about abstract proportions and test hypothesis systematically. The child becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems.

www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.htm

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Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)

Bronfenbrenner developed the ecological systems theory to demonstrate how the environment the child lives in the can effect how a child grows and develops. There are four stages to his theory microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem.

Microsystem: Immediate environment the child lives in. This include immediate relationships the child has with immediate family members, caregivers, daycares or schools. How these groups or organizations interact with the child can have an effect on the growth of the child.

Mesosystem: This system describes how different parts of the child's microsystem interact with each other for the sake of the child. For example: Caregivers taking part in school activities to ensure the optimal growth of the child. In contrast parents who disagree on child care or punishments can interfere with the child's growth.

Exosystem: People or places the child may not interact with alone but still have a great impact on the child. For example, extended family members, parent's workplace or neighborhood. Parent's getting laid off can have negative effects while on the contrary a parent getting a promotion can have positive effects on the child.

Macrosystem: Relative freedoms such as the economy, national government and cultural values can effect a child positively or negatively.

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930&cn=28

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W01
Jean Piaget
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas(building blocks of knowledge).

2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation).

3. Stages of Cognitive development:

sensorimotor,

preoperational,

concrete operational,

formal operational.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

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Sigmund Freud

According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a single component. Freud’s theory consists of three personality elements the id, ego, and superego. All three elements work together to form complex human behavior.

The Id is the only element of personality that is present at birth. According to Freud it is the primary component of personality and it is driven by pleasure principles, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If the needs are not met the results is a state of anxiety or tension. Id is important early in life to ensure that as infants are needs are met. The Id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principles through the primary process, which involves forming a mental image of the desires object as a way of satisfying the need.

The Ego is the component that deals with reality. The ego functions in both the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The ego operates based on reality principles, which strives to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. It allows to weigh the cost and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.

The Superego the last component of personality to develop it holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society the sense of right and wrong. It provides guidelines for making judgments and develops around age five.

www.verywell.com/freudian-theory-2795845

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John Bowlby (1907-1990)

John Bowlby was a theorist, (like Feud) who examined the attachment relationship between parents and their children. He identified four phases in which attachment develops.
1. A child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e. monotropy).
2. A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life.
3. The long term consequences of maternal deprivation might include the following: delinquency, reduced intelligence, increased aggression, depression, affection less psychopathy.
4. Believe that short term separation from an attachment figure leads to distress (i.e. the PDD model).

He believed that children are born with a variety of behaviours that encourage parents and others to be near to them. These proximity-seeking behaviours include laughing, gurgling and crying. Attachment develops over a period of time and is mainly achieved by the routine caregiving tasks that parents and children are involved in (Berk 1996).
He was convinced of the importance of the mother-baby bond and he believed that this special bond had a biological basis. Bowlby believed that the baby is born with the need to form this bond and mothers instinctively need to form this bond with their baby.
He suggested that if mother and child are separated during the bonding process (without the baby receiving good substitute care), the baby-bonding process will be disturbed and there will be long-term negative effects on the child’s emotional development. Bowlby called the bond between mother and baby an attachment relationship.

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Bowlby's Attachment Theory. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html
http://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html

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1856-1939

Sigmund Freud, a Viennese doctor, who believed that the way that parents dealed with their children's sexual and aggressive desires would determine how they personalities would develop. He labeled different stages of sexual development, which he believed that children when through all these stages. In the Oral phase, children enjoyed pleasures from biting with their mouth. In the Anal phase, is when they begin toilet training and controlling their bowels. The Phallic stage focuses on gential stimulation and sexual identification of having or not having a penis. In the period of Latency, sexual urges are nonexistent. Finally, children enter the Genital stage, in which adult sexual interests and activies come to dominate.

1902-1994

Erik Erikson, unlike Freud who focused on sexuality, Erikson focused on how people's sense of identity developed. He developed the psychosocial theory. His stages are in chronological order. Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority. Identity vs. Identity Confusion, Intimacy vs Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair. Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span. They each describe what type of stimulation children need to master that specific stage. First stage children are provided with their basic needs. If They are neglected, they will begin to question their caretakers and believe that support won't always be there when they need it. In the second stage, children feel autonomous when caregivers are supportive, and give the space for children to make their own decisions. In the third stage, Children develop initiative, and continue to develop their self concept, and are wanting to try new things and learn new things.

1927 – 1987

Lawrence Kohlberg described the process through which people learn right from wrong in three stages of moral development. The first stage is "preconventional", where it describes children who only understand morals by their consequences. Therefore, they worry about what is right in order to avoid getting in trouble. His second stage "conventional" morality, describes people who act in moral ways because they believe that following rules is a good way to enhance personal relationships. For example, a person in this stage would refrain from a wrong action, no just because of the consequences, but because it could harm their friends or family. The third stage, "postconventional" describes people who believe their values or beliefs are right at all times. For example, people won't go against their beliefs, even if it is against the law.

http://gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7926&cn=28

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"Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare. How these groups or organizations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts to these people in the microsystem will affect how they treat her in return. Each child's special genetic and biologically influenced personality traits, what is known as temperament, end up affecting how others treat them."

