# data[].attributes.body
1. The Compromise was made up of three parts: it admitted Maine, part of northern Massachusetts, as a free state; it admitted Missouri as a slave state; and it henceforth restricted slavery to territories south.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Western Hemisphere is Closed, U.S sphere of influence
2. Any attempt to establish Colonies is a threat to United States

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The US regime is using the "soft" variations of Monroe neo-doctrine, taking advantage of the new political situation in Latin America.
Published in lahaine.org, translated by Lisbeth Mechter exclusively for SouthFront
Written by Vicky Peláez America for Americans (James Monroe, 1823)
For over five years, the US government has been trying to convince the Latin American and Caribbean public opinion that "Monroe doctrine era is over" and that the US and Latin America are now partners with equal rights as the Secretary of State, John Kerry announced in 2013 and it was then confirmed by Barack Obama on 2015 in the Civil Society Forum where he declared that his nation can't "intervene with impunity" in the continent anymore.

However, those "past days" have been restored by the author of the cited phrase, Barack Obama, who brought the old Monroe doctrine back to life and adopted it to get rid of all the progressive governments in the continent without the need of a military intervention.

Considering the current level of globalization that confirmed the role of Latin American countries as mere extractors and exporters of natural resources in the World's Economic System, Wall Street's and the World Financial System's manipulation is enough to bring any Latin American country to their knees and put an end to progress and populism. As it was said by the recently elected president of Peru, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, who will start his service on July 28 th, "what people need are not ideas and promises, they need bills" (money).

Precisely that "lack of bills for the Latin American people", was launched by the US Department of State under the direction of Hillary Clinton (2009-2013) that, took advantage of the world's economic crisis that led to the drastic decrease of the price of raw materials that cracked Latin American economies.

That disposition was immediately accepted by the globalized media, both North American and international ones, especially the Latin American media serving them, that intensified the information war against the progressive governments in the region, accusing them of corruption and incapability to offer the promised welfare to their people.

In this context, the government of Barack Obama is using the "soft" variation of the Monroe neo-doctrine, taking advantage of the new political situation in Latin America, according to The New York Times, due to the "loss of popularity of left-wing governments". This newspaper affirms that "the change in the political panorama opened the door for a new generation of leaders to define a different speech for Latin America. This offers a big opportunity to the US for restarting the relationships with some neighbors who have historically considered Washington as the imperial intervention".

What The New York Times is not willing to accept, as the rest of globalized media, is that "the change in the political panorama of Latin America" was prompted, precisely, by the North American government by means of "inner and outer aggression" as Evo Morales (President of Bolivia) denounced. This operation has been directed and funded by Washington to discredit, weaken, destabilize and try to depose the presidents of the progressive countries, legitimately elected, like Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Dilma Rousseff in Brazil, Nicolás Maduro in Venezuela, Rafael Correa in Ecuador, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua and Evo Morales in Bolivia.

The attempts of these "soft" coups were rehearsed without the expected success in Bolivia in 2008, in Ecuador in 2010, Venezuela in 2002, 2014-2015. The main pattern for the coup took place in Honduras, where the president Manuel Zelaya, after promoting a referendum in favor of the most needed ones, was arrested by the militaries and then taken to Costa Rica. Immediately after this intervention, the Parliament of Honduras passed a resolution in regards to Manuel Zelaya resignation, declaring with Washington's approval, Roberto Micheletti, president of the Congress, as the new chief of the government. After that, they organized new presidential elections and elected in 2010 as the new president of the country, Porfirio Lobo, a man of Washington once again.

As simple as that, Hillary Clinton, who organized that "soft" coup d'état through a man of her trust, Lanny Davis of Trident DMG, sent a message to Latin America indicating that Washington will always defend the interests of its transnationals and, as they always say, they will always act to protect their national security inventing threats and dangers that have never actually existed. These new kinds of coups to substitute populist or progressive presidents have been called "constitutional changes".

Three years later, in 2012, the president of Paraguay, Fernando Lugo, who was an ex-catholic priest, follower of the Theology of Liberation, suffered a "constitutional strike" violating the constitutional order also with the sponsorship of the US Department of State.

The North American journalist Wyne Madsen wrote in "Intrepid Report" that the "Neo-fascist Mauricio Macri" (President of Argentina), protected by the US, defeated Daniel Scioli in the elections with "votes blurred by reports of electoral fraud in Buenos Aires". Immediately after, he adopted a drastic neoliberal policy of structural adjustment, the implantation of high prices of services and the reduction of social programs.

It's also widely known the intervention of the US in the elections of the National Assembly of Venezuela where, the far-right opposition won the majority with the open support of the enterprise of Clinton's clan Greenberg Carville Shrum, besides the donations of the foundations run by Álvaro Uribe (Colombia's far right ex-president), José María Aznar (ex-chief of the Spanish government) and the Venezuelan dissidents living in Miami.

