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The Leyden Jar had a very big contribution to the advancement of knowledge in electrostatics. First discovered by Pieter van Musschenbroek (accidentally), a physicist and mathematician in the Netherlands, he came up with this device that could store large amounts of electric charge¹. In its element, it was a glass vial that was partially filled with water. Within this, there was a thick wire that had to be capable of storing a large charge. The other end of this wire was exposed outside of the Leyden jar, which then charged the device by bringing into contact with a friction device that generated static electricity.

The Leyden Jar brought forth lots of research and development, even outside of Neuroscience. This includes the development of electrostatic laws, electrochemistry, the battery, Benjamin Franklin's discovery of electricity in nature, Faraday's discover of electric induction - the list goes on and on²!

However, within the realm of Neuroscience, the discovery of electricity was the forefront of being able to discover the biomechanisms of electrical communication in the brain, as well as being able to utilize electrotherapy on individuals with neurological issues.

Source:
(1) https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetism/Foundations-of-electrochemistry-and-electrodynamics
(2)
https://www.britannica.com/technology/Leyden-jar

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Galvani vs. Volta Dispute on Animal Electricity 

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Galvani vs. Volta Dispute on Animal Electricity 

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In the early 1800s, Luigi Galvani conducted experiments on frog legs where he saw the animal's leg twitch upon a metal scalpel touching exposed nerves. He concluded that there was an innate, natural electrical substance in the body - called "animal electricity." Galvani published his findings in De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari, and his theory became publicly controversial¹.

Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist, disagreed with his Galvani's theory. He attributed the movement of the frog legs to solely the metals. However, Galvani was proven to be right. Yet, Volta's dispute and subsequent experiments led to his development of the first battery capable of continuous current¹. This contributed a lot in the field of electricity and many other inventions down the road.

Source:
(1)
https://library.si.edu/exhibition/fantastic-worlds/body-electric

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The case of George Foster: Frankenstein? 

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The case of George Foster: Frankenstein? 

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Building upon the workings of Galvani, Giovanni Aldini (his nephew) went around operation theaters conducting many electrical experiments on dead bodies. His subjects ranged anywhere from animals to executed convicts¹.

One specific, and quite memorable, experiment conducted was that of George Foster, a criminal recently hung for murder. His body was transported across the city for use in dissection; however, it turned out to be much more interesting than just a mere dissection². He was going to be electrified! As Aldini carried out the experiment, The Times newspaper reported:

"On the first application of the process to the face, the jaw of the deceased criminal began to quiver, the adjoining muscles were horribly contorted, and one eye was actually opened. In the subsequent part of the process, the right hand was raised and clenched, and the legs and thighs were set in motion ²."

Many spectators even thought that perhaps Foster had come back to life! Interestingly enough, this same phenomenon and news influenced the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley - who wrote Frankenstein on the same matter²!

Source:
(1)
https://library.si.edu/exhibition/fantastic-worlds/body-electric
(2)
https://theconversation.com/frankenstein-the-real-experiments-that-inspired-the-fictional-science-105076

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In the 19th century, a man by the name of Isaac Pulvermacher introduced a "hydro-electric belt." The device was a series of small batteries with 2 clasps at either end, which gave electrical current when applied to a specific area of the body¹. After showcasing the "invention" at a world fair, it quickly became popular amongst people around the world.

Reports circulated that the device could be adapted into treating headaches, rheumatism, heart palpitations, and many other bodily symptoms¹. Many such success stories circulations; however, their accuracy of this information is still a question mark.

By the 1920s, this device fell off the market, for both consumers and physicians. Looking back now, more than anything, it could've just been a distraction from the pain. Nothing more than elaborate piece of jewelry perhaps¹. However, it is fascinating to see how such contraptions have evolved into what electrotherapy techniques (Electroconvulsive Therapy, Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, etc)  we use now and how they truly aid in certain ailments.

Source:
(1)
https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170215-the-strange-victorian-fashion-of-self-electrification

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Electroconvulsive Therapy, or ECT, is a treatment procedure that works by inducing seizures through electricity. ECT was invented in Italy during the late 1930s¹. However, it wasn't the use of electricity that introduced the idea that somehow inducing seizures could "cure" mental illness. Even before the rise of ECT, mental institutions would invoke seizures chemically, through a medication called Metrazol¹.

While the ECT was made in an effort to find a more humane methodology for seizure formations, it actually become the more frightening treatment route. For example, the ECT has had many fearful and gruesome depictions in television and pop culture, especially in the context of mental institutions¹. And while ECT could be a beneficial procedure, it was physically dangerous when first developed and practiced. Especially with difficult and hard to control patients, it was easy for things to get out of hand. Currently, this issue is not problematic as there is use of muscle relaxants to ease patients.

Additionally,  the boundaries of what was considered "mental illness" in the 1940s was quite blurred, it was quite common for ECT to be used as a "cure" to homosexuality as well¹. This traumatizing practice also contributed a lot to the "social memory of the therapy¹."

ECT is still a very stigmatized treatment  in the eyes of many, although it can be a very useful option for others. However, more needs to happen to evolve its current image in the public.

Source:
(1)
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/electroconvulsive-therapy-a-history-of-controversy-but-also-of-help/

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Deep Brain Stimulation, or DBS, is a procedure that involves implanting electrodes in specific locations of the brain. The implanted electrodes generate electrical impulses that can regulate abnormal electrical impulses, or can simply alter specific cells or chemicals in the brain¹. DBS is seen a treatment method in neurological illnesses such as Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Parkinson's Disease, and Epilepsy¹.

How does it work? Well, movement-related symptoms of certain illnesses are often a result of disorganized electrical signals in areas of the brain that involve movement². Sometimes, these signals can be offset and restored through external electrical currents via a neurostimulator².

(1) https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/deep-brain-stimulation/about/pac-20384562
(2) https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/deep-brain-stimulation

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Patient Guide to Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Surgery, Mayfield Clinic

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Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician, born on September 9 1737 - in Bologna, Italy. He studied medicine, but also put a lot of focus and work into anatomy and physiology¹. Specifically, his thesis was on the study of the human skeleton and pursued research into comparative anatomy. Over the years, he settled into his role as a lecturer and by the early 1770s, started lecturing on the anatomy of the frog¹. It is very fascinating to know that this is where his most influential discoveries stemmed from. Upon dissecting frog legs, he noticed that the use of metal scalpels on the frog's exposed nerve would cause a sort of twitch in the leg - sometimes even a kick! Through observations, he concluded that there must be an electrical fluid in the body, which he called "animal electricity." With his findings, he thought that the nervous system transported animal electricity to muscle tissue which facilitated action¹.

Galvani's experiments set a critical foundation for the future of electrophysiology, and a lot was built upon with his work. He successfully linked the function of electricity with the structure and workings of the body - a lot of which is semi-accurate with what we know today. He revolutionized a lot of how we see our nervous system today!

Source:
(1) https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/luigi-galvani