"Bronfenbrenner's next level, the mesosystem, describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child. For example, if a child's caregivers take an active role in a child's school, such as going to parent-teacher conferences and watching their child's soccer games, this will help ensure the child's overall growth. In contrast, if the child's two sets of caretakers, mom with step-dad and dad with step-mom, disagree how to best raise the child and give the child conflicting lessons when they see him, this will hinder the child's growth in different channels."

"The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood, etc. For example, if a child's parent gets laid off from work, that may have negative affects on the child if her parents are unable to pay rent or to buy groceries; however, if her parent receives a promotion and a raise at work, this may have a positive affect on the child because her parents will be better able to give her her physical needs."

"Bronfenbrenner's final level is the macrosystem, which is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child. The macrosystem includes things such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc. These things can also affect a child either positively or negatively."

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930&cn=28

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Nataly Ramirez  G01               Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

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Nataly Ramirez  G01               Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

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Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality
At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals.
The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

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Lesley Torres              Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stage development from birth to death. In contrast to Freud's focus on sexuality, Erikson focused on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society. Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it’s called a 'psychosocial' theory.

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Lesley Torres              Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stage development from birth to death. In contrast to Freud's focus on sexuality, Erikson focused on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society. Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it’s called a 'psychosocial' theory.

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For example, the first psychosocial stage is trust versus mistrust, and it spans from birth to about age one year. During this phase, if children are consistently provided all their basic needs such as food, clean diapers, warmth, and loving affection and soothing from caregivers, they will learn that they can trust other people in their environment to love them and to take care of them, and they will believe the world is good. If infants are neglected and not given these things consistently or if they are taken care of roughly and unpredictably, they will learn to question their caretakers and to believe that others will not always be there to support them when it’s needed. Learning to trust others is the first necessary step to learning how to have loving, supportive relationships with others and to have a positive self-image.

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.

Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital. In Freud's view, each stage focused on sexual activity and the pleasure received from a particular area of the body.

In the oral phase, children are focused on the pleasures that they receive from sucking and biting with their mouth.

In the Anal phase, this focus shifts to the anus as they begin toilet training and attempt to control their bowels.

In the Phallic stage, the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual identification that comes with having or not having a penis.

Another part of Freud's theory focused on identifying the parts of consciousness.

Freud thought that all babies are initially dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish urges for immediate gratification which he labeled the Id.

As babies attempt and fail to get all their whims met, they develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic and possible, which Freud called the "Ego".

Over time, babies also learn about and come to internalize and represent their parents' values and rules, which he called the "Super-Ego."

The Super-Ego is the basis for the the child's conscience that struggles with the concepts of right and wrong and works with the Ego to control the immediate gratification urges of the Id.

By today's rigorous scientific standards, Freud's psychosexual theory is not considered to be very accurate, but it is still important and influential today because it was the first stage development theory that gained real attention, and many other theorists used it as a starting place.

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/center_index.php?id=28&cn=28

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Sigmund Freud (1956-1939)

Personality Development

Is known as the father of psychoanalysis. He described personality as being divided into three segments: ID, Ego, and superego.

·         ID is the self-centered part of our mind process. It is set since birth. It is the primitive level of function. Its intent is to experience pleasure, reduce tension, and avoid pain. The ID is not connected to the external world therefore strives to survive. A person’s ID constantly demands gratification.

·         Ego is the reality factor that the mind uses to process the external world. It enables reasoning and good sense using anxiety. The Ego determines the time and action for reaction depending on the situation.

·         Superego is the morals learned as we grow based on parents and society value system. Our superego develops from the ego and strives for perfection using judgement or censor over thoughts and activities of the ego. The superego, Freud described having three functions: conscience, self-observation, and formation of ideals.

Emotional stability is seen when all three structures work in synchrony. The Ego reflects leadership over a mature well-adjusted personality.

Foundations and adult health nursing/ Ed. Kim Cooper, Kelly Gosnell.-7 edition (pg.1114)

http://www.iep.utm.edu/freud/

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Jean Piaget
Piaget's work is truly astonishing and revolutionary, before his studies children were thought as not really having extensive ways of thinking.  It was due to his work at the Binet Institute where he worked in coming up with French versions of an English test developed to rate children's intelligence, when he caught eye to a very interesting observation.  The children seemed to have, in their mind; a logical excuse as to why they got a question incorrect.  This opened Piaget's eyes into children cognitive thinking and his theory of child cognitive development.  His work is truly amazing.
"Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults"
http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

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Roy Adaptation Model
(Article)
According to Alice Petiprin,
"The Adaptation Model of Nursing was developed by Sister Callista Roy in 1976. After working with Dorothy E. Johnson, Roy became convinced of the importance of describing the nature of nursing as a service to society. This prompted her to begin developing her model with the goal of nursing being to promote adaptation. She first began organizing her theory of nursing as she developed course curriculum for nursing students at Mount St. Mary's College. She introduced her ideas as a basis for an integrated nursing curriculum." (Petiprin , 2016)