During the referendum in Bolivia, celebrated on February this same year, in which Evo Morales lost, many NGOs, George Soros' Open Society Institute and the US Agency for International Development (USAID), used virtual technology to negatively inform the Bolivian public opinion.

In Ecuador, the president Rafael Correa declared some time ago that "negative information campaigns are part of the new Plan Cóndor. There's funding for opposition groups, there are coordinated strategies, social networks and alleged analysts and investigators to generate chaos and scandal".

The Brazilian opposition received a big economic and moral support from the Albright Stonebridge Group Foundation of the ex-Secretary of State Madeleine Albright (1997-2001) to depose the legitimately elected president Dilma Rousseff. Albright became sadly known when she declared that the death of 500 000 Iraqi children in the US-Iraq conflict was a "price worth to be paid". Hillary Clinton has always been her follower and fanatic.

The Brazilian opposition leaders were permanently asking Washington how to continue with the president destitution. The White House didn't mind about the participation of most of the coup-prompters on corruption issues. The only thing that mattered was to put an end to Lula da Silva and Rousseff's populism to assure the access of North American transnationals to the recently discovered 100 000 million barrels of oil in Brazil.

Monroe neo-doctrine, incorporated by Barack Obama for Latin America, also has its hard military face, that was defined by the ex-chief of the Southern Commando, General John F. Kelly (2012-January 2016), in the following terms: "The US has new threats in Latin America, like drug smuggling, terrorism, migration, humanitarian aid and the protection of natural resources. All this justifies the intervention of the Pentagon anywhere". According to this official, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala are close to the category of failed states that are not capable of governing themselves; therefore they need help from the US. For the North American leaders, this "help" can't be other than the installation of military bases.

It's believed that, currently, the Pentagon has over 70 known military bases in Latin America and no less than 20 other clandestine ones, especially in Amazonia. Brazil and Venezuela are basically surrounded by these US military facilities. Nowadays the president of Argentina, Mauricio Macri, is negotiating the installation of two North American military bases in strategic zones of big importance in Argentina. One of them will be built in the Southern province of Tierra de Fuego to support "scientific missions" in Antarctica, as it was announced by the chief of state. However, it's widely known that foreign military bases have nothing to do with scientific tasks, but they are related to the geo-strategic and geo-economic control of the zone of interest.

The other base will be installed in the Triple Frontier (Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil), where one of the biggest reserves of water in the world is located, Acuífero Guaraní (Water Reserve Guaraní). Both Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández (former presidents of Argentina) never allowed the installation of US bases in their territory.

Now, new times are running in Latin America where the elites are getting to dominate the "ignorant masses", quoting James Traub of the Council of Foreign Relationships (CFR), who once called the elites to start an "uprising against the ignorant masses", in mere application to the Monroe neo-doctrine.

After trying to dismantle the progressive governments, the globalizers willtry to disintegrate the MERCOSUR, UNASUR, CELAC, CARICOM and ALBA. To accomplish their goals, the "illuminated" globalizers will always find politicians willing to be their servants, as it was Peru's ex-president Alan García, who launched in 2010 the North American idea (as if it was his) that "we must not grow up towards the insides, as they dreamt in Pacto Andino (Andean Pact) and MERCOSUR (Commercial Market of the South). We have to create the block to grow up towards the outsides", García claimed when disclosing that he wanted to be remembrd by history as one of the promoters of Alianza del Pacífico (PA-Pacific Alliance). In fact, the ex-president of Peru was one of the prompters of PA by request of the US, but he wasn't its creator because PA was another of Washington's works to enhance the creation of TTP to halt the commercial advance of China both in Latin America and Oceania.

This is how Monroe neo-doctrine works, combining both soft and brutal forces to protect and expand North American interests in Latin America, making their lost and badly-informed "sons" return little by little to their "backyard".

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Opinion: Barack Obama brings the Monroe doctrine back to life

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The US regime is using the "soft" variations of Monroe neo-doctrine, taking advantage of the new political situation in Latin America.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Acquired by treaty from Spain
2. Provoked by Indians skirmishes & migration of American settlers area
3. Gives Mississippi and Alabama outlet to the Gulf of Mexico

# data[].attributes.body
Birth: 1758 Death: 1831
Political Party: Federalists
Years in Office: 1817- 1825

# data[].attributes.body
1.Treasury Secretary Gallatin urges Congress to extend its charter but fails to convince members concerned with the large British interest in the Bank

# data[].attributes.body
1.  Andrew Jackson defeats British - 2,031 British vs. 21 U.S casualties
2. This battle was acutally fought 2 weeks after the was over.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Fort McHenry survives British bombardment, Baltimore is saved.
2. Francis Scott Key writes the Star spangled banner.

# data[].attributes.body
Birth: 1751 Death:1836
Political Party: Democratic-Republican
Years in office: 1809-1817

# data[].attributes.body
1. He declared war by cutting down the US flag pole at the US consulate
2. This action came after the United States refused to pay more tribute to the Tripolitans in exchange for protection from piracy against American ships

# data[].attributes.body
1. Sacajawea, an American Indian women, served as their guide.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In what would probably be a good setup for a person who knows a lot about history to make some really witty jokes, The Hollywood Reporter says that HBO is "all but abandoning" its Lewis And Clark miniseries. The project has been in development at HBO for a long time, but it actually started moving forward almost exactly a year ago. Tom Hanks, Brad Pitt, and Edward Norton were among the producers, and Casey Affleck and Matthias Schoenaerts were set to star as the eponymous explorers. In August, though, HBO "temporarily" shut down production when the director and director of photography both left the project over "creative differences." Filming was apparently supposed to resume in the spring, but now that's not happening.

Instead, HBO is going to "redevelop" the project with original writer (and Masters Of Sex showrunner) Michelle Ashford writing a new draft of the script. Once that's done, HBO will have to see if any of the existing footage is usable, which seems hugely unlikely since neither Affleck nor Schoenaerts will necessarily stick with the project when/if it comes back. Also, THR points out that Tanaya Beatty, who was supposed to play Sacagawea, just became a series regular on NBC's Night Shift, so she'll probably be too busy for this.

If Lewis And Clark doesn't get back on track, hopefully HBO can replace it with a different historical miniseries before it misses out on winning too many Emmys.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
HBO gives up on Lewis And Clark, will explore the western U.S. later

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In what would probably be a good setup for a person who knows a lot about history to make some really witty jokes, The Hollywood Reporter says that HBO is "all but abandoning" its Lewis And Clark miniseries. The project has been in development at HBO for a long time, but it actually started moving forward almost exactly a year ago.

# data[].attributes.body
1. US acquired 827,000 miles of land west of the Mississippi River for 15 million
2. The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on April 30th in Paris

# data[].attributes.body
Birth: 1743 Death:1826
Political Party: Democratic-Republican
Years in office: 1801-1809

# data[].attributes.body
1. It says that federal courts should not have jurisdiction over litigation between individuals from one state against individuals from another state

# data[].attributes.body
1. This act states that the government can imprison people who criticize the government.
2. Ten republican editors fined and jailed

# data[].attributes.body
1. President can deport "dangerous" foreigners.
2. This also makes it harder for immigrants to vote.

# data[].attributes.body
Birth: 1735 Death: 1826
Political Party: Federalist
Years in Office: 1797-1801

# data[].attributes.headline
Rhode Island Ratifies the constitution (May 29, 1790

# data[].attributes.subject
Rhode Island Ratifies the constitution (May 29, 1790

# data[].attributes.body
1.  Rhode Island was the last of the original 13 states under the Articles of Confederation to join the newly formed Union
2. Rhode Island's ratification message was long with a bill of rights and several proposed amendments.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Volume XXIV, Ratification of the Constitution by the States: Rhode Island, No. 1 | Wisconsin Historical Society Press | Wisconsin Historical Society

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
At the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison, one of the greatest editorial projects in American history has been under way for nearly thirty-five years. Since 1976, the successive editors of the "Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution" have published twenty-three volumes, and there are at least eight more to come.

# data[].attributes.body
1. Hamilton gets excise tax on whiskey (designed to raise revenue).
2. Hamilton lead troops, Rebellion put down with no casualties, also first show of force by federal government.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This article was most recently revised and updated by

Whiskey Rebellion, (1794), in American history, uprising that afforded the new U.S. government its first opportunity to establish federal authority by military means within state boundaries, as officials moved into western Pennsylvania to quell an uprising of settlers rebelling against the liquor tax. Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, had proposed the excise (enacted by Congress in 1791, the first national internal revenue tax) to raise money for the national debt and to assert the power of the national government. Small farmers of the backcountry distilled (and consumed) whiskey, which was easier to transport and sell than the grain that was its source. It was an informal currency, a means of livelihood, and an enlivener of a harsh existence. The distillers resisted the tax by attacking (often tarring and feathering) federal revenue officers who attempted to collect it.

Enforcement legislation touched off what appeared to be an organized rebellion, and in July of 1794 about 500 armed men attacked and burned the home of the regional tax inspector after a smaller group had been fended off the previous day. The following month Pres. George Washington issued a congressionally authorized proclamation ordering the rebels to return home and calling for militia from Pennsylvania and three neighbouring states ( New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia). After fruitless negotiations with the 15-member committee representing the rebels (which included Anti-Federalist Pennsylvania legislator and later U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin), Washington ordered some 13,000 troops into the area, but the opposition melted away and no battle ensued. Troops occupied the region and some of the rebels were tried, but the two convicted of treason were later pardoned by the president.

Many Americans, particularly members of the Thomas Jefferson-led fledgling opposition Republican Party, were appalled by the overwhelming use of governmental force, which they feared might be a first step to absolute power. To Federalists, however, the most important result was that the national authority had triumphed over its first rebellious adversary and had won the support of the state governments in enforcing federal law within the states.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Adam Zeidan.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Whiskey Rebellion | Definition, History, & Significance

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Whiskey Rebellion, uprising against the liquor tax in Pennsylvania in 1794 that was militarily quelled, though no battle ensued. A test for the new U.S. government, it was a triumph for national authority over its first rebellious adversary, winning the support of state governments in enforcing federal law.

# data[].attributes.body
1. This was the First bank of the US in 1791
2. Federal Government was not given power to create a National Bank

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Find and save recipes, parenting hacks, style inspiration and other ideas to try.

# data[].attributes.body
Birth: 1732 Death: 1799
Political Party: None
Years in office: 1789-1797

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Who Was George Washington?

George Washington was a Virginia plantation owner who served as a general and commander-in-chief of the colonial armies during the American Revolutionary War, and later became the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797.

Early Life and Family

Washington was born on February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia. He was the eldest of Augustine and Mary's six children, all of whom survived into adulthood.

The family lived on Pope's Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia. They were moderately prosperous members of Virginia's "middling class."

Washington could trace his family's presence in North America to his great-grandfather, John Washington, who migrated from England to Virginia. The family held some distinction in England and was granted land by Henry VIII.

But much of the family's wealth in England was lost under the Puritan government of Oliver Cromwell. In 1657 Washington's grandfather, Lawrence Washington, migrated to Virginia. Little information is available about the family in North America until Washington's father, Augustine, was born in 1694.

Augustine Washington was an ambitious man who acquired land and slaves, built mills, and grew tobacco. For a time, he had an interest in opening iron mines. He married his first wife, Jane Butler, and they had three children. Jane died in 1729 and Augustine married Mary Ball in 1731.

Mount Vernon

In 1735, Augustine moved the family up the Potomac River to another Washington family home, Little Hunting Creek Plantation - later renamed Mount Vernon.

They moved again in 1738 to Ferry Farm on the Rappahannock River, opposite Fredericksburg, Virginia, where Washington spent much of his youth.

Childhood and Education

Little is known about Washington's childhood, which fostered many of the fables later biographers manufactured to fill in the gap. Among these are the stories that Washington threw a silver dollar across the Potomac and after chopping down his father's prize cherry tree, he openly confessed to the crime.

It is known that from age seven to 15, Washington was home-schooled and studied with the local church sexton and later a schoolmaster in practical math, geography, Latin and the English classics.

But much of the knowledge he would use the rest of his life was through his acquaintance with woodsmen and the plantation foreman. By his early teens, he had mastered growing tobacco, stock raising and surveying.

Washington's father died when he was 11 and he became the ward of his half-brother, Lawrence, who gave him a good upbringing. Lawrence had inherited the family's Little Hunting Creek Plantation and married Anne Fairfax, the daughter of Colonel William Fairfax, patriarch of the well-to-do Fairfax family. Under her tutelage, Washington was schooled in the finer aspects of colonial culture.

In 1748, when he was 16, Washington traveled with a surveying party plotting land in Virginia's western territory. The following year, aided by Lord Fairfax, Washington received an appointment as the official surveyor of Culpeper County.

For two years he was very busy surveying the land in Culpeper, Frederick and Augusta counties. The experience made him resourceful and toughened his body and mind. It also piqued his interest in western land holdings, an interest that endured throughout his life with speculative land purchases and a belief that the future of the nation lay in colonizing the West.

In July 1752, Washington's brother, Lawrence, died of tuberculosis, making him the heir apparent of the Washington lands. Lawrence's only child, Sarah, died two months later and Washington became the head of one of Virginia's most prominent estates, Mount Vernon. He was 20 years old.

Throughout his life, he would hold farming as one of the most honorable professions and he was most proud of Mount Vernon. Washington would gradually increase his landholdings there to about 8,000 acres

Pre-Revolutionary Military Career

In the early 1750s, France and Britain were at peace. However, the French military had begun occupying much of the Ohio Valley, protecting the King's land interests, particularly fur trappers and French settlers. But the borderlands of this area were unclear and prone to dispute between the two countries.

Washington showed early signs of natural leadership and shortly after Lawrence's death, Virginia's Lieutenant Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, appointed Washington adjutant with a rank of major in the Virginia militia.

French and Indian War

On October 31, 1753, Dinwiddie sent Washington to Fort LeBoeuf, at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, to warn the French to remove themselves from land claimed by Britain. The French politely refused and Washington made a hasty ride back to Williamsburg, Virginia's colonial capital.

Dinwiddie sent Washington back with troops and they set up a post at Great Meadows. Washington's small force attacked a French post at Fort Duquesne, killing the commander, Coulon de Jumonville, and nine others and taking the rest prisoners. The French and Indian War had begun.

The French counterattacked and drove Washington and his men back to his post at Great Meadows (later named "Fort Necessity.") After a full day siege, Washington surrendered and was soon released and returned to Williamsburg, promising not to build another fort on the Ohio River.

Though a little embarrassed at being captured, he was grateful to receive the thanks from the House of Burgesses and see his name mentioned in the London gazettes.

Washington was given the honorary rank of colonel and joined British General Edward Braddock's army in Virginia in 1755. The British had devised a plan for a three-prong assault on French forces attacking Fort Duquesne, Fort Niagara and Crown Point.

During the encounter, the French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock, who was mortally wounded. Washington escaped injury with four bullet holes in his cloak and two horses shot out from under him. Though he fought bravely, he could do little to turn back the rout and led the defeated army back to safety.

Commander of Virginia Troops

In August 1755, Washington was made commander of all Virginia troops at age 23. He was sent to the frontier to patrol and protect nearly 400 miles of border with some 700 ill-disciplined colonial troops and a Virginia colonial legislature unwilling to support him.

It was a frustrating assignment. His health failed in the closing months of 1757 and he was sent home with dysentery.

In 1758, Washington returned to duty on another expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. A friendly-fire incident took place, killing 14 and wounding 26 of Washington's men. However, the British were able to score a major victory, capturing Fort Duquesne and control of the Ohio Valley.

Washington retired from his Virginia regiment in December 1758. His experience during the war was generally frustrating, with key decisions made slowly, poor support from the colonial legislature and poorly trained recruits.

Washington applied for a commission with the British army but was turned down. In 1758, he resigned his commission and returned to Mount Vernon disillusioned. The same year, he entered politics and was elected to Virginia's House of Burgesses.

Martha Washington

A month after leaving the army, Washington married Martha Dandridge Custis, a widow, who was only a few months older than he. Martha brought to the marriage a considerable fortune: an 18,000-acre estate, from which Washington personally acquired 6,000 acres.

With this and land he was granted for his military service, Washington became one of the more wealthy landowners in Virginia. The marriage also brought Martha's two young children, John (Jacky) and Martha (Patsy), ages six and four, respectively.

Washington lavished great affection on both of them, and was heartbroken when Patsy died just before the Revolution. Jacky died during the Revolution, and Washington adopted two of his children.

Slaves

During his retirement from the Virginia militia until the start of the Revolution, Washington devoted himself to the care and development of his land holdings, attending the rotation of crops, managing livestock and keeping up with the latest scientific advances.

By the 1790s, Washington kept over 300 slaves at Mount Vernon. He was said to dislike the institution of slavery, but accepted the fact that it was legal.

Washington, in his will, made his displeasure with slavery known, as he ordered that all his slaves be granted their freedom upon the death of his wife Martha. (This act of generosity, however, applied to fewer than half of Mount Vernon's slaves: Those slaves owned by the Custis family were given to Martha's grandchildren after her death.)

Washington loved the landed gentry's life of horseback riding, fox hunts, fishing and cotillions. He worked six days a week, often taking off his coat and performing manual labor with his workers. He was an innovative and responsible landowner, breeding cattle and horses and tending to his fruit orchards.

Teeth

Much has been made of the fact that Washington used false teeth or dentures for most of his adult life. Indeed, Washington's correspondence to friends and family makes frequent references to aching teeth, inflamed gums and various dental woes.

Washington had one tooth pulled when he was just 24 years old, and by the time of his inauguration in 1789 he had just one natural tooth left. But his false teeth weren't made of wood, as some legends suggest.

Instead, Washington's false teeth were fashioned from human teeth - including teeth from slaves and his own pulled teeth - ivory, animal teeth and assorted metals.

Washington's dental problems, according to some historians, probably impacted the shape of his face and may have contributed to his quiet, somber demeanor: During the Constitutional Convention, Washington addressed the gathered dignitaries only once.

American Revolution

Though the British Proclamation Act of 1763 - prohibiting settlement beyond the Alleghenies - irritated Washington and he opposed the Stamp Act of 1765, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance against the British until the widespread protest of the Townshend Acts in 1767.

His letters of this period indicate he was totally opposed to the colonies declaring independence. However, by 1767, he wasn't opposed to resisting what he believed were fundamental violations by the Crown of the rights of Englishmen.

In 1769, Washington introduced a resolution to the House of Burgesses calling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed.

After the passage of the Coercive Acts in 1774, Washington chaired a meeting in which the Fairfax Resolves were adopted, calling for the convening of the Continental Congress and the use of armed resistance as a last resort. He was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in March 1775.

Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army

After the battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the political dispute between Great Britain and her North American colonies escalated into an armed conflict. In May, Washington traveled to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia dressed in a military uniform, indicating that he was prepared for war.

On June 15th, he was appointed Major General and Commander-in-Chief of the colonial forces against Great Britain. As was his custom, he did not seek out the office of commander, but he faced no serious competition.

Washington was the best choice for a number of reasons: he had the prestige, military experience and charisma for the job and he had been advising Congress for months.

Another factor was political: The Revolution had started in New England and at the time, they were the only colonies that had directly felt the brunt of British tyranny. Virginia was the largest British colony and New England needed Southern colonial support.

Political considerations and force of personality aside, Washington was not necessarily qualified to wage war on the world's most powerful nation. Washington's training and experience were primarily in frontier warfare involving small numbers of soldiers. He wasn't trained in the open-field style of battle practiced by the commanding British generals.

He also had no practical experience maneuvering large formations of infantry, commanding cavalry or artillery, or maintaining the flow of supplies for thousands of men in the field. But he was courageous and determined and smart enough to keep one step ahead of the enemy.

Washington and his small army did taste victory early in March 1776 by placing artillery above Boston, on Dorchester Heights, forcing the British to withdraw. Washington then moved his troops into New York City. But in June, a new British commander, Sir William Howe, arrived in the Colonies with the largest expeditionary force Britain had ever deployed to date.

Crossing the Delaware

In August 1776, the British army launched an attack and quickly took New York City in the largest battle of the war. Washington's army was routed and suffered the surrender of 2,800 men.

He ordered the remains of his army to retreat into Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. Confident the war would be over in a few months, General Howe wintered his troops at Trenton and Princeton, leaving Washington free to attack at the time and place of his choosing.

On Christmas night, 1776, Washington and his men returned across the Delaware River and attacked unsuspecting Hessian mercenaries at Trenton, forcing their surrender. A few days later, evading a force that had been sent to destroy his army, Washington attacked the British again, this time at Princeton, dealing them a humiliating loss.

Victories and Losses

General Howe's strategy was to capture colonial cities and stop the rebellion at key economic and political centers. He never abandoned the belief that once the Americans were deprived of their major cities, the rebellion would wither.

In the summer of 1777, he mounted an offensive against Philadelphia. Washington moved in his army to defend the city but was defeated at the Battle of Brandywine. Philadelphia fell two weeks later.

In the late summer of 1777, the British army sent a major force, under the command of John Burgoyne, south from Quebec to Saratoga, New York, to split the rebellion between New England and the southern colonies. But the strategy backfired, as Burgoyne became trapped by the American armies led by Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Saratoga.

Without support from Howe, who couldn't reach him in time, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire 6,200 man army. The victory was a major turning point in the war as it encouraged France to openly ally itself with the American cause for independence.

Through all of this, Washington discovered an important lesson: The political nature of war was just as important as the military one. Washington began to understand that military victories were as important as keeping the resistance alive.

Americans began to believe that they could meet their objective of independence without defeating the British army. Meanwhile, British General Howe clung to the strategy of capturing colonial cities in hopes of smothering the rebellion.

Howe didn't realize that capturing cities like Philadelphia and New York would not unseat colonial power. The Congress would just pack up and meet elsewhere.

Valley Forge

The darkest time for Washington and the Continental Army was during the winter of 1777 at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The 11,000-man force went into winter quarters and over the next six months suffered thousands of deaths, mostly from disease. But the army emerged from the winter still intact and in relatively good order.

Realizing their strategy of capturing colonial cities had failed, the British command replaced General Howe with Sir Henry Clinton. The British army evacuated Philadelphia to return to New York City. Washington and his men delivered several quick blows to the moving army, attacking the British flank near Monmouth Courthouse. Though a tactical standoff, the encounter proved Washington's army capable of open field battle.

For the remainder of the war, Washington was content to keep the British confined to New York, although he never totally abandoned the idea of retaking the city. The alliance with France had brought a large French army and a navy fleet.

Washington and his French counterparts decided to let Clinton be and attack British General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. Facing the combined French and Colonial armies and the French fleet of 29 warships at his back, Cornwallis held out as long as he could, but on October 19, 1781, he surrendered his forces.

Revolutionary War Victory

Washington had no way of knowing the Yorktown victory would bring the war to a close.

The British still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, plus a large fleet of warships in the Colonies. By 1782, the French army and navy had departed, the Continental treasury was depleted, and most of his soldiers hadn't been paid for several years.

A near-mutiny was avoided when Washington convinced Congress to grant a five-year bonus for soldiers in March 1783. By November of that year, the British had evacuated New York City and other cities and the war was essentially over.

The Americans had won their independence. Washington formally bade his troops farewell and on December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the army and returned to Mount Vernon.

For four years, Washington attempted to fulfill his dream of resuming life as a gentleman farmer and to give his much-neglected Mount Vernon plantation the care and attention it deserved.

The war had been costly to the Washington family with lands neglected, no exports of goods, and the depreciation of paper money. But Washington was able to repair his fortunes with a generous land grant from Congress for his military service and become profitable once again.

Constitutional Convention

In 1787, Washington was again called to the duty of his country. Since independence, the young republic had been struggling under the Articles of Confederation, a structure of government that centered power with the states.

But the states were not unified. They fought among themselves over boundaries and navigation rights and refused to contribute to paying off the nation's war debt. In some instances, state legislatures imposed tyrannical tax policies on their own citizens.

Washington was intensely dismayed at the state of affairs, but only slowly came to the realization that something should be done about it. Perhaps he wasn't sure the time was right so soon after the Revolution to be making major adjustments to the democratic experiment. Or perhaps because he hoped he would not be called upon to serve, he remained noncommittal.

But when Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts, Washington knew something needed to be done to improve the nation's government. In 1786, Congress approved a convention to be held in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation.

At the Constitutional Convention, Washington was unanimously chosen as president. Washington, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton had come to the conclusion that it wasn't amendments that were needed, but a new constitution that would give the national government more authority.

In the end, the Convention produced a plan for government that not only would address the country's current problems, but would endure through time. After the convention adjourned, Washington's reputation and support for the new government were indispensable to the ratification of the new U.S. Constitution.

The opposition was strident, if not organized, with many of America's leading political figures - including Patrick Henry and Sam Adams - condemning the proposed government as a grab for power. Even in Washington's native Virginia, the Constitution was ratified by only one vote.

DOWNLOAD BIOGRAPHY'S GEORGE WASHINGTON FACT CARD

George Washington: Presidency

Still hoping to retire to his beloved Mount Vernon, Washington was once again called upon to serve this country.

During the presidential election of 1789, he received a vote from every elector to the Electoral College, the only president in American history to be elected by unanimous approval. He took the oath of office at Federal Hall in New York City, the capital of the United States at the time.

As the first president, Washington was astutely aware that his presidency would set a precedent for all that would follow. He carefully attended to the responsibilities and duties of his office, remaining vigilant to not emulate any European royal court. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President," instead of more imposing names that were suggested.

At first he declined the $25,000 salary Congress offered the office of the presidency, for he was already wealthy and wanted to protect his image as a selfless public servant. However, Congress persuaded him to accept the compensation to avoid giving the impression that only wealthy men could serve as president.

Washington proved to be an able administrator. He surrounded himself with some of the most capable people in the country, appointing Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. He delegated authority wisely and consulted regularly with his cabinet listening to their advice before making a decision.

Washington established broad-ranging presidential authority, but always with the highest integrity, exercising power with restraint and honesty. In doing so, he set a standard rarely met by his successors, but one that established an ideal by which all are judged.
READ MORE: How George Washington's Personal and Physical Characteristics Helped Him Win the Presidency
Accomplishments

During his first term, Washington adopted a series of measures proposed by Treasury Secretary Hamilton to reduce the nation's debt and place its finances on sound footing.

His administration also established several peace treaties with Native American tribes and approved a bill establishing the nation's capital in a permanent district along the Potomac River.

Whiskey Rebellion

Then, in 1791, Washington signed a bill authorizing Congress to place a tax on distilled spirits, which stirred protests in rural areas of Pennsylvania.

Quickly, the protests turned into a full-scale defiance of federal law known as the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792, summoning local militias from several states to put down the rebellion.

Washington personally took command, marching the troops into the areas of rebellion and demonstrating that the federal government would use force, when necessary, to enforce the law. This was also the only time a sitting U.S. president has led troops into battle.

Jay Treaty

In foreign affairs, Washington took a cautious approach, realizing that the weak young nation could not succumb to Europe's political intrigues. In 1793, France and Great Britain were once again at war.

At the urging of Hamilton, Washington disregarded the U.S. alliance with France and pursued a course of neutrality. In 1794, he sent John Jay to Britain to negotiate a treaty (known as the "Jay Treaty") to secure a peace with Britain and clear up some issues held over from the Revolutionary War.

The action infuriated Jefferson, who supported the French and felt that the U.S. needed to honor its treaty obligations. Washington was able to mobilize public support for the treaty, which proved decisive in securing ratification in the Senate.

Though controversial, the treaty proved beneficial to the United States by removing British forts along the western frontier, establishing a clear boundary between Canada and the United States, and most importantly, delaying a war with Britain and providing over a decade of prosperous trade and development the fledgling country so desperately needed.

Political Parties

All through his two terms as president, Washington was dismayed at the growing partisanship within the government and the nation. The power bestowed on the federal government by the Constitution made for important decisions, and people joined together to influence those decisions. The formation of political parties at first were influenced more by personality than by issues.

As Treasury secretary, Hamilton pushed for a strong national government and an economy built in industry. Secretary of State Jefferson desired to keep government small and center power more at the local level, where citizens' freedom could be better protected. He envisioned an economy based on farming.

Those who followed Hamilton's vision took the name Federalists and people who opposed those ideas and tended to lean toward Jefferson's view began calling themselves Democratic-Republicans. Washington despised political partisanship, believing that ideological differences should never become institutionalized. He strongly felt that political leaders should be free to debate important issues without being bound by party loyalty.

However, Washington could do little to slow the development of political parties. The ideals promoted by Hamilton and Jefferson produced a two-party system that proved remarkably durable. These opposing viewpoints represented a continuation of the debate over the proper role of government, a debate that began with the conception of the Constitution and continues today.

Washington's administration was not without its critics who questioned what they saw as extravagant conventions in the office of the president. During his two terms, Washington rented the best houses available and was driven in a coach drawn by four horses, with outriders and lackeys in rich uniforms.

After being overwhelmed by callers, he announced that except for the scheduled weekly reception open to all, he would only see people by appointment. Washington entertained lavishly, but in private dinners and receptions at invitation only. He was, by some, accused of conducting himself like a king.

However, ever mindful his presidency would set the precedent for those to follow, he was careful to avoid the trappings of a monarchy. At public ceremonies, he did not appear in a military uniform or the monarchical robes. Instead, he dressed in a black velvet suit with gold buckles and powdered hair, as was the common custom. His reserved manner was more due to inherent reticence than any excessive sense of dignity.

Retirement

Desiring to return to Mount Vernon and his farming, and feeling the decline of his physical powers with age, Washington refused to yield to the pressures to serve a third term, even though he would probably not have faced any opposition.

By doing this, he was again mindful of the precedent of being the "first president," and chose to establish a peaceful transition of government.

Farewell Address

In the last months of his presidency, Washington felt he needed to give his country one last measure of himself. With the help of Hamilton, he composed his Farewell Address to the American people, which urged his fellow citizens to cherish the Union and avoid partisanship and permanent foreign alliances.

In March 1797, he turned over the government to John Adams and returned to Mount Vernon, determined to live his last years as a simple gentleman farmer. His last official act was to pardon the participants in the Whiskey Rebellion.

Upon returning to Mount Vernon in the spring of 1797, Washington felt a reflective sense of relief and accomplishment. He had left the government in capable hands, at peace, its debts well-managed, and set on a course of prosperity.

He devoted much of his time to tending the farm's operations and management. Although he was perceived to be wealthy, his land holdings were only marginally profitable.

Death

On a cold December day in 1799, Washington spent much of it inspecting the farm on horseback in a driving snowstorm. When he returned home, he hastily ate his supper in his wet clothes and then went to bed.

The next morning, on December 13, he awoke with a severe sore throat and became increasingly hoarse. He retired early, but awoke around 3 a.m. and told Martha that he felt very sick. The illness progressed until he died late in the evening of December 14, 1799.

The news of Washington's death at age 67 spread throughout the country, plunging the nation into a deep mourning. Many towns and cities held mock funerals and presented hundreds of eulogies to honor their fallen hero. When the news of this death reached Europe, the British fleet paid tribute to his memory, and Napoleon ordered ten days of mourning.

Legacy

Washington could have been a king. Instead, he chose to be a citizen. He set many precedents for the national government and the presidency: The two-term limit in office, only broken once by Franklin D. Roosevelt, was later ensconced in the Constitution's 22nd Amendment.

He crystallized the power of the presidency as a part of the government's three branches of government, able to exercise authority when necessary, but also accept the checks and balances of power inherent in the system.

He was not only considered a military and revolutionary hero, but a man of great personal integrity, with a deep sense of duty, honor and patriotism. For over 200 years, Washington has been acclaimed as indispensable to the success of the Revolution and the birth of the nation.

But his most important legacy may be that he insisted he was dispensable, asserting that the cause of liberty was larger than any single individual.
Watch "George Washington: Founding Father" on HISTORY Vault

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
George Washington was a Virginia plantation owner who served as a general and commander-in-chief of the colonial armies during the American Revolutionary War, and later became the first president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. Washington was born on February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, Virginia.