According to Alice Petiprin, "The factors that influenced the development of the model included: family, education, religious background, mentors, and clinical experience. Roy's model asks the questions:

1. Who is the focus of nursing care?

2. What is the target of nursing care?

3. When is nursing care indicated?

Roy explained that adaptation occurs when people respond positively to environmental changes, and it is the process and outcome of individuals and groups who use conscious awareness, self-reflection, and choice to create human and environmental integration." (Petiprin , 2016)

According to Alice Petiprin,  "The Adaptive Model makes ten explicit assumptions:

1. The person is a bio-psycho-social being.

2. The person is in constant interaction with a changing environment.

3. To cope with a changing world, a person uses coping mechanisms, both innate and acquired, which are biological, psychological, and social in origin.

4. Health and illness are inevitable dimensions of a person's life.

5. In order to respond positively to environmental changes, a person must adapt.

6. A person's adaptation is a function of the stimulus he is exposed to and his adaptation level.

7. The person's adaptation level is such that it comprises a zone indicating the range of stimulation that will lead to a positive response.

8. The person has four modes of adaptation: physiologic needs, self-concept, role function, and interdependence.

9. Nursing accepts the humanistic approach of valuing others' opinions and perspectives. Interpersonal relations are an integral part of nursing.

10. There is a dynamic objective for existence with the ultimate goal of achieving dignity and integrity."(Petiprin , 2016)

Resources: Petiprin, Alice . "Roy Adaptation Model." Roy Adaptation Model - Nursing Theory. N.p., 2016. Web. http://nursing-theory.org/theories-and-models/roy-adaptation-model.php

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"The Adaptation Model of Nursing was developed by Sister Callista Roy in 1976. After working with Dorothy E. Johnson, Roy became convinced of the importance of describing the nature of nursing as a service to society. This prompted her to begin developing her model with the goal of nursing being to promote adaptation. She first began organizing her theory of nursing as she developed course curriculum for nursing students at Mount St. Mary's College. She introduced her ideas as a basis for an integrated nursing curriculum."

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Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops.

He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.

The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in and includes any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare.

The mesosystem describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child.

The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood, etc.

The macrosystem is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child, such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc.

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/center_index.php?id=28&cn=28

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Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) Morality
Kohlberg describes three stages of moral development and processes where discrimination from right from wrong is learned.

Development increases in sophistication and appreciation for morality. He believed that his stages were cumulative; and each are built through understanding and gaining abilities from prior stages. Moral development is a lifelong task and many people fail to develop the advanced stages of moral understanding.

Kohlberg's first 'preconventional' level describes children whose understanding of morality is only driven by consequences. so essentially, a child may go back and forth with what is right is a wrong so they don't get in trouble.

Second stage 'conventional' morality describes people who follow the rules because is the best way to promote good personal relationships and a healthy community. A conventional morality person believes it is wrong to steal not just because he doesn't want to get punished but also because he doesn't want his friends or family to be harmed.

The final 'postconventional' level describes people whose view of morality transcend what the rules or laws say. Instead of just following rules without questioning them, 'postconventional' stage people determine what is moral based on a set of values or beliefs they think are right all the time. For example, during the Vietnam War, many Americans who were drafted to be soldiers opposed the war on moral grounds and fled to Canada rather than fight. Even though this behavior was against the law, these people decided that these particular laws did not follow the higher rules they believed in, and they chose to follow their higher rules instead of the law.

http://gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7928&cn=28

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Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stage development from birth to death.

Erikson focused on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society.

Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it's called a 'psychosocial' theory.

Erikson's stages are, in chronological order in which they unfold: trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity versus identity confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair.

Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span.

For each stage, Erikson's theory explains what types of stimulation children need to master that stage and become productive and well-adjusted members of society and explains the types of problems and developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/center_index.php?id=28&cn=28

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Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990), created a cognitive-developmental stage theory that described how children's ways of thinking developed as they interacted with the world around them.

Piaget's theory has four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

During the sensorimotor stage, which often lasts from birth to age two, children are just beginning to learn how to learn. The major tasks occurring during this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies, which they do by experiencing everything with their five senses.

During the preoperational stage, which often lasts from ages two though seven, children start to use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play.

In the concrete operational stage that follows, lasting from ages seven through eleven, children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize information they learn.

During the formal operational stage, which often lasts from age eleven on, adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to think symbolically (for example, about things that aren't really there concretely in front of them).

http://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7929&cn=28\%22

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Albert Bandura' s Social Learning Theory (1963, further detailed in 1977)

Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY. This theory stressed the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling. According to social learning theory of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioral theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction, and accomplishment could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.
Albert Bandura Best Known For:
Bodo Doll Studies
Observational Learning
Sovial Learning Theory
Self-efficacy

Albert Bandura is a physchologist and Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University (California).

https://www.verywell.com/albert-bandura-biography-1925-2795537

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Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1963, further detailed in 1977)

Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioral theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction, and accomplishment could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.

Albert Bandura is a psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University.